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The Capacities of a Contemporary Teacher

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Rujukan berkenaan New Pedagogies For Deep learning

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01 b Cooperative Learning with Lauber_s Class

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Bimbingan dan Kaunseling Nama : Noor Adilah Binti Mohammed Shafie Siti Jamilah Binti Zulkefli

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1. 1. TEORI KLASIK DALAM KAUNSELING - FREUD, ADLER, JUNG MINGGU 5

2. 2. Psychoanalytic Theory Basic Freudian Propositions

3. 3. Clinical Experiences * Anna O. (Breuer) -Unexpressed emotion -> pathology -Unaware of emotion (unconscious) -Emotion expression reduces pathology

4. 4. Fundamental Assumptions ofFundamental Assumptions of Psychoanalytic TheoryPsychoanalytic Theory  The Basic Instincts  Unconscious Motivation  Psychic Determinism  Energy Model

5. 5. Fundamental Assumptions ofFundamental Assumptions of Psychoanalytic TheoryPsychoanalytic Theory The Basic Instincts: Sex and Aggression  Closely follows Darwin's theory  Freud believed that everything humans do can be understood as manifestations of the life and death instincts  Later termed libido (life) and thanatos (death)

6. 6. Fundamental Assumptions ofFundamental Assumptions of Psychoanalytic TheoryPsychoanalytic Theory Unconscious Motivation  Individuals control their sexual and aggressive urges by placing them in the unconscious  These take on a life of their own and become the motivated unconscious

7. 7. Fundamental Assumptions ofFundamental Assumptions of Psychoanalytic TheoryPsychoanalytic Theory Psychic Determinism  Nothing happens by chance or accident  Everything we do, think, say, and feel is an expression of our mind

8. 8. Fundamental Assumptions ofFundamental Assumptions of Psychoanalytic TheoryPsychoanalytic Theory Energy Model  Humans are viewed as energy systems  Hydraulic model. Energy transformed but not destroyed

9. 9. Levels of ConsciousnessLevels of Consciousness Conscious - current awareness Preconscious - not aware of material but it's retrievable (via ordinary retrieval) Unconscious - not aware of material but it's not retrievable (via ordinary retrieval)

10. 10. Issues Regarding the Unconscious * How can the existence of the unconscious be demonstrated? * Why do humans have an unconscious?

11. 11. Personality and PsychoanalysisPersonality and Psychoanalysis Techniques for Revealing the Unconscious  Free Association  Dream Analysis  Projective Techniques  Recovered Memories

12. 12. The Structure of PersonalityThe Structure of Personality ID EGO SUPEREGO

13. 13. The Structure of PersonalityThe Structure of Personality The Id - Reservoir of Psychic Energy Most primitive part of the mind; what we are born with Source of all drives and urges Operates according to the pleasure principle and primary process thinking

14. 14. The Structure of PersonalityThe Structure of Personality The Ego- Executive of Personality The part of the mind that constrains the id to reality Develops around 2-3 years of age Operates according to the reality principle and secondary process thinking Mediates between id, superego, and environment

15. 15. The Structure of PersonalityThe Structure of Personality The Superego- Upholder of Values and Ideals The part of the mind that internalizes the values, morals, and ideals of society Develops around age 5 Not bound by reality

16. 16. Psychodynamics * Conflict model - Id vs. superego; Individual vs. society - Restrain expression of all drives - Surplus energy results in anxiety

17. 17. Defense Mechanisms * Unconscious psychological processes designed to avoid or reduce the conscious experience of anxiety

18. 18. Anxiety and theAnxiety and the Mechanisms of DefenseMechanisms of Defense Repression  Unconscious  Motivated  Forgetting The process of preventing unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or urges from reaching conscious awareness

19. 19. Anxiety and theAnxiety and the Mechanisms of DefenseMechanisms of Defense Denial  Unconscious  Motivated  Not Perceiving Perceptual Defense Research

20. 20. Anxiety and theAnxiety and the Mechanisms of DefenseMechanisms of Defense Other Defense Mechanisms  Reaction Formation Act opposite of impulse  Projection Make impulse external

21. 21. Anxiety and theAnxiety and the Mechanisms of DefenseMechanisms of Defense Other Defense Mechanisms  Isolation/Intellectualization Isolate emotional reaction Process abstractly

22. 22. Anxiety and theAnxiety and the Mechanisms of DefenseMechanisms of Defense Other Defense Mechanisms Displacement Channel impulse to non-threatening target Sublimation Channel impulse into socially desired activity

23. 23. Anxiety and theAnxiety and the Mechanisms of DefenseMechanisms of Defense Defense Mechanisms in Everyday Life Useful in coping with unexpected or disappointing events Can also make circumstances worse

24. 24. Personality and PsychoanalysisPersonality and Psychoanalysis  Making the Unconscious Conscious  Techniques for Revealing the Unconscious  The Process of Psychoanalysis

25. 25. Personality and PsychoanalysisPersonality and Psychoanalysis The goal of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious Identify unconscious thoughts and feelings Enable the person to deal with the unconscious urges realistically and maturely But how to penetrate the unconscious mind?

26. 26. Personality and PsychoanalysisPersonality and Psychoanalysis The Process of Psychoanalysis The psychoanalyst offers the patient interpretations of the psychodynamic causes of the problems The interpretations bring insight Resistance may occur as a defense Transference of feelings

27. 27. Evaluating Freud's ContributionsEvaluating Freud's Contributions  Proponents argue it is the first and perhaps only comprehensive theory of human nature  Psychoanalysis has had a major impact on Western thought  Critics maintain it is not contemporary  The nature of evidence upon which it was built can be criticized  Emphasis on sexual drives is inappropriate

28. 28. SummarySummary There are 3 main forces in the psyche that constantly interact to tame the 2 motives Defense mechanisms help keep urges, thoughts, and memories that cause anxiety in the unconscious Psychoanalysis is a therapy used for making the patient's unconscious conscious

29. 29. Anxiety and theAnxiety and the Mechanisms of DefenseMechanisms of Defense  Types of Anxiety  Repression  Other Defense Mechanisms  Defense Mechanisms in Everyday Life

30. 30. Anxiety and theAnxiety and the Mechanisms of DefenseMechanisms of Defense Types of Anxiety  Objective Anxiety  Neurotic Anxiety  Moral Anxiety  Defense Mechanisms

31. 31. Adlerian Psychotherapy Prioritizing relationships

32. 32. Adlerian Theory History of Adlerian Theory - Inspired by Freudian psychoanalysis - Some overlap with other neo-Freudians (e.g., Horney) - Anticipated elements of humanistic, cognitive, and systemic approaches - Championed in U.S. by Rudolf Dreikurs - Dissemination throughout U.S. elementary schools during the guidance movement by Don Dinkmeyer

33. 33. Alfred Adler 1870-1937 * Born in Vienna * Raised by middle class, Jewish family * 2nd of six children * Felt in shadow of his older brother * Invalid as child (rickets, pneumonia) * Very close to his father (no oedipal need) * Converted and became a Christian After World War I - Gemeinshaftsgefuhl - deep-seated concern for others and need to associate with them * 1921-1934: 30 mental health clinics in schools- closed by Nazis - drop in delinquency at time * Came to USA in 1934 (lived in U.S. until his death)

34. 34. Nature of maladjustment * A person has a mistaken opinion of self and world - Inferiority complex: Individual overwhelmed by inadequacy, hopelessness - Superiority Complex: Individual's very high opinion of self lead him/her to insist that personal solutions to problems are best * A person engages in abnormal behavior to protect own opinion of self (e.g., when threatened with failure and insecurity)  The person becomes self-centered rather than other-centered  Conflict: "one step forward and one step backward movement" which has the net effect of maintaining an individual at a "dead center" point  People experience themselves as "stuck" but actually create the antagonistic feelings, ideas, and values, because they are unwilling to change (if-only...)  Safeguarding: Symptoms developed to safeguard the fictional goal  Family constellation: birth order mediates genetic and constitutional factors  The individual may be unconscious of these events

35. 35. Adlerian Therapy Focus * Importance of the feelings of self (ego) that arise form interactions & conflicts * Sense of self (ego) central core of personality * Start from Psychoanalysis * Emphasis on lifestyle (5 life tasks) - Social interaction - Work - Sex - Spirituality - Coping with ourselves * Courage

36. 36. Alfred Adler's Individual Psychology * A phenomenological approach * Social interest is stressed * Birth order and sibling relationships emphasized * Therapy as teaching, informing and encouraging * Basic mistakes in the client's private logic * The therapeutic relationship as a collaborative partnership

37. 37. The Phenomenological Approach * Adlerians attempt to view the world from the client's subjective frame of reference - Reality is less important than how the individual perceives and believes life to be - It is not the childhood experiences that are crucial ~ It is our present interpretation of these events * Unconscious instincts and our past do not determine our behavior - It is not genes - It is not environment - It is not genes and environment - It is how we choose to respond to our genes and

38. 38. Social Interest * Adler's most significant and distinctive concept * Refers to an individual's attitude toward and awareness of being a part of the human community * Mental health is measured by the degree to which we successfully share with others and are concerned with their welfare * Happiness and success are largely related to social connectedness

39. 39. Impact of Birth Order * Adler's five psychological positions: Oldest child Second of two Middle Youngest Only favored, spoiled, center of attention, pseudo-parent, high achiever behaves as if in a race, often opposite to first child (rivalry) often feels squeezed out the baby (more pampered), creative, rebellious, revolutionary, avant-garde does not learn to share or cooperate with other children, learns to deal with adults

40. 40. Encouragement * Encouragement is the most powerful method available for changing a person's beliefs - Helps build self-confidence and stimulates courage - Discouragement is the basic condition that prevents people from functioning - Clients are encouraged to recognize that they have the power to choose and to act differently

41. 41. Other Adlerian Concepts * Organ Inferiority: everyone is born with some physical weakness, which motivates life choices * Aggression Drive: reaction to perceived helplessness/inferiority lashing out against the inability to achieve or master

42. 42. More Adlerian Concepts * Masculine protest: Kids work to become independent from and equal to adults & people in power * Perfection striving: people who are not neurotically bound to an inferiority complex spend their lives trying to meet their fictional goals. "The life or a human soul is not a 'being' but a 'becoming'" - Elimination of their perceived flaws - Gives motivation and focus * Social Responsibility & Understanding - Occupational task-career-self-worth - Societal task-creating friendship-networks - Love task-life partner * Positive & Goal Oriented Humanity- people striving to overcome weaknesses to function productively-contributing to society

43. 43. How an Adlerian does Therapy * Comprehensive Assessment using: - Family Constellation-questionnaire-social world assessment - Early Reflections-single incidents from childhood - Lifestyle Assessment-develop targets for therapy by identifying major successes and mistakes in the client's life - "The Question" -- If I had a magic wand that would eliminate your symptom immediately, what would be different in your life?"

44. 44. What Clients do in Therapy * Explore private logic-concepts about self, others, & life - philosophy lifestyle is based * Discover purposes of behavior or symptoms and basic mistakes associated with their coping * Learning how to correct faulty assumptions & conclusions

45. 45. Therapeutic Techniques & Procedures * Establishing the relationship * Gathering Information * Encouraging development of self-understanding insight into purpose through clarification and correction (of faulty self-concept and reasoning) * Helping client make new choices: reorientation & reeducation away from previous lifestyle

46. 46. Phases Stage # Stage Tasks to be accomplished Support 1 Empathy & Relationship Provide warmth, empathy, and acceptance. Generate hope, reassurance, and encouragement. Establish a cooperative, collaborative relationship. 2 Information Gather relevant information: Elicit details of presenting problem & life tasks. Explore early childhood influences and memories. Encouragement 3 Clarification Clarify vague thinking with Socratic questioning. Evaluate consequences of ideas and actions. Correct mistaken ideas about self and others. 4 Encouragement Help generate alternatives. Stimulate movement in a new direction, away from life style. Clarifying new feelings about effort and results.

47. 47. 1. Establishing the relationship * Therapist gets to know the client as a person * Therapy is collaborative - Goals established together prior to start - Awareness of goal discrepancies during * Scripts ("Have you ever seen a patient like me before?") * Games ("My previous therapist said the opposite...") - Realignment of goals, when necessary * Supportive, caring human connection - Faith - Hope - Love

48. 48. 2. Gathering information * Subjective interview - Client tells own story as expert on own life - Therapist listens for clues to client's coping and approach to life - The Question: * Objective interview ~ Life Style Assessment - Family constellation - Early recollections - Personality priorities - Integration and summary

49. 49. 3. Encouraging Self-Understanding & Insight * Insight = understanding of motivations (the whys) that operate in client's life * Therapist offers open-ended interpretations to: - Bring conscious awareness to unconscious processes - Identify and confront resistance - Explore purposes of symptoms, feelings, behaviors or blocks * Types of interpretation - Of nonverbal behavior: to bring the client's nonverbal behavior to the attention of the client and interpret it. - Of the therapeutic process: Dealing with what is in the here and now. - Active Wondering: Proposes an alternative to the presenting problem.

50. 50. 4. Reorientation & Reeducation * Encouragement process - "to build courage" personal growth is encouraged and reinforced * Change and search for new possibilities * Making a difference through change in behavior, attitude or perception

51. 51. Adlerian Theory The Counseling Process - The Client-Counseling Relationship: Collaborative, egalitarian, respectful and cooperative. - Understanding the Client: How is the client behaving? What does the client gain from this behavior? Why does the client do this in this manner? - Assessment and Analysis: Family Atmosphere and Constellation, Birth Order, Early Recollections, Dreams, and Priorities. "Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004"

52. 52. Adlerian Theory The Counseling Process (continued) - Insight and Interpretation: Helps the client see his or her priority and ask whether or not the price for achieving it is worth paying. - Reorientation: Counselor offers alternative ideas or beliefs for the client's consideration. - Prescribing New Behavioral Rituals: The client is assigned "homework" that engages him or her in repetitive acts to reinforce the client's new belief system, behaviors and rules of interaction. "Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004"

53. 53. Adlerian Theory Strategies for Helping Clients - Restatement: Restating the client's words to form clarity and convey understanding. - Reflection: Restating the client's words to give deeper meaning regarding the underlying feeling. - Guesses, Hunches, Hypotheses: Making statements to explain what is happening. - Questioning: To get a better understanding but also reframe the symptoms for the client. "Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004"

54. 54. Adlerian Theory Strategies for Helping Clients (continued) - Interpretation: Takes guesses, hunches and hypotheses one step further. Focuses on the "whys" of behavior. - Nonverbal Behavior: Adlerians bring the client's nonverbal behavior to the attention of the client and interpret it. - Immediacy: Dealing with what is in the here and now. - Active Wondering: Proposes an alternative to the presenting problem. "Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004"

55. 55. Adlerian Theory Strategies for Helping Clients (continued) - Confrontation: Pointing out discrepancies between what the client says and what the client does. - Paradoxical Intention: Asking the client to amplify target behavior to show the client how ridiculous it is. - Creating Images: Asks the client to imagine a ridiculous scene as he or she enters into a threatening situation. - Asking "The Question": "If your problem were to disappear overnight, how would things be different?" "Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004"

56. 56. Adlerian Theory Strategies for Helping Clients (continued) - Catching Oneself: Having the client catch himself or herself when engaging in irrational behavior. - Acting As If: Acting out a role that the client thought impossible. - Spitting in the Soup: Spoiling the game of the client. - Encouragement: Promotes client self-awareness. Client's aren't sick but only discouraged. "Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004"

57. 57. Adlerian Theory Strategies for Helping Clients (continued) - Midas Technique: Exaggerating the client's neurotic demands. - Pleasing Someone: Helps put the client back into society. The client is instructed to go out and do something nice for someone else. - Avoiding the Tar Baby: Acting contrary to what the client expects. "Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004"

58. 58. Adlerian Theory of Adlerian Theory - It can be used for numerous issues and disorders. - Uses encouragement. - It is phenomenological. - It does not consider people to be predisposed to anything. "Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004" AdvantagesAdvantages

59. 59. Adlerian Theory Disadvantages of Adlerian Theory - The amount of family and lifestyle information that is collected. - Sometimes difficult to do the interpretations, especially the dreams. - Adlerian therapy works best with highly verbal and intelligent clients. This might leave out many people who do not fit that category. - Might be too lengthy for managed care. - Adlerians do not like to make diagnoses as it labels people. "Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004"

60. 60. A Journey Into The Mind Of... Carl Jung "Everything that irritates us about others can lead us to an understanding of ourselves."

61. 61. Who is Carl Jung? Carl Jung was born in Kesswill Switzerland (1875). As a child he was interested in history, archaeology, and philosophy. He studied medicine at the University of Basel and discovered he had a passion for psychiatry. He became a psychiatrist as it gave him the opportunity to study both the spiritual and factual sides of the world. For 9 years he was an assistant physician at a Psychiatric Hospital He studied Schizophrenia extensively.

62. 62. His Early Career...  In 1907 Jung went to Vienna to meet Freud where they studied along side each other for a number of years. They developed their own theories and corresponded through letters.  They came to parting ways because Jung disagreed with Freud's belief that the sexual component was the only part of the human personality. Jung also felt Freud was too narrow-minded about his views on the unconscious mind and dream interpretation. Freud's main theories were that our sexual libido controlled our unconscious thoughts and when dreaming it was our sexual thoughts that controled the content of these dreams.

63. 63. His Early Career Cont.  His first ideas were published in Psychology of the Unconscious (it contained much about mythological content and listed parallels between myths and psychotic fantasies).  He went on to develop his own theory called analytic psychology, for half a century he wrote religiously about personality in regards to symbolic, mythological, and spiritual views.

64. 64. His Early Career Cont. In his personal life he spent much of his time deep in self-discovery. In 1921 he published Psychological Types included his perspective of different personality types and the relationship between the conscious and unconscious.

65. 65. His Major Theories...  ·Focused on the unconscious and conscious mind...he believed that the unconscious played more of a role in controlling our thought process (especially during dreaming)  ·The collective unconscious was also more dominant factor in the development of human personality

66. 66. His Major Theories Cont... ··He believed in two personality types ·Introvert - someone who keeps to themselves and is emotionally self- sufficient Extrovert- someone who is outgoing and use their psychological power to draw people towards them

67. 67. A Final Word on Carl Jung... · Jung's theories and beliefs are still used amoung therapists today · Much of his work can be applied to dream interpretation · Due to poor health he retired and started teaching in 1947 He died in Zulrich 1961

68. 68. The Theory Jung's theory divided the human mind into three parts: - The Ego - The Personal Unconscious - The Collective Unconscious

69. 69. Carl Jung * Ego: conscious level; carries out daily activities; like Freud's Conscious * Personal Unconscious: individual's thoughts, memories, wishes, impulses; like Freud's Preconscious + Unconscious * Collective Unconscious: storehouse of memories inherited from the common ancestors of the whole human race; no counterpart in Freud's theory 3 Levels of Consciousness:

70. 70. Ego * Jung defines this as the unconscious mind

71. 71. The Personal Unconscious * Anything that is not presently conscious, but can be. It includes both memories that are easily brought to mind and those that have been repressed for some reason.

72. 72. The Collective Unconscious * This refers to our "Psychic Inheritance": - The reservoir of our experiences as a species, a kind of knowledge we are all born with (the collective memories of the entire human race). We are not directly conscious of it but it influences all our experiences and behaviours. - According to Jung, this is who so many cultures have the same symbols recurring in their myths, religion, art, and dreams. The common symbols are referred to as archetypes.

73. 73. Archetypes * The content of the collective unconscious are called "Archetypes" * Jung believed humans are not born "clean slates". He thought we came into this world with certain pre-dispositions that cause behaviour. * These behaviours were driven by archetypes or archetypal behaviour.

74. 74. Additional Archetypes * Persona: your public personality, aspects of yourself that you reveal to others. * Shadow: prehistoric fear of wild animals, represents animal side of human nature. * Anima: feminine archetype in men. * Animus: masculine archetype in women. * Others: God, Hero, Nurturing Mother, Wise Old Man, Wicked Witch, Devil, Powerful Father.

75. 75. Examples of Archetypes * Family Archetypes: - The Father - Stern, Powerful, Controlling - The Mother - Feeding, Nurturing, Soothing - The Child - Birth, Beginnings, Salvation * Story Archetypes: - The Hero - Rescuer, Champion - The Maiden - Purity, Desire - The Wise Old Man - Knowledge, Guidance - The Magician - Mysterious and Powerful - The Witch or Sorceress - Dangerous - The Trickster - Deceiving and Hidden * Animal Archetypes: - The Faithful Dog - Unquestioning Loyalty - The Enduring Horse - Never Giving Up - The Devious Cat - Self Serving

76. 76. Examples of Archetypes

77. 77. Examples of Archetypes

78. 78. Examples of Archetypes

79. 79. Examples of Archetypes

80. 80. Introvert and Extrovert * Jung is most famous for his development of the personality types of INTROVERT and EXTROVERT. Introverts are people who prefer their internal world of thoughts, feelings, and dreams. Extroverts prefer the external world of things, other people, and activities.

81. 81. Basic Personality Orientations * Introversion: focused inward; the person is cautious, shy, timid, reflective. * Extroversion: focused outward; the person is outgoing, sociable, assertive, energetic.

82. 82. Mental Functions * Thinking: naming and interpreting experience. * Feeling: evaluating an experience for its emotional worth to us. * Sensing: experiencing the world through the senses without interpreting or evaluating it. * Intuiting: relating directly to the world without physical sensation, reasoning, or interpretation.

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PSIKOLOGI KAUNSELING teori teori klasik dalam kaunseling - frued, jung adler

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Published on 1. TEORI KLASIK DALAM KAUNSELING - FREUD, ADLER, JUNG MINGGU 5 2. Psychoanalytic Theory Basic Freudian Propositions 3. Clinical Experiences * Anna O. (Breuer) -Unexpressed emotion -> pathology -Unaware of emotion (unconscious) -Emotion expression reduces pathology 4. Fundamental Assumptions ofFundamental Assumptions of Psychoanalytic TheoryPsychoanalytic Theory  The Basic Instincts  Unconscious Motivation  Psychic Determinism  Energy Model 5.

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Definisi Pentaksiran, Penilaian, Pengukuran dan Pengujian

Pentaksiran merupakan satu proses mendapatkan malumat dan seterusnya membuat penghakiman serta pertimbangan tentang produk sesuatu proses pendidikan.

Dari konteks pendidikan pentaksiran merupakan satu episod dalam proses pembelajaran yang merangkumi aktiviti menghurai, mengumpul, merekod, memberi skor dan menginterpretasi maklumat tentang pembelajaran seorang pelajar bagi sesuatu tujuan. Pentaksiran juga merupakan satu proses untuk mendapatkan gambaran tentang prestasi pembelajaran seseorang dalam sesuatu subjek atau aktiviti pembelajaran. Aktiviti pentaksiran dijalankan secara berterusan.

Pentaksiran atau penaksiran adalah perkataan Latin yang membawa maksud "duduk bersama" dengan pelajar dan mengesahkan respon adalah sama dengan apa yang dimaksudkan.

Menurut Moktar Ismail, konsep pentaksiran ialah langkah untuk menentukan sejauh mana seseorang mempunyai sifat tertentu.

tahap, status, dan nilai.

proses menilai secara kuantitatif.

merangkumi skala ordianal dan skala slang.

kesimpulan : pentaksiran bertujuan untuk menentukan kedudukan dan pencapaian murid.

Dari segi definisinya pula, pentaksiran merupakan proses pengumpulan, menterjemah, merekod, dan menggunakan maklumat mengenai respon pelajar kepada tugas pendidikan (David Lambert dan David Lines, 2000).

Manakala menurut Gearheart (1990), pentaksiran adalah proses pengumpulan dan penterjemahan secara saintifik tentang sesuatu maklumat yang luas berdasarkan keputusan intervensi dan apabila bersesuaian keputusan ditempatkan dan cadangan penempatan.

Selain itu, berdasarkan pendapat yang dikemukakan oleh Salvia dan Yseldyke (1978), penaksiran boleh didefinisikan sebagai proses pengumpulan data dengan tujuan untuk mengenal pasti dan mengesan masalah pelajar serta untuk membuat keputusan.

Seterusnya, Lembaga Peperiksaan Malaysia (2000) pula telah memberikan maksud terhadap penaksiran dalam pendidikan iaitu suatu proses pembelajaran yang merangkumi aktiviti menghurai, mengumpul, merekod, memberi skor dan menterjemah maklumat tentang pembelajaran seseorang murid bagi sesuatu tujuan tertentu.

Kesimpulannya, pentaksiran boleh diertikan sebagai proses pengumpulan maklumat yang melibatkan aktiviti menterjemah, merekod serta menghuraikan maklumat yang berkaitan dengan pembelajaran seseorang pelajar bagi tujuan tertentu.

Proses mendapatkan gambaran tentang prestasi seseorang dalam pembelajaran

Menilai aktiviti yang dijalankan semasa pengajaran dan pembelajaran

Mendapatkan maklumat secara berterusan tentang pengajaran dan pembelajaran memperbaiki pengajaran-pembelajaran.

Merancang aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang tersusun dan sistematik bersesuaian dengan tahap keupayaan murid.

Melibatkan semua atau sebahagian besar murid dalam kelas secara efektif.

Merancang dan melaksanakan aktiviti tindak susul yang berkesan.

Proses/prosedur yang sistematik bagi mengukur pencapaian pelajar yang biasanya dibuat secara bertulis.Tujuan pengujian ialah untuk menentukan pencapaian pelajar dalam sesuatu sesi pembelajaran.

Pengujian dapat dianggap sebagai proses penyerahan set soalan yang piawai yang perlu dijawab, atau satu set instrumen bersama satu prosedur yang sistematik bagi mengukur sampel tingkah laku atau perubahan seseorang individu atau pelajar.

"Ujian ialah satu prosedur yang sistematik untuk memerhati perlakuan atau tingkah laku seseorang individu dan menjelaskannya dengan batuan skala bernombor, atau satu sistem yang berkategori".

Contoh skala bernombor ialah angka 30/100 untuk ujian penglihatan, 100/120 untuk ujian kecerdasan ( IQ Test) dan 80/100 bagi ujian pencapaian bagi sesuatu mata pelajaran seperti Sains. Manakala contoh sistem berkategori pula ialah " ekstrovert" atau " introvert" bagi ujian personaliti, atau "rabun warna" bagi ujian penglihatan. Kepentingan pengujian bagi mengukur perubahan tingkah laku pelajar seperti yang dinyatakan di atas, dikukuhkan oleh Milagros 1981, (dipetik dari Raminah, 1991) yang menegaskan bahawa:

"Ujian adalah suatu cara untuk mendapatkan contohan perlakuan yang diperlihatkan oleh murid di dalam keadaan yang dikawal atau ditentukan. Maklumat yang diperoleh daripadanya akan dijadikan dasar untuk membuat penilaian atau pengadilan" .

Hasil daripada pemarkahan jawapan pelajar, satu ukuran yang disebut sebagai " markah " akan diberikan kepada pelajar tersebut. Pengujian menjelaskan tahap berapa baiknya prestasi pelajar yang diuji.

cara yang sistematik untuk mengukur perubahan tingkah laku seseorang (murid) dengan menggunakan bahan yang mempunyai kebolehpercayaan.

tujuan : mengesan penguasaan kemajuan dan pencapaian murid dalam pelajaran.

alat mengukur pencapaian (kognitif - struktur bahasa lisan, psikomotor - perubahan tingkah laku, efektif - pencapaian nilai-nilai)

penilaian pencapaian berlaku secara eksplisit (memahami, lisan, menulis)

berlaku pada tiga peringkat

Proses pengujian lazimnya bermula dengan peringkat persediaan, diikuti pelaksanaan/ pentadbiran ujian dan berakhir dengan pemeriksaan skrip jawapan. Melalui pengujian inilah seseorang guru mengetahui sama ada pelajar-pelajarnya telah menguasai pengetahuan, kemahiran atau sikap yang ingin disampaikan guru.

Kesimpulannya, pengesanan hasil pengajaran dan pembelajaran boleh dibuat melalui pengujian, pengukuran dan penilaian yang tepat, yang dilaksanakan guru dalam bilik darjah. Justeru, kecekapan guru membangunkan alat pengujian amat penting, malah sama pentingnya dengan penguasaan guru terhadap kurikulum yang diajar bagi menjamin keberkesanan pengajaran dan pembelajaran.

Antara ketiga-tiga istilah berkenaan, pengujian selalunya dianggap mendukung maksud yang lebih sempit atau khusus. Pengujian dapat dianggar sebagai proses penyerahan set soalan yang standard yang perlu dijawab, atau satu set instrumen atau satu prosedur yang sistematik bagi mengukur sampel tingkah laku atau perubahan seseorang individu atau pelajar.

Kepentingan pengujian bagi mengukur perubahan tingkah laku pelajar seperti yang dinyatakan di atas, dikukuhkan oleh Milagros (1981) seperti yang dipetik dalam Raminah Haji Sabran (1991) yang menegaskan bahawa:

Ujian adalah suatu cara untuk mendapatkan contoh perlakuan yang diperlihatkan oleh murid di dalam keadaan yang dikawal atau ditentukan oleh pengujinya.. Maklumat yang diperolehi daripadanya akan dijadikan dasar untuk membuat penilaian atau pengadilan. (Raminah 1991:2)

Proses pengujian lazimnya bermula dengan peringkat persediaan, diikuti pelaksanaan (pentadbiran ujian) dan berakhir dengan pemeriksaan skrip jawapan. Melalui proses pengujian inilah seseorang guru dapat mengetahui sama ada pelajar-pelajarnya telah menguasai sebanyak mana kemahiran yang telah dipela

Apakah yang dimaksudkan pengukuran?

Pengukuran membawa maksud yang lebih luas berbanding dengan pengujian. Pengukuran membawa definisi sebagai suatu proses mendapatkan penjelasan secara numerik atau melalui angka tentang sebanyak mana individu atau murid mempunyai sesuatu ciri yang diukur dengan menggunakan instrumen. Atau dalam erti kata lain langkah menentukan tahap sejauh mana seseorang individu

boleh mencapai keupayaannya dalam menguasai sesuatu kemahiran dalam setiap ujian yang diberi. Biasanya kita mewakilkan sesuatu indeks berbentuk angka kepada prestasi seseorang individu supaya status individu berkenaan lebih tepat dan dapat mewakili sifat tertentu. Misalnya, Ramli mendapat markah 60 peratus dalam ujian Matematik. Kita tidak menyatakan prestasi Ramli berkenaan sama ada baik atau sebaliknya. Dalam hal ini, kita hanya mengukur tanpa menentukan nilai. Justeru, pengukuran adalah hanya penentuan status atau tahap.

Pengukuran boleh dilaksanakan tanpa pengujian. Sebagai contoh, proses mendapatkan maklumat berbentuk kuantitatif menggunakan proses pencerapan atau penggunaan skala pemeringkatan. Berbeza dengan pengujian yang ingin mendapatkan maklumat sebanyak mana prestasi yang diperoleh, pengukuran pula menjurus kepada banyak mana skor atau markah yang diperolehi dengan menggunakan proses tertentu.

Seperti pengujian, pengukuran juga tidak bersifat mutlak. Pengukuran ketinggian mental seseorang individu sudah tentu lebih sukar dan tidak dapat dilakukan dengan tepat berbanding pengukuran ketinggian fizikal seseorang individu menggunakan alat ukur yang tepat seperti penggunaan pembaris. Misalnya, seseorang murid yang mendapat skor 90 tidak boleh dianggap mengetahui semua perkara. Manakala seseorang yang mendapat skor sifar pula tidak juga boleh dianggap sebagai tidak mempelajari sebarang perkara atau tidak memahami sebarang perkara tentang sesuatu pelajaran yang dilalui. Ini jelas menunjukkan pengukuran aspek berkenaan bukanlah petunjuk yang tepat sebagaimana mengukur ketinggian murid menggunakan kayu ukur atau pembaris.

Dengan itu, seseorang guru harus menggunakan instrumen yang tepat bagi menghasilkan keputusan yang tepat.Jika instrumen yang digunakan mempunyai kecacatan, maka sudah pastilah hasil yang diperolehi daripada ukuran yang dijalankan itu juga tidak tepat.

Apakah yang dimaksudkan penilaian?

Penilaian ada suatu istilah yang boleh didefinisikan dengan banyak cara. Menilai boleh dianggap sebagai proses membuat pertimbangan atau membuat keputusan dalam memberikan nilai mutu, kualiti, harga bagi sesuatu benda atau perkara. Stufflebeam et al. (1971:xxv) menyatakan penilaian sebagai " the process of delineating, obtaining, and providing useful information for judging decision alternatives'' Definisi ini menjangkau melepasi daripada maksud pengujian dan pengukuran.

Gay (1985) berpendapat bahawa penilaian ialah satu proses yang dianggap sistematik semasa mengumpul dan menganalisis data bagi menentukan sama ada sesuatu objektif yang telah ditetapkan itu telah tercapai. Hal ini seterusnya bagi membolehkan guru dapat membuat pertimbangan atau keputusan yang tepat berhubung pengajaran dan pembelajaran.Ini berbeza dengan pengukuran yang melibatkan pemberian nombor-nombor (numeric) tertentu yang lebih bersifat kuantitatif.

Terdahulu daripada itu, Popham (1975) menafsirkan penilaian yang sistematik mestilah mengandungi satu tafsiran yang formal tentang nilai fenomena pendidikan. Secara menyeluruh, penilaian pendidikan mencakupi aspek-aspek seperti hasil pengajaran, program pengajaran dan matlamat ke arah usaha pengajaran itu ditentukan. Dalam sesuatu bilik darjah, apabila guru memberikan ujian, adakah guru berkenaan mengukur pencapaian pelajar atau guru menilai pencapaian pelajar. Dalam keadaan ini kita boleh mengatakan bahawa guru sebenarnya mengukur pencapaian pelajar melalui ujian yang dijalankan. Tindakan susulan yang dilakukan guru dengan menggunakan keputusan ujian itu berserta maklumat lain yang berkaitan untuk menilai prestasi murid berkenaan. Dalam sesetengah keadaan penilaian dibuat tanpa sebarang pengukuran yang melibatkan ujian terlebih dahulu; tetapi hanya melibatkan pertimbangan nilai semata-mata.

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Definisi Pentaksiran, Penilaian, Pengukuran dan Pengujian

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Definisi Pentaksiran, Penilaian, Pengukuran dan Pengujian Pentaksiran merupakan satu proses mendapatkan malumat dan seterusnya membuat penghakiman serta pertimbangan tentang produk sesuatu proses pendidikan. Dari konteks pendidikan pentaksiran merupakan satu episod dalam proses pembelajaran yang merangkumi aktiviti menghurai, mengumpul, merekod, memberi skor dan menginterpretasi maklumat tentang pembelajaran seorang pelajar bagi sesuatu tujuan.

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Kumpulan 3

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Tugasan kum 3

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