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Italy had a revolution against Austria to gain unification of the papal states and two Sicily

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First Italian Unification War | 3 Minute History

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In Piedmont  Victor Emmanuel ll governed with a parliament whose democratic majority refused to ratify the peace treaty with Austria

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The role of Piedmont

In Piedmont Victor Emmanuel II governed with a parliament whose democratic majority refused to ratify the peace treaty with Austria. This was an exception to the general course of reaction. The skillfully worded Proclamation of Moncalieri (November 20, 1849) favourably contrasted Victor Emmanuel's policies with those of other Italian rulers and permitted elections. The victorious Liberals installed a new cabinet under Massimo d'Azeglio, a moderate trusted by the king. D'Azeglio introduced the Siccardi law, which curtailed the power of ecclesiastical courts. In October 1850 another prominent moderate, Camillo Benso di Cavour, entered the cabinet and directed a laissez-faire economic policy. He formulated international commercial treaties and drew on foreign capital to reduce the public debt, stimulate economic growth, and develop a railroad system. Cavour's dynamism alarmed conservatives and even d'Azeglio. In 1852, through an alliance with centre-left deputies that became known as the connubio ("marriage"), Cavour displaced d'Azeglio as head of the cabinet. Despite disagreements with the king (who favoured the clerical party and occasionally displayed absolutist tendencies), Cavour introduced various ecclesiastical, judicial, and fiscal reforms.

A number of events promoted Piedmont's prestige in Italy and abroad. In March 1854 France and England intervened in support of the Ottoman Empire against Russia in the Crimean War. To obtain Austrian support, they were prepared to guarantee the status quo in Italy. Only Piedmont was in a position to disrupt it at that time, and Cavour negotiated an alliance with the Western powers. In May he sent to Crimea an army that performed brilliantly. As a result, Piedmont was able to assume a place among the victors at the Congress of Paris (February 1856). From this platform Cavour, achieving a diplomatic coup for Piedmont and Italy, declared that the only threat to peace in Italy, and the root cause of subversive plots, was the burdensome Austrian overlordship. Cavour's pronouncements at the congress increased the standing of Piedmont among nationalists.

Meanwhile, Mazzini's democratic and republican movement was crumbling. In February 1853 an insurrection against the Austrians failed in Milan. The discovery and execution at Belfiore (1852-53) of the leaders of a conspiracy in Mantua, as well as abortive insurrections in Cadore and Lunigiana, discredited the democratic movement and discouraged its most dedicated adherents. Mazzini faced complete isolation for his support of an expedition to the southern mainland to incite insurrection, known as the Sapri expedition (June-July 1857), in which the Neapolitan republican and socialist Carlo Pisacane and some 300 companions lost their lives. The democrats were divided and unable to carry on the revolutionary struggle; nothing was to be expected from the restored governments. In Lombardy-Venetia, Austria carried out stern repressive measures. Pius IX, now under the influence of the reactionary Giacomo Cardinal Antonelli, refused to grant any reforms in Rome. Liberal Catholicism could not remain viable without reforms in the Papal States. In Naples and the duchies, reaction became pervasive, although the grand duke of Tuscany sought to make his subjects forget that he owed his throne to Austrian military intervention. Only in Piedmont was there any hope left for the reformers.

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Italy - Unification, Risorgimento, Nation-State

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Italy - Unification, Risorgimento, Nation-State: In Piedmont Victor Emmanuel II governed with a parliament whose democratic majority refused to ratify the peace treaty with Austria. This was an exception to the general course of reaction. The skillfully worded Proclamation of Moncalieri (November 20, 1849) favourably contrasted Victor Emmanuel's policies with those of other Italian rulers and permitted elections.

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Miguel Hadalgo started the revolution against the french rules of Spain and Mexico

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Mexican War of Independence | 3 Minute History

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Costa Rica, with other parts of Central America, joined the short-lived Mexican Empire. In 1823

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When Mexico declared its independence from Spain in 1821, Costa Rica, with other parts of Central America, joined the short-lived Mexican Empire. In 1823 Costa Rica helped create the United Provinces of Central America but, disenchanted with the strife in the other four states of the federation, severed its ties in 1838. A pattern of isolationism similar to that of the colonial period was reinforced. Indeed, Costa Ricans invariably showed little interest in the many attempts to revive the federation throughout the 19th and most of the 20th century, until their country joined the Central American Common Market in 1962.

Costa Rican leaders soon realized the potential for coffee cultivation and strove to promote coffee planting. From the 1840s a constant stream of oxcarts carried coffee from the Valle Central to Pacific ports and ships bound for Europe. This trade triggered British investment. Unlike sugar and indigo planters, coffee farmers with even small acreage could derive an adequate if simple existence, and Costa Ricans achieved a competitive advantage over coffee farmers in other Latin American countries.

Costa Rica's policy of isolationism did not completely save it from foreign troubles. In 1825 the province of Guanacaste seceded from Nicaragua and joined Costa Rica, creating an issue that was contended until the boundary treaty of 1896. Political refugees from other Central American countries attempted, and occasionally succeeded, in involving Costa Rica in regional conflicts. Another danger developed when William Walker and his band of filibusters took over Nicaragua in 1856, threatening all of Central America. Costa Rican troops participated in the Central American coalition force that drove Walker out of the region.

Material progress came to Costa Rica during the era of Gen. Tomás Guardia, who dominated the country from 1870 until 1882. His government curtailed liberty and added to the debt, but it also brought increases in coffee and sugar exports as well as widespread construction of schools. A new constitution, adopted in 1871, remained in effect, except for a brief interlude (1917-19), until 1949. The emphasis on agricultural exports strained transportation, and, with mainly British funds, Costa Rica sought to link the Valle Central with the seaports by railway. The chief promoter was an American, Minor C. Keith, who made a fortune with the opening of his rail line between Cartago and Limón. With vast land grants, Keith then entered the banana business. By the late 19th century, bananas were beginning to rival coffee as the chief source of Costa Rican foreign exchange, especially after Keith's investments were merged with others to form the United Fruit Company in 1899.

The last decades of the 19th century were also marked by a gradual decline in Roman Catholic Church activity in secular affairs. The Jesuits were expelled for a few years, cemeteries were secularized, and public education was expanded. In 1886 free public education became compulsory; public schools, a museum, and a national library were founded. Though the government continued to support the church, the constitution of 1871 provided for religious toleration. Strengthening the tradition of democracy for which Costa Rica was to become famed throughout Latin America was the victory in 1889 of Pres. José Joaquín Rodríguez in what is considered the first entirely free and honest election in all of Central America.

Costa Rica in the 20th century

In the early 20th century Costa Rica and four other Central American republics established the Central American Court of Justice, the first international court with wide juridical powers. The headquarters were established in Cartago, but, when the building was destroyed in the 1910 earthquake, the headquarters were moved to San José. One of the court's landmark cases involved the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty of 1916, which gave the United States permission to use the San Juan River (the border between Nicaragua and Costa Rica) as part of an interoceanic canal route. Costa Rica protested that Nicaragua was violating preexisting treaty rights and that opening a route would threaten Costa Rican security. The claim was brought before the court, which ruled in Costa's Rica's favour; however, Nicaragua refused to accept the ruling and withdrew from the court. Because of Nicaragua's withdrawal and an overall ineffective judicial procedure, the court dissolved in 1918 after 10 years in existence. However, the building in San José, which had been constructed with help from a donation by U.S. philanthropist Andrew Carnegie, became the home of Costa Rica's Ministry of Foreign Relations.

Costa Rica's boundary with Panama (originally with Colombia, before Panamanian independence) was also in dispute. Arbitration awards by France and the United States in 1900 and 1914, respectively, had been generally favourable to Costa Rica but were rejected by Panama. In 1921 Costa Rica attempted forcible occupation of this area (on the Pacific coast) but was diverted by the intervention of the United States. Panama then evacuated the region, but relations between the two small states were not reestablished until 1928. In 1941 the governments finally reached an accord over the boundary.

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Costa Rica - Costa Rica - Independence: When Mexico declared its independence from Spain in 1821, Costa Rica, with other parts of Central America, joined the short-lived Mexican Empire. In 1823 Costa Rica helped create the United Provinces of Central America but, disenchanted with the strife in the other four states of the federation, severed its ties in 1838.

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Miguel hadalgo won 22 battles in the Mexican war of Independence

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The war for Independence 1810- 1821

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

Jose Marcia Morelos y Pavon

Congress of Chilpancingo

Army revolt in Spain

Plan de Iguala

Independence

Unlike in America, where there was a broad groundswell at indignation at English abuses and taxation without representation, only a few conspired for independence in New Spain . There were some military officers kept out of the highest ranks by virtue of being born in New Spain rather than the motherland. Merchants and civil servants exposed to ideas of the Enlightenment and the American and French revolutions. The most radical were the parish priests who saw the suffering of their Indian parishioners firsthand. Most Creoles ( Criollo) wished to change the system so that they could have equality with the peninsulares, but not equality for all. Creole discontent with Spanish rule had been brewing since the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 . Many of the Jesuits were Creoles . When Napoleon occupied Spain in 1809, direct Spanish control over the colonies was lost and the flame of rebellion spread .The lower classes, the Indians and mixed castes had nothing much to lose, their lot was so hard . They did rebel, but these rebellions were not organized enough to spread far .

The Mexican War of Independence

Charles IV

Despite a lack of fervor for radical change as in France and America, events in Europe caused it to be a necessity . Unlike the wise Charles III, his son Charles IV ( 1788 -1808 ) exploited the wealth of the colonies. The most ruinous decision was to take the charitable funds of the church to help pay for European wars . These church funds were sources of credit for Creoles. The church had to call in their mortgages, destroying many Creoles financially .Uprisings against Charles IV in Spain forced him abdicate in favor of his son in 1808 .

It all began with a "shout", with Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla calling on the people of New Spain to fight for their independence
The Mexican Wars for Independence
This perceptive history paints Mexico's 1810-1821

struggle for independence

There was more turmoil in Spain when Napoleon forced the Spanish Bourbons into exile and place his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne in 1808 . Because Spain was virtually cut off from its colonies during the Peninsular War of 1808 - 1814, Latin America was, in these years, ruled by independent juntas. Without a true Spanish monarchy, many Creoles thought they should rule themselves. The peninsulares thought otherwise .The Inquisition was used to spy against and try those who agitated for reform . By 1810 many secret societies were formed by Creoles to fight for independence .

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

One of the first to call for independence was priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (May 8, 1753 - July 30, 1811) in Guanajuato . He became a bishop in 1778 and was investigated by the Inquisition in 1800 for questioning the celibacy of priests ( he had a mistress ), reading proscribed books, doubting the veracity of the virgin birth and the infallibility of the pope and considered the king a tyrant .However, none of these charges could be proved and he was released . However, he lost his position as a rector at the collage of San Nicolas in Morelia .

Ignacio Allende

He became the priest in the city of Dolores in 1803 . A few years later he met the revolutionary Ignacio Allende, a captain of the cavalry . Allende introduced him to his revolutionary coterie and planned an uprising for December 8, 1810. However, the plot was discovered and they decided to strike for independence at once .Hidalgo rang the church bells and summoned his parishioners and delivered his famous grito ( cry ) de Dolores on September 16, 1810. Until he delivered his speech he was a minor figure in the revolutionary movement . In response to his call ' Viva Guadalupe ! ( after the Virgin of Guadalupe, who became an independence symbol, her humble clothes contrasting with the richly decorate virgin of the secular church ) The crowd shouted Death to the peninsulares !

The initial response was enthusiastic . With Hidalgo at their head, they marched for San Miguel, gathering more recruits along the way. They took San Migual without trouble and the local militia joined the rebels . They started to pillage and Hidalgo could not control them. Next they took Celya and then marched on Guanajuato. There the peninsulares gathered in a makeshift fortress and decided to wait for aid from Mexico City .

History of Mexico - The of the fight for Independence

Alhondiga de Granaditas

La Antorcha encendida : la toma de la Alhondiga de Granaditas

It never came and over 500 peninsulares were killed holding out in the Alhondiga de Granaditas (public granary) and 2,000 rebels were killed . Hidalgo and Allende felt strong enough at this time to split their forces . Within a month they had taken the important silver mining town of Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi and Valladolid . By late October the army had about 80,000 marching on Mexico City .

Site of the battle of Monte de las Cruces

La Batalla del Monte de Las Cruces

The professional army was defeated by sheer numbers at Monte de las Cruces . The army retreated into Mexico City . An immediate attack on Mexico City might have taken the city and brought independence then . However, Hidalgo had taken heavy losses and was short of ammunition . He was also hesitant to let the undeciplined forces lose on Mexico City . Over Allendes objection he decided to retreat into toward Guadalajara and the Spanish forces under General Felix Calleja began to regroup . The rebels took Guadalajara .

Battle of Puente de Calderon

La Antorcha Encendida ~ Puente de Calderón Battle of Puente de Calderon

The Spanish army engaged them at Puente de Calderon. In the middle of the battle, a Spanish cannon shot hit a rebel ammunition wagon and the resulting explosion caused a panic in the rebel army and thousands of rebels broke rank and ran, turning into a rout . Hidalgo and Allende took what was left of their forces and retreated northward. They were betrayed and captured in the Texas territory and executed for treason by firing squad on July 31, 1811. Their decapitated heads hung of the walls where the Spaniards were slaughtered at Alhondiga de Granaditas for 10 years as a warning .

Miguel Hidalgo was executed at the Government Palace of Chihuahua

on July 30, 1811 by a Spanish firing squad

The Independence movement after

the death of Miguel Hidalgo

Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon

Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon

The popularity of the Independence movement waned after this . The movement was continued under the mestizo priest Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon (September, 30, 1765, - December 22, 1815 ) , who had been recruited by Hildago . Morelos organized his soldiers into small bands that carried out guerrilla warfare . By 1813 they won enough territory to encircle the capital . Morelos proved to be a talented strategist, and became one of the greatest revolutionary military commanders of the independence movement. In his first nine months, he won 22 victories, defeating the armies of three Spanish royalist leaders and dominating almost all of what is now the state of Guerrero. In December, he captured Acapulco for the first time, except for the fortress of San Diego.

Congress of Chilpancingo

( September to November 1813 )

Morelos then held a congress in Chilpancingo to discuss the plans for the nation once the Spanish were driven out . They issued a Declaration of Independence, those opposed to it were guilty of treason . In their constitution that declared that suffrage should be universal and that slavery and the caste system should be abolished. Government monopolies should also be done away with and replaced with a 5% income tax . Catholicism would remain the official religion of the state .

Viceroy Apodaca

Meanwhile, the Spanish army gathered strength and broke the encirclement, retaking many towns . Gradually, the rebel army dwindled and in 1815 Morelos was captured and executed .

The execution of Morelos

With the execution of Morelos the Independence movement reached its lowest point . For the next 5 years the movement was little more than guerrilla fighting by a number of independent bands without coordination . After awhile only two major bands remained, one led by Guadalupe Victoria with about 2.000 troops around Puebla and Vicente Guerrero with about 1,000 around Oaxaca . By 1819, the Spanish viceroy, Juan Ruiz de Apodaca was able to report to king Ferdinand that the situation was under control .He offered a pardon for all who would lay down their arms.

King Ferdinand VII

Army revolt in Spain

Meanwhile, King Ferdinand had been gathering a powerful fighting force to quell the more serious Independence movements in South America . At Cadiz, Spain, in January 1820, troops who had assembled for an expedition to America were angry over infrequent pay, bad food, and poor quarters and mutinied under the leadership of Colonel Rafael del Riego y Nunez .Colonel Rafael Riego declared himself in revolt and thousands of troops followed . The Spanish troops demanded that the king should abide by the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 which affirmed the sovereignty of the people, free speech and curbed the power of the church . If this was not done there would be a military coup .The king, a virtual prisoner of the army at this point, yielded to their demands .

Ironically, the Creoles found this change too liberal, and began to support Independence and secretly meet with the former colonel Agustin de Iturbide to be their leader to insure a more conservative government . Iturbide had fought against the rebels for nearly a decade . He resigned from the royal army after being accused of corruption. The Creoles convinced the viceroy to reinstate him in the army .

Colonel Iturbide

Plan de Iguala

In 1820 viceroy Apodaca placed colonel Iturbide in charge of 2,500 men to fight Guerrero . Iturbide marched his force toward those of Guerrero and instead of fighting him asked for a meeting and peace if he could dictate the terms . Guerrero agreed and on Feb 24 they issued the Plan de Iguala, the major points of which were that: independent Mexico would be a constitutional monarchy, led by King Ferdinand or another European prince , . The Catholic Church would remain the only official church in the country, Creoles and peninsularies would have equal rights. A new army would be created, the Army of the Three Guarantees to enforce the plan .

Flag of the Army of the Three Guarantees

The three guarantees which it was meant to defend: religion, independence, and unity. Mexico was to be a Catholic country, independent from Spain, and united against its enemies.

This was a much more conservative plan than that of Morelos. The revolution of Hidalgo and Morelos never gathered support from the conservative upper classes of New Spain, this plan could and military units and common people began to defect to the Army of the Three Guarantees. Priests spoke in support of it from the pulpit . Even many Spanish in Mexico supported the plan since they saw a future for themselves in Mexico, unlike the earlier more radical plans that demanded death or exile of the peninsulares .After many cities fell to the Army of the Three Guarantees, viceroy Apodaca resigned .

Independence Celebration in Mexico City

Independence

The Crown was not ready to give up New Spain and appointed a new viceroy, Juan de O'Donoju, the last viceroy of New Spain . O'Donoju became convinced that Spain could not hold on to Mexico, and accepted the Plan de Iguala and signed a treaty at Cordoba . One more proviso was added by Iturbide ; if no European leader was available to become the emperor of Mexico, a Mexican congress would chose an emperor, this was to become an important point . On September 27, 1821 , Iturbide marched into the capital with Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria and the army. After so many years of fighting and over 300 years of Spanish rule, Mexico was independent at last .

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The war for Independence 1810- 1821 MexicanHistory.org Mexican history from ancient times to today

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The war for Independence 1810- 1821 Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla Jose Marcia Morelos y Pavon Congress of Chilpancingo Army revolt in Spain Plan de Iguala Independence Unlike in America, where there was a broad groundswell at indignation at English abuses and taxation without representation, only a few conspired for independence in New Spain .