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a military strategy of burning or destroying buildings, crops, or other resources that might be of use to an invading enemy force.

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common people of the lower classes in late

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a period of remorseless repression or bloodshed, in particular Reign of Terror, the period of the Terror during the French Revolution.

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the direct vote of all the members of an electorate on an important public question such as a change in the constitution.

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highest legislature, consisting of the sovereign, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons.

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Political and social system of France prior to the French Revolution. Under the regime, everyone was a subject of the king of France

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a philosophical viewpoint according to which everything arises from natural properties and causes, and supernatural or spiritual explanations are excluded or discounted.

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French civilcode established under Napoléon I in 1804. It was drafted by a commission of four eminent jurists and entered into force on 21 March 1804.

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political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality.

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The first club began in Paris under the name Club Breton, in October 1789: it met in a Dominican, or Jacobin, convent in the Rue St. Honoré. The Jacobin clubs gained increasing influence in the French Revolution after France declared itself a republic in 1792.

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execute (someone) by guillotine.

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Great Fear, French Grande Peur, (1789) in the French Revolution, a period of panic and riot by peasants and others amid rumours of an “aristocratic conspiracy” by the king and the privileged to overthrow the Third Estate.

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a person who has left their own country in order to settle in another, usually for political reasons.

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a ruler or other person who holds absolute power, typically one who exercises it in a cruel or oppressive way.

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mid 17th century: French, literally ‘blow of state.’

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Blockade (known in French as Blocus continental) was the foreign policy of Napoleon I of France in his struggle against Great Britain during the Napoleonic Wars.

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any political philosophy that favours tradition (in the sense of various religious, cultural, or nationally-defined beliefs and customs) in the face of external forces for change, and is critical of proposals for radical social change.

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the middle class, typically with reference to its perceived materialistic values or conventional attitudes.

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The medieval fortress and prison in Paris known as the Bastille represented royal authority in the centre of Paris. The prison contained just seven inmates at the time of its storming but was a symbol of the abuse of the monarchy; its fall was the flashpoint of the French Revolution.

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Balance of power may refer to: Balance of power (international relations), parity or stability between competing forces. Balance of power (federalism), distribution ofpower between a central government and its subnational governments.

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Venezuela is a country on the northern coast of South America with diverse natural attractions. Along its Caribbean coast are tropical resort islands including Isla de Margarita and the Los Roques archipelago. To the northwest are the Andes Mountains and the colonial town of Mérida, a base for visiting Sierra Nevada National Park. Caracas, the capital, is to the north.

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Prussia was a historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, and centered on the region of Prussia

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Mexico is a country between the U.S. and Central America that's known for its Pacific and Gulf of Mexico beaches and its diverse landscape of mountains, deserts and jungles. Ancient ruins such as Teotihuacán and the Mayan city of Chichén Itzá are scattered throughout the country, as are Spanish colonial-era towns. In capital Mexico City, upscale shops, renowned museums and gourmet restaurants cater to modern life.

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The Palace of Versailles, Château de Versailles, or simply Versailles, is a royal château in Versailles in the Île-de-France region of France.

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St. Helena island, part of the British Overseas Territory also encompassing Ascension and Tristan da Cunha islands, is a remote volcanic outpost in the South Atlantic Ocean. It's famous as the place of Napoleon Bonaparte's exile and death, as commemorated by a now-empty tomb. Climbing destinations include the 699 steps of Jacob's Ladder and Diana's Peak, sheltering endemic plant and animal life.

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Elba is a Mediterranean island in Tuscany, Italy, 10 kilometres from the coastal town of Piombino, the largest island of the Tuscan Archipelago.

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Haiti is a Caribbean country that shares the island of Hispaniola with the Dominican Republic to its east. Though it’s still recovering from a 2010 earthquake, many of Haiti's landmarks dating to the early 19th century remain intact. These include Citadelle la Ferrière, a mountaintop fortress, and the nearby ruins of Sans-Souci Palace, the baroque former royal home of King Henry I.

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Brazil, a vast South American country, stretches from the Amazon Basin in the north to vineyards and massive Iguaçu Falls in the south. Rio de Janeiro, symbolized by its 38m Christ the Redeemer statue atop Mount Corcovado, is famed for its busy Copacabana and Ipanema beaches as well as its enormous, raucous Carnaval festival, featuring parade floats, flamboyant costumes and samba music and dance.

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Bolivia is a country in central South America, with a varied terrain spanning Andes Mountains, the Atacama Desert and Amazon Basin rainforest. At more than 3,500m, its administrative capital, La Paz, sits on the Andes’ Altiplano plateau with snow-capped Mt. Illimani in the background. Nearby is glass-smooth Lake Titicaca, the continent’s largest lake, straddling the border with Peru.

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José Francisco de San Martín y Matorras, known simply as José de San Martín, was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire.

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Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich was a politician and statesman of Rhenish extraction and one of the most important diplomats of his era, serving as the Austrian Empire's Foreign Minister from 1809

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Marie Antoinette, an Archduchess of Austria, was the fifteenth and second youngest child of Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor and Empress Maria Theresa

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François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture, also known as Toussaint L'Ouverture or Toussaint Bréda, was the best-known leader of the Haitian Revolution. His military and political acumen saved the gains of the first Black insurrection in November 1791

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Don Miguel Gregorio Antonio Ignacio Hidalgo-Costilla y Gallaga Mandarte Villaseñor, more commonly known as Don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla or simply Miguel Hidalgo, was a Mexican Catholic priest and a leader of the Mexican War of Independence

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Simón Bolívar, was a Venezuelan military and political leader who played a leading role in the establishment of Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Panama as sovereign states.

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Louis XVI, born Louis-Auguste, also known as Louis Capet, was King of France from 1774 until his deposition in 1792, although his formal title after 1791 was King of the French. He was guillotined on 21 January 1793.

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Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre was a French lawyer and politician, and one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution, the defence of the Republic, and the Reign of Terror.

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Napoléon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars.