# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
How can cooperative learning benefit you and your group?

Cooperative Learning helps to:

Raise achievement of students.

Build positive relationships among students - important for creating a learning community that values diversity.

Provide experiences that develop both good learning skills and social skills.

Research shows cooperative learning helps to produce:

Higher achievement.

Increased retention.

More positive relationships and a wider circle of friends.

Greater intrinsic motivation.

Higher self-esteem.

Greater social support.

More on-task behavior.

Better attitudes toward teachers.

Better attitudes toward school.

Hopefully you have already had some successful experiences with cooperative learning and you can relate to many of the benefits listed above. If you haven't had any experiences with team or group work, or if you have only had bad experiences, don't worry! Becoming skilled in cooperative learning takes time, patience, and persistence. The more you learn about cooperative learning and the more you practice your skills, the better you will become and the more benefits you will experience. It takes time.

Additional Benefits of Cooperative Learning

Here are some additional benefits of cooperative learning.

When students are working toward a common goal, academic work becomes an activity valued by peers.

Students are motivated to help one another learn.

Students are able to translate the teacher's language into "student language" for one another.

Students who explain to one another strengthen their own learning.

When students need to organize their thoughts in order to explain them to teammates, they must engage in thinking that builds on other ideas (cognitive elaboration) which greatly enhances their own understanding.

Teammates can provide individual attention and assistance to one another.

Regular and constructive collaborative study groups can assist you with mastery of material, exam preparation, and better performance on tests.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Cooperative Learning helps to: Raise achievement of students. Build positive relationships among students - important for creating a learning community that values diversity. Provide experiences that develop both good learning skills and social skills. Research shows cooperative learning helps to produce: Higher achievement. Increased retention. More positive relationships and a wider circle of friends.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Implementing Group Work in the Classroom | Centre for Teaching Excellence

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Group work can be an effective method to motivate students, encourage active learning, and develop key critical-thinking, communication, and decision-making sk

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Using Collaborative Learning to Build Student Agency

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Making group work not just helpful but necessary fosters student-led learning.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Exploring the principles, theory, practice and development of work with groups

What is a group? We explore what a group is - and some key dimensions of groups.

What is groupwork? Just what does the process of working with a group involve?

the development of group work

The early history of group work. We examine the emergence of group work in British work with young people and adults during the nineteenth century.

Social group work: formulation of a method, 1920-1936. Kenneth E. Reid explores a pivotal time in the development of the theory and practice of working with groups within social work.

Group work - expansion and professionalism, 1937 - 1955. Kenneth E. Reid explores how group work was increasingly presented as part of social work (as against informal education and recreation) and the fascinating process of delineating its boundaries.

Robert Freed Bales, group observation and interaction processes. R. F. Bales pioneered the development of systematic methods of group observation and measurement of interaction processes. In this brief article we survey his contribution.

Grace Coyle and group work principles, theory and practice. Grace Coyle made an extraordinary contribution to our understanding of group work principles, theory and practice. She was also an important advocate for the work within US social work and an innovatory trainer.

George C. Homans, the human group and elementary social behaviour. George Caspar Homans (1910-1989) is widely regarded as the father of social exchange theory. Two of his many books, The Human Group and Social Behaviour: Its Elementary Forms are considered world-classics in sociology. He also made significant empirical and conceptual contributions to small-group research. In this piece A. Javier Treviño explores Homans' lasting contribution.

Josephine Klein, group work, youth work and exploring English cultures. Josephine Klein was one of the first British-based practitioners to explore group process and working with groups systematically. She also went on to complete a landmark study of family and community life and develop before becoming a psychotherapist. We explore her contribution.

Gisela Konopka and group work. Gisela Konopka (1910-2003) made a profound contribution to the development of social group work and the deepening of practice with children and young people. In this paper Janice Andrews charts Gisela Konopka's life and assesses her work.

Kurt Lewin, group dynamics and action learning: A seminal theorist who deepened our understanding of groups, experiential learning, and action research.

Carl Rogers, core conditions and education. Best known for his contribution to client-centered therapy and his role in the development of counselling, Rogers also had much to say about the principles, theory and practice of education and group work.

Bruce W. Tuckman - forming, storming, norming and performing in groups. Bruce W. Tuckman produced one of the most quoted models of group development in the 1960s. We consider his contribution and the model's continuing use.

Gertrude Wilson and social group work theory and practice. Gertrude Wilson was a pivotal figure in the development of the principles, theory and practice of group work during the 1940s and 1950s. Here we briefly assess her contribution.

concepts

Animation. Animation introduced. Animation, formation and education explored. The development of practice.

Association. The nature of association and its educational potential explored plus an annotated list of key texts.

Conversation and dialogue. Dialogue', Freire says, 'is the encounter between men, mediated by the world, in order to name the world'. Here we explore this idea - and its roots.

Experiential learning. David A. Kolb's model of experiential learning can be found in many discussions of the theory and practice of adult education, informal education and lifelong learning. We set out the model, and examine its possibilities and problems.

Evaluation. Evaluation is part and parcel of educating - yet it can be experienced as a burden and an unnecessary intrusion. We explore the theory and practice of evaluation and some of the key issues for informal and community educators, social pedagogues youth workers and others. In particular, we examine educators as connoisseurs and critics, and the way in which they can deepen their theory base and become researchers in practice.

Facilitating learning and change in groups. Just what is facilitation, and what does it involve? We explore the theory and practice of facilitation, and some key issues around facilitating group sessions.

Learning. What is learning? Is it a change in behaviour or understanding? Is it a process? Here we survey some common models.

Reflection. What constitutes reflection - and what significance does it have for educators? The contributions of Dewey, Schön and Boud et. al. assessed.

Self-direction. Many books and articles about lifelong learning talk glibly about self direction. Too often this idea is seen as unproblematic - an obvious good. But things are not quite as they seem.

Acknowledgement: Picture: Group work by Eldan Goldenberg. Sourced from Flcikr and reproduced under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic (CC BY-NC-SA 2.0) licence. http://www.flickr.com/photos/eldan/4929258391/

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Group work principles, theory and practice

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What is a group? We explore what a group is - and some key dimensions of groups. What is groupwork? Just what does the process of working with a group involve? the development of group work The early history of group work.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Lev Vygotsky and Social Learning Theories

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Social learning theories help us to understand how people learn in social contexts (learn from each other) and informs us on how we, as teachers, construct active learning communities. Lev Vygotsky (1962), a Russian teacher and psychologist, first stated that we learn through our interactions a…

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Teamwork Theory: Tuckman's Stages of Group Development
Probably the most famous teamwork theory is Bruce Tuckman's "team stages model".
First developed in 1965, Tuckman's model is widely known as a basis for effective team building. Yet how many people really know how to use it?

Below we explain Tuckman's model and offer some fresh insights on how to take it further.

But before reading on why not take the chance to "team-up" with our great range of e-guides . The complete set is now available at half price!

You'll find advice, tips, tools and new models which you won't find anywhere else. You can read about the real benefits of our teams bundle in our article on team building activities. Or why not download your half price offer right now! You're in good company with satisfied customers from over 30 countries around the world. Click the image below to view some of our most popular e-guides:

Tuckman's model is significant because it recognizes the fact that groups do not start off fully-formed and functioning. He suggests that teams grow through clearly defined stages, from their creation as groups of individuals, to cohesive, task-focused teams.

Our e-guide: Build a Better Team, has been specifically designed to help you understand and use a team stages model. It contains a tool for each stage to help you build a high-performing team - as quickly as possible.

Tuckman's Teamwork Theory

Tuckman describes working with a team of social psychologists, on behalf of the U.S. navy. The team studied small group behaviour, from several perspectives. In doing so, Tuckman reviewed 50 articles on group development and noticed that there were two features common to these small groups: the interpersonal or group structure, and the task activity. From this he identified that groups evolved into teams via four common stages.

Firstly an orientation, testing phase which often led to a period characterized by a degree of conflict. This then generally resolved itself, leading to a more socially cohesive phase. Finally, groups settled to a functional phase, during which they focused on role-relatedness. To summarize these four phases, Tuckman coined the oft-quoted terms: "forming", "storming", "norming" and "performing".

Tuckman's teamwork theory is best illustrated on a graph which shows the link between group relationships (the horizontal axis) and task focus (the vertical axis). The optimal or "performing" position is reached when relationships have developed within the group and it has started delivering with a clear focus on the task.

However, Tuckman's ideas clearly indicate that it takes time to reach the "performing" stage, and it's normal for these teams to go through ups and downs as they develop relationships. Particularly in the early period, which is perhaps why Tuckman called it the "storming" phase!

The 4 Phases of Tuckman's Teamwork Theory

Forming:
The initial stage of team development during which individuals have not yet gelled together. Everybody is busy finding their place in the team, sizing each other up, and asking themselves why they are here! Find out more in our articles: Team Building Techniques and Teamwork Tips. The first offers advice on starting a new team while the second will help you take over an existing team (perhaps a far more common situation).

Storming:
People begin to see themselves as part of a team. However at this stage they may challenge each other, and the team leader, about such things as what the team is doing, and how things should be done. As the stage title suggests, conflict and confrontation typify this stage, as differences surface. This may result in some loss of performance or focus on the task, as the diagram illustrates.

Norming:
This is the phase where team members start to come together, developing processes, establishing ground rules, clarifying who does what, and how things will be done. This phase is characterized by a growing sense of "togetherness". Find out more about both the Storming and Norming phases in our article: Team Building Concepts.

Performing:
This is the final stage where increased focus on both the task, and on team relationships, combine to provide synergy. Performance is delivered through people working effectively together. We have written two articles to further develop this stage. Team Building in the Workplace will help you build a performing team. Characteristics of Effective Teamwork will help you and your team sustain that performance.

The value of Tuckman's model is that it helps us understand that teams evolve. It also helps us to consider how they may encounter different problems at different stages of their development.

One limitation of the model may be that it makes team building appear too linear and sequential. Although it's a useful analytical tool, we must remember that some teams may "loop" around in their development.

For example, not all teams evolve smoothly through Tuckman's stages but may yo-yo between norming and storming until they either begin to function, or are disbanded! Regardless of limitations, all well-conceived models can be useful in helping us to understand and better manage our circumstances.

Beyond Tuckman

Read our new book:

Uncommon Leadership: how to build competitive edge by thinking differently
"a tour de force ... all integrated into a fascinating intellectual package"

Professor Dennis J. Garritan, Adjunct Professor, Harvard University

Tuckman's famous phases are part of a teamwork theory based on stages of team development. His theory may have gained popularity partly due to the catchy labels for each of his stages.

However, it also provides a useful and simple way to think about how we humans interact in team situations. Firstly by illustrating that it's normal for teams go through stages as they develop. Secondly, by highlighting the need to manage different aspects of team behaviour at each stage of that development. The beauty and usefulness of Tuckman's model is perhaps in its simplicity.

Team development theories such, as Tuckman's group development stages, recognise that teams develop through different stages, from forming through to performing.

Whilst these theories give a useful understanding of different team requirements at different times, there are a number of questions that aren't particularly well answered by the models. For example:

How should you lead at the different stages of a team's development?

How do you identify when you are progressing through a stage?

How does the team develop in the organisational setting?

How is it affected by other outside influences?

The theory of group stages alone doesn't answer these questions. To do so, and thus to build a more robust teamwork concept, ideas about team leadership and outside factors need to be introduced. We've done just this in our STAR team performance model. You can see how this model applies to group stages in: Stages of Team Development.

This is the first of ten articles in our teamwork series. But for some practical tips on using teamwork theory, look at our great-value guides (below), or at our Team Building Exercises for all team stages.

Team Building Exercises and Team Stages

The exercises in this guide are grouped according to our team stages model. Remember, each team is unique and needs to be led through several developmental stages. These include:
Creating a new team or taking over an existing team

Exercise 1: Being a TEAM together

Exercise 2: True or false

Exercise 3: Who does what in a team?

Exercise 4: Getting the mix right

Exercise 5: Doing something for the first time

Exercise 6: Two years from now

Developing a team

Exercise 7: A clearer vision

Exercise 8: Mad, sad or glad

Exercise 9: Seeing the bigger picture

Exercise 10: Positive feedback

Exercise 11: Conflicting views

Performing and achieving results with a team

Exercise 12: Did you notice?

Exercise 13: Limiting beliefs

Sustaining team performance

Exercise 14: Scarce resources

Exercise 15: Keeping going

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Probably the most famous teamwork theory is Bruce Tuckman's "team stages model". First developed in 1965, Tuckman's model is widely known as a basis for effective team building. Yet how many people really know how to use it? Below we explain Tuckman's model and offer some fresh insights on how to take it further.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Inspirational - Team Building - Work Related uplifting

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Inspirational video that inspires a co-workers and business people to unite and work towards a common goal.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Take The Bus - HD funny videos - The Benefit of working in Groups in a very funny way

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Accountability-the idea of holding schools, districts, educators, and students responsible for results-has become the most-recent watchword in education. In more and more states and districts, policymakers are moving to reward achievement and punish failure in schools, in an effort to ensure that children are getting a good education and that tax dollars aren't being wasted. "Accountability for student performance is one of the two or three -if not the most- prominent issues in policy at the state and local levels right now," says Richard F. Elmore, a professor at Harvard University's Graduate School of Education (Quality Counts, 1999)

The push for accountability has grown out of a common perception that states traditionally monitored the "inputs" in public education-such as the number of books in the school library or the number of computers in the classroom-but paid too little attention to performance. In the 1980s, the nation's governors proposed a kind of "horse trade": The state would provide more flexibility in how schools operated, as well as more money for schools, if educators would agree to be held more accountable for student achievement.

The "new" accountability, enshrined in federal law since the mid-1990s and a major emphasis of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, focuses on student performance, schools as the unit of improvement, public reporting of achievement results, continuous improvement, and consequences for schools attached to student performance (Fuhrman, 1999). Each state is required, under No Child Left Behind, to submit an accountability plan to the U.S. Department of Education. By 2005, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had submitted and received approval for their individualized plans, and are currently implementing these plans in their schools (Department of Education, 2005)

As of the 2004-05 school year, according to Education Week's Quality Counts 2005 report, all 50 states and the District of Columbia publish report cards on school performance, based largely on test scores. Forty-five states and the District disaggregate student performance data on report cards, highlighting specifically how minority, low-income, special education, and English-language learners perform on state tests.

Beginning with the 2003-04 school year, under the No Child Left Behind Act, all states are required to publicly rate schools on whether the schools have made "adequate yearly progress" toward meeting performance targets. According to data collected by Education Week, at least 19,644 schools did not meet those performance targets for 2003-04.

But while all states now have some kind of rating systems in place for all of their schools, many do not assist all low-performing schools or hold all schools accountable for results by imposing consequences on persistently failing schools, or providing rewards to high-performing or improving schools. For 2004-05, 36 states assist all schools identified as low-performing (regardless of whether they receive federal Title I funds). Twenty-nine states have the legal authority to close, take over, replace staffs, or apply other penalties such as converting to charters any schools they have identified as failing ( Quality Counts 2005).

In practice, however, the push for accountability has led to some unforeseen problems. A 2004 study by the Thomas Fordham Foundation and AccountabilityWorks, which evaluated accountability systems in 30 states, gave states "mediocre" marks for the extent to which accountability systems were based on solid academic standards and tests that matched individual state standards (Cross et. al., 2004).

Furthermore, a "capacity gap" exists in states, districts, and schools. Low-performing schools are the least capable of turning themselves around. Meanwhile, states may not have the resources to intervene in every school whose performance is not up to par (Elmore, 2002). With strict timelines and mandates for improvement under the No Child Left Behind Act, some education policy experts are concerned that states will have incentives to lower standards and expectations for students in order to meet prescribed goals (Center on Education Policy, 2003).

States are not only seeking to hold schools more accountable for results, increasingly they are also holding students accountable for individual performance. According to data collected for Quality Counts 2005, for the 2004-05 school year, students in 21 states are required to pass a test to graduate from high school, and, eight states tie student promotion to test scores.

Opponents of such practices are concerned about the validity and reliability of making high-stakes decisions that often are based on performance on single exams (Heubert and Hauser, 1998; Linn, 2000). Critics also argue that the focus on high-stakes testing will narrow and impoverish the curriculum, encourage cheating, and fall most heavily on poor and minority students, who traditionally have done least well on standardized exams. Opponents of such testing also complain that states have rushed to hold students accountable before the states have put in place the curricula, instruction, teacher training, and other resources that would enable young people to meet the higher standards.

Some states, such as Florida and New Mexico, are also attempting to hold teachers accountable by tying their evaluations and pay to students' scores on state tests (Quality Counts, 2005). But many educators and teachers' unions contend that approach is unfair because too many factors contributing to student performance are outside teachers' control.

For now, most state policymakers say they are committed to the accountability agenda: setting higher standards for students, measuring whether they are learning, and then providing incentives in the form of rewards and punishments for schools and students to achieve. Opinion polls also show that the public and educators continue to largely support the general principles of high standards and accountability for results (Public Agenda, 2002).

How to Cite This Article

Editorial Projects in Education Research Center. (2004, August 3). Issues A-Z: Accountability. Education Week. Retrieved Month Day, Year from http://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/accountability/

Center on Education Policy, "From the Capital to the Classroom: State and Federal Efforts to Implement the No Child Left Behind Act," 2003.

Cross, R., Rebarber, T., Torres, J., and Finn, C. "Grading the Systems: The guide to state standards, tests, and accountability policies," The Thomas B. Fordham Foundation, 2004. Education Week, Quality Counts 2004: Count Me In Jan. 8, 2004.

Linn, R., "Assessments and Accountability," Educational Researcher, 29 (2), 2000.

Please enable JavaScript to view the comments powered by Disqus.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Accountability-the idea of holding schools, districts, educators, and students responsible for results-has become the watchword in education. In more and more states and districts, policymakers are moving to reward achievement and punish failure in schools in an effort to ensure that children are getting a good education and that tax dollars aren't being wasted.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
With No Child Left Behind (NCLB) off the table for at least 32 states in the U.S., accountability measures will be left to states and local school systems. NCLB has been clear about closing achievement gaps between groups of students considered at risk. To ensure that there is an ongoing focus on school improvement, accountability should continue to be rigorous and focused on achievement gaps along with whole school improvement.

Clear accountability systems have to be in place at seven different levels to ensure student success now and in the future. Goals, beliefs, values, visions and actions must be aligned similar to what one may find in a balanced scorecard. If these things are not operating in tandem, then the system may be doomed to fail.

The seven levels of accountability for student success are: 1) state; 2) school system; 3) school; 4) principal; 5) teachers; 6) parents; and 7) students.

Level 1: STATE

All states should have a strong plan in place to measure accountability. Out of the 32 states approved for No Child Left Behind waivers, eight states have a conditional waiver, meaning they have not yet satisfied the Obama administration's requirements for a new principal/teacher evaluation system, incorporation of College and Career Readiness Standards and other stipulations. If these states are granted waivers, it is imperative that they have a plan in place so that all educators, parents, students and other stakeholders understand how schools will be monitored and what criteria will be used to determine school improvement.

Many of the states that have received No Child Left Behind waivers have developed impressive accountability plans.

According to the Kentucky Department of Education, their new accountability model is a more robust - next generation model that holds all schools and school systems accountable for improving student performance and creates four performance classifications that determine consequences and guide interventions and supports. School and system classifications are based on the following measures: 1) Achievement (Content Areas are reading, mathematics, science, social studies and writing.); 2) Gap (percentage of proficient and distinguished) for the Non-Duplicated Gap Group for all five content areas; 3) Growth in reading and mathematics (percentage of students at typical or higher levels of growth); 4) College Readiness as measured by the percentage of students meeting benchmarks in three content areas on EXPLORE at middle school; 5) College/Career-Readiness Rate as measured by ACT benchmarks, college placement tests and career measures and 6) Graduation Rate.

Level 2: SCHOOL SYSTEM

For school systems located in states where NCLB is still active, the accountability standards remain the same: required scores in key subject areas, test participation rates at 95 percent, attendance, graduation rates and adequate performance of special populations such as disadvantaged students and students with disabilities. What will be the accountability of school systems in states with waivers? The measures should certainly be well aligned to the state accountability plan components that we monitor and hold systems accountable for. In many cases, the new accountability measures growth over a period of time. Superintendents, boards of education and school system leaders will need to be visionary, progressive thinkers who are well versed about what is happening around the country and how to keep their school system on the cutting-edge of transformation.

A strong strategic plan that communicates the school system vision, mission, goals, beliefs, values and objectives should be transparent for all to see. The metrics embedded in it should communicate what the system is holding itself accountable for. There has to be a whole school system focus on building a culture of continuous improvement.

Curriculum, instruction, assessment and professional learning are critical success indicators for school systems. All levels of system operation have to link back to improvement of student achievement. High expectations must be in place for school system leaders, principals, teachers, students and their parents.

Level 3: SCHOOL

An important question for a school to ask: "How do we know if our students are successful and what actions will we take if they are not?" Schools with an answer to this question and an accountability plan in place will have the greatest level of success. Generally, the school improvement plan is the accountability plan for the school. It outlines the same components one would find in a school system strategic plan; it is clear about the actions that will take place to address the question posed earlier. There should be an action plan for improving each content area based on current school realities or baseline data from the most recent school assessments; a professional development plan aligned to the action plans; a technology plan; a plan for improving student attendance and parent involvement; and a plan that outlines how data will be utilized, analyzed and interpreted.

Ensuring student success in schools means holding teachers and other staff accountable for quality work directly impacting student achievement. Identification of root causes for lack of student success and aggressive interventions to address areas of weakness must be implemented. Use of research-based practices in all key areas of instruction, leadership and school operation should be evident in schools aiming for high levels of student success. Innovation and creativity are not only encouraged but celebrated.

Level 4: PRINCIPAL

It is often said that principals must be strong instructional leaders. That is only part of what principals should know and be able to do. They also must be change agents, capable of dealing with vast ambiguities; human relations gurus; school culture shapers; savvy budget administrators; and outstanding performance managers. If principals are knowledgeable, courageous and willing to hold everyone accountable for keeping their students at the center of everything they do, success is bound to follow.

An effective principal is needed in every school building of a school system striving for excellence in education. These principals understand the complexity of their position, perform duties and responsibilities at a high level, and are able to multi-task, fitting all of the interconnected pieces of school life together for the good of their students. They are results-driven and accept no excuses from anyone. Success is the only option and mediocrity is simply not acceptable in a school run by a strong leader.

Many states have new leader accountability instruments that will be used to evaluate system and building level leaders. Principals operating at the proficient to exemplary level of these accountability systems will have the most positive impact on student achievement.

Level 5: TEACHERS

Research is clear about the damage an ineffective teacher can do. It can take years of instruction with an effective teacher to turn that damage around. Schools and school systems will need a laser-like focus on building the capacity of teachers through strong induction programs, job-embedded professional learning, support for implementation of the new Common Core Performance Standards with accompanying assessments and teacher evaluation programs linked to student achievement outcomes. Teaching children at a high level of proficiency should be the core work of every teacher.

All teachers should continue to be highly qualified to teach the subjects and grade levels they are assigned. Use of varied instructional strategies, effective assessment techniques, data utilization and integration of technology are a given for teachers who want their students to be successful. Teachers should be held accountable; however, their success begins with holding students accountable for learning what is taught.

Level 6: PARENTS

The outside curriculum of children does matter. This curriculum has to do with how they spend their time away from school, what they value, the support systems they have in place and how parents involve themselves in the school. What is learned in schools can be easily unlearned if not sufficiently enforced at home, in the community, ingrained in character and properly supported.

Parents need the requisite skills to help their children succeed in school. The local school and school systems should provide these skills through parent education workshops, parent involvement meetings, adult education classes and engagement in volunteerism. The Search Institute's 40 Developmental Assets is a good starting point, along with the six types of parent involvement established by Joyce Epstein.

The chances of children being successful increase when their parents are fully vested in the school community; capable of monitoring school work; communicating effectively with teachers; and able to identify resources to help with social, emotional health issues and other impediments to school success.

Level 7: STUDENTS

Students must be taught to be responsible and take ownership for their education. Personalized learning environments are significant when it comes to establishing schools where students can thrive and be successful. Working with teachers who understand the importance of building relationships cannot be overemphasized. We must remain steadfast in our mission to prepare 21st century students in our country to compete in a global economy. Failing to do so will be detrimental to not only the individual child, but to our future as a nation.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Seven Levels of Accountability for Student Success

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
With No Child Left Behind (NCLB) off the table for at least 32 states in the U.S., accountability measures will be left to states and local school systems. NCLB has been clear about closing achievement gaps between groups of students considered at risk.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The ultimate goal for schools and districts is to prepare all students for success in college and careers and for civic participation. But as recent data show, on most indicators, our schools are far from where our country needs them to be, especially for historically underserved groups.

In Maryland, for example, only about 40 percent of all fourth-graders and 21 percent of low-income fourth-graders met grade-level standards in reading in 2015, based on the state's assessment. In New York, only 24 percent of eighth-graders met grade-level standards in math in 2016, with far lower results for many groups of students. Moreover, schools are starting in very different places, both for all students and for individual student groups. In some schools, 50 percent of students are on grade level. In others, less than 5 percent are.

To communicate urgency and prompt the kind of change our students need, accountability goals must be both ambitious and attainable. This means that they need to push schools to improve faster than most have been improving in recent years, especially for groups of students who are typically underserved. At the same time, the state should be able to show that some schools are making the kinds of gains that the state is asking for.

There are a number of ways that states could go about setting goals for schools. They could, for example, pick a number that they think the public will find palatable (e.g., "We will improve the percentage of students meeting grade-level standards from 40 percent to 75 percent") or they could choose to set a goal based on how the highest performing schools in the state are currently doing (e.g., "Our top schools are averaging 70 percent of students meeting standards, so our goal is to get all schools to that level").

Importantly, though, the timeline for reaching goals matters a lot. A shorter timeline can make a lower goal more ambitious, because schools have to improve more each year to get there. Conversely, giving schools more time to reach a goal makes that goal more attainable.

How can you gauge whether your state's goals are both ambitious and attainable?

One way to do so is to ask state officials: If our schools were to continue to make gains similar to those they've made in recent years, how many would meet the goals for all students? For each group of students?

The answer you get to this question is critical. Unless you are fully satisfied with what schools in your state have been doing to get their students prepared for life after high school, less than half of schools should be able to meet goals for the all-student group if they simply kept improving at their existing pace. For low-income students, students of color, English learners, and students with disabilities, the numbers should be even smaller. Only the highest achieving and fastest improving schools (perhaps between 10 percent and 20 percent) should be able to meet the state's proposed goals by simply continuing to do what they are currently doing. Most should have to improve faster. However, if there are no schools that are likely to meet the state's proposed goals, the goals may be too ambitious.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Setting Goals for Accountability - The Education Trust

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The ultimate goal for schools and districts is to prepare all students for success in college and careers and for civic participation. But as recent data show, on most indicators, our schools are far from where our country needs them to be, especially for historically underserved groups.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Whether you're a special education teacher or not, you likely teach students who are on the autism spectrum or who have learning disabilities, dyslexia, ADHD, anxiety disorders, or emotional disabilities.

Differentiating instruction for such students can be challenging. But as an urban middle school teacher with more than 30 years of experience, I've identified some strategies that increase the chances that we're meeting all students' needs on a daily basis.

Collaborate with colleagues. I currently work with a teacher team that is well-synchronized when it comes to serving diverse learners.

As a learning disabilities teacher, I ensure that, from day one, all teachers are familiar with our 6th grade students' individualized education plans (IEPs) and necessary modifications.

Two sections of students in our grade are co-taught by special education faculty and content-specific teachers. Our paraprofessional and I alternate each day between the two sections. We move from class to class alongside our students, carrying binders with copies of all student materials so that we can co-teach alongside our colleagues.

Throughout the year, I co-plan with teachers, discussing tests, quizzes, projects and just day-to-day routines. We work on progress reports, reflect on our teaching strategies, and share concerns about students who may be struggling.

Cultivate consistency. For some of our 6th grade students, the shift to middle school is their first experience with "changing classes" throughout the day. Some consistency across classes can be helpful for students who have IEPs and those who simply need familiar routines and structure.

In each class, the general education teacher posts an agenda for the day on the board. And all classes begin with some kind of opportunity for students to review material or make the bridge to a new topic. A "science starter," for example, might require students to describe what phase of the moon occurs during a solar eclipse, or math class may begin with a quick problem that asks students to translate fractions into decimals. This provides all students with the opportunity to connect the class with previous learning.

The homework, posted on the board, is always explained verbally and accompanied by reminders to "take out your agendas and copy this down." Co-teachers circulate the classroom to ensure each student is copying information correctly.

We use common policies and procedures across classes. For example, if students forget to turn in major projects or take tests when they are absent, they'll find an "IOU" task listed on the blackboard.

Develop a student-centered mindset. Our efforts to boost learning are most effective when we share the same philosophy: It's about the kids, not us.

From the English/language arts teacher to the art teacher, all of us know about students' modifications: "who needs what" for tests, quizzes, classwork, and homework. Most students with learning disabilities (along with many of our English-language learners) use word banks when completing homework, classwork, and tests. For students who have difficulty copying, teachers provide printed copies of all notes, although they expect the students to try note-taking (often a goal in their IEPs). Some readers have access to novels on CDs. In math class, some use math reference sheets, a multiplication chart, and calculator-even on tests.

But a "student-centered mindset" goes beyond initial modifications: We pay close attention to individual students' progress and adjust our approaches throughout the year. If a student is struggling, our response isn't, "Well, that doesn't surprise me!" or "I've done my part-oh well." Instead, it's, "Why is this student struggling and what can we do to help?"

For example, sometimes it turns out that a student hasn't done her work because she needs a less distracting environment or additional guidance in understanding the project. We respond by offering opportunities for her to get an early start on projects and long-term assignments, both during and after school.

Our 6th grade team also made this decision: If any student performs poorly on a test, we analyze the data, then work with him or her individually or in a small group to re-teach the skills and concepts. Then students have the opportunity to retake the test after school or at lunchtime.

Set aside time to focus on study skills and extra support. Most students with IEPs attend a class that focuses on development of organizational and study skills. We also use this time to review concepts and guide students in understanding homework assignments. Because our paraprofessional and I have been observing and supporting students in all of their classes, we can make strategic decisions about how to structure this time.

Use multiple forms of assessment. Tests are never more than 35 to 40 percent of a child's grade (which also includes consideration of classwork, homework, participation/preparation, and projects). This ensures multiple opportunities to demonstrate knowledge and understanding in a variety of ways.

Draw on other professionals' expertise. Serving all students effectively requires us to pull in others promptly when students need specialized assistance. We have to be aware of when it's time to do so-and whom to contact. Our team regularly calls on our speech and language therapist, reading teachers, occupational therapist, school psychologist, and guidance counselors to advise us or to work with students on specific issues.

Partner with families. Last, but certainly not least, it's critical to involve families in the process of reaching all students, as some of my Teacher Leaders Network colleagues have been discussing this month at Teaching Ahead. Our 6th grade team's weekly common planning time provides an opportunity for families to meet with us as a group. We're flexible-if a parent or guardian is unable to come into the school, we set up phone meetings, check-ins with the team over email, and/or weekly progress reports.

I work with a great team this year-and I shudder to think that some of you may be reading this and thinking, "Yeah, this would be useful, if I had different (fill in the blank: administrators, colleagues, support staff, planning time)."

I know what you mean-I've been there-but I also think that you can, as Gandhi put it, "be the change you wish to see in the world." Be the one to push for common planning time (and to use it well). Be a dissenting voice when others say a particular student is a failure. Be the one who inspires colleagues to think outside the box about how to support that student. Be a teacher who is committed to helping all students succeed. You are not alone.

Web Only

Please enable JavaScript to view the comments powered by Disqus.
Back to Top

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Strategies for Meeting All Students' Needs

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Whether you're a special education teacher or not, you likely teach students who are on the autism spectrum or who have learning disabilities, dyslexia, ADHD, anxiety disorders, or emotional disabilities. Differentiating instruction for such students can be challenging.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Mesquite Elementary School, in Tucson, Arizona, attributes much of its turnaround in student performance -- and their ongoing success -- to their Reteach and Enrich program. Within the first year of implementation, even before teachers had worked out all the kinks, Mesquite went from a "performing" school (as labeled by the state of Arizona) in 2002 to an "excelling" school, the highest ranking, in 2003. The school has maintained an "excelling" status ever since.

The goal of the program is to give students the opportunity to master essential skills and knowledge before they move on to the next level. Here's the approach:

1. Each week has defined curricular objectives.

2. Teachers assess students on those objectives at the end of the week.

3. Based on assessment results, teachers assign students to either reteach or enrich sessions for the following week.

4. Beginning the following Monday, students attend either a 30-minute reteach or enrich session every day.

Reteach: Teachers reteach objectives using different lessons for students who need additional time for mastery. The teacher whose students performed best on the previous week's assessment teaches that week's reteach students. Students stay with that teacher for the daily half-hour sessions the whole week to minimize transition.

Enrich: Teachers expand on objectives for students who have mastered the basics. Students in the enrich class rotate to a different teacher each day so they can experience varying teaching styles as well as learn with different peers.

Reteach and Enrich (R&E) is highly replicable; every school in the Vail School District has implemented the program, and it continues to lead to improved student performance. However, there are some essential elements that are key to making it work.

1. A Common Curriculum Calendar

R&E depends on a shared set of clearly defined curricular objectives that are scheduled out for the entire year. This means that for any given week within each grade, all the teachers are teaching the same objectives. However, they are not necessarily teaching the same way; the instructional approach is left up to each individual teacher. The calendar keeps them on track by setting the pace so that teachers know that by year's end they will have taught -- and students will have learned -- all the essential standards. Says Vail superintendent Calvin Baker, "When we hold students accountable for very specific standards, and we expect all of them to know that standard, then we hold ourselves accountable for getting that job done."

2. Dedicated Time

Everyday at Mesquite, from 12:30 p.m. to 1 p.m., the whole school is involved in R&E. In addition to this daily half hour, R&E requires time for teachers to review and assess student data as well as plan instruction to meet each child's needs, both generally and within the program. At Mesquite, each grade has dedicated common planning time for teachers while their students are in "specials" (e.g., P.E., computer lab, library time, and so on).

To fit all that in, time management is also of the essence, right down to classroom transition time. For R&E, all the students transfer from their regular classroom to their assigned reteach or enrich room in under a minute, thanks in part to the convenient setup of their classrooms around a common area (see video below).

3. Collaboration

Collaboration is a key part of Mesquite's culture and is essential to R&E. Students rotate to different teachers during R&E, so every teacher must know every student in his or her grade level. Teachers share information about their students' progress so that all the teachers in a grade level share ownership of every child's education. They plan together and share resources and lesson plans that have been successful, and they seek insight from one another on lesson plans that were less effective.

4. Formative Assessments and Data Analysis

Early on, the teachers at Mesquite created their own weekly assessments; now there is a team of teachers at the district level that writes them. The assessments are short -- usually just five questions on one objective -- but they provide consistent insight into students' progress so that teachers can address any needs promptly. Diane Samorano, Mesquite's student achievement teacher, tracks the assessment data and the data from schoolwide screenings and quarterly benchmarks. She meets with the teachers every two weeks to review the latest results, to identify students who are struggling, and to help teachers plan instruction accordingly.

5. Involved and Informed Leadership

In order to address a variety of student needs, teachers must have access to resources, and principals must know what's going on in the classroom. Katie Dabney, principal at Mesquite, routinely visits classes, converses with students, and attends every data meeting for all grades. "As instructional leader, I have to stay on top of the data and be actively involved in searching for students who are at risk or need an extra challenge."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Mesquite Elementary School, in Tucson, Arizona, attributes much of its turnaround in student performance -- and their ongoing success -- to their Reteach and Enrich program. Within the first year of implementation, even before teachers had worked out all the kinks, Mesquite went from a "performing" school (as labeled by the state of Arizona) in 2002 to an "excelling" school, the highest ranking, in 2003.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Time is a precious commodity for teachers. Most teachers would argue that they never have enough time to reach every student, particularly the ones that are below grade level. Therefore, every second a teacher has with their students should be a meaningful and productive second.

Successful teachers establish procedures and expectations that minimize wasteful downtime and maximize engaging learning opportunities. Wasted time does add up. A teacher who loses as little as five minutes of instructional minutes per day due to inefficiencies wastes fifteen hours of opportunity over the course of a 180-day school year. That extra time would likely make a significant difference for every student, but particularly those who are struggling learners. Teachers can utilize the following strategies to maximize student learning time and minimize downtime.

Effective planning and preparation are essential in maximizing student learning time. Too many teachers under-plan and find themselves with nothing to do for the last few minutes of class. Teachers should get in the habit of over-planning- too much is always better than not enough. In addition, teachers should always have their materials laid out and ready to go before students arrive.

Another important-and often overlooked-component of planning and preparation is practice. Many teachers skip this essential element, but they shouldn't. Independent practice of lessons and activities allows teachers to work out the kinks beforehand, ensuring that minimum instructional time will be lost.

Distractions run rampant during school hours. An announcement comes over the loudspeaker, an unexpected guest knocks on the classroom door, an argument breaks out between students during class time. There is no way to eliminate every single distraction, but some are more easily controlled than others. Teachers can evaluate distractions by keeping a journal over the course of a two-week period. At the end of this period, teachers can better determine which distractions can be limited and formulate a plan to minimize them.

Classroom procedures are an essential part of the learning environment. Those teachers who operate their classroom like a well-oiled machine maximize student learning time. Teachers should develop efficient procedures for every aspect of the classroom. This includes routine activities such as sharpening pencils, turning in assignments, or getting into groups.

Most teachers give "free time" at some point during the school day. It is easy to do when we may not be feeling the best or we under-plan. But we know when we give it, we are not taking advantage of the precious time that we have with our students. Our students love "free time", but it is not what is best for them. As teachers, our mission is to educate. "Free time" runs directly counter to that mission.

Transitions occur every time you switch from one component of a lesson or activity into another. Transitions when poorly executed can slow a lesson down tremendously. When done right, they are practiced procedures that are quick and seamless. Transitions are a major opportunity for teachers to gain back some of that valuable time. Transitions may also include changing from one class to another. In this case, students must be taught to bring the correct materials to class, use the bathroom or get a drink, and be in their seats ready to learn when the next class period starts.

A major component in teaching is providing your students with clear and concise directions. In other words, directions should be easy to understand and as simple and straightforward as possible. Poor or confusing directions can stymie a lesson and quickly turn the learning environment into total chaos. This takes away valuable instruction time and disrupts the learning process. Good directions are given in multiple formats (i.e. verbal and written). Many teachers select a handful of students to summarize the directions before turning them lose to get started on the activity.

No amount of planning can account for everything that could go wrong in a lesson. This makes having a backup plan critical. As a teacher, you make adjustments to lessons on the fly all the time. Occasionally, there will be situations where more than a simple adjustment is needed. Having a backup plan ready can ensure that learning time for that class period will not be lost. In an ideal world, everything will always go according to plan, but the classroom environment is often far from ideal. Teachers should develop a set of backup plans to fall back on should things fall apart at any point.

Many teachers lose valuable instructional time because they have poor classroom management skills. The teacher has failed to gain control of the classroom environment and establish a relationship of mutual trust and respect with their students. These teachers are continuously having to redirect students and often spend more time correcting students than teaching them. This is perhaps the most limiting factor in maximizing learning time. Teachers must develop and maintain effective classroom management skills where learning is valued, the teacher is respected, and expectations and procedures are set and met beginning on day one.

Even the best intentions fall by the wayside if students do not truly understand what is being asked of them. This problem can be easily taken care of with a little practice and repetition. Veteran teachers will tell you that the tone for the year is often set within the first few days. This is the time to practice your expected procedures and expectations over and over. Teachers who take the time within the first few days to drill these procedures will save valuable instructional time as they move throughout the year.

It is easy for teachers to get distracted and veer off topic from time to time. There are some students who, frankly, are masters at making this happen. They are able to engage a teacher in a conversation about a personal interest or tell a funny story that captivates the classes attention but keeps them from completing the lessons and activities scheduled for the day. To maximize student learning time, teachers must maintain control of the pace and flow of the environment. While no teacher wants to miss out on a teachable moment, you don't want to chase rabbits either.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
10 Effective Strategies to Boost Student Learning Time

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Time is a precious commodity for teachers. Most teachers would argue that they never have enough time to reach every student, particularly the ones that are below grade level. Therefore, every second a teacher has with their students should be a meaningful and productive second.