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Enzymes are substances produced by a living organism which act as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction.

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An organism with a simple single-chambered stomach.

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Animals with large, complex stomachs that do not rely on a caecum for breaking down cellulose.

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Animals with big caecums that break down cellulose after the stomach.

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Can be quite large in herbivores, but is almost indistinguishable from the colon in some omnivores and carnivores.
In herbivores, the caecum is a large pouch containing bacteria and enzymes which help to break down cellulose.
Plant material is barely digested in humans and is a source of fibre.

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- Last stage of the digestive system.
- Water absorption.
- Ascending colon
- Transverse colom
- Descending colon
(All compact waste, absorb water, salt and electrolytes)
- Rectum
Stores and compacts the waste until it's full. Then the anal sphincter will allow waste out.

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Oesophagus
-  Long tube that  contracts (peristalsis) to push food down into the stomach.
Epiglottis
- The gatekeeper, closing over the trachea.
- Prevents aspiration (food going down the wrong way) during swallowing.

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- Plays critical role in the process of chemical digestion.
- Small intestine absorbs nutrients released through chemical and  physical digestion.
- Duodenum is part of the small intestine.
- Jejunum is part of the small intestine.
- Ileum is part of the small intestine.
Both the Jejunum and Ileum are long coiled sections of the small intestine that absorb nutrients, simple carbohydrates and fats.

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- Releases insulin and other regulatory hormones to control sugar levels.

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- Main site of Chemical Digestion.
- Turns bolus into chyme through enzymes and acids which are released from gastric glands in the stomach wall.
- Food  is in the stomach for about 4 hours
- Bile is in the stomach, which emulsifies the fat in the stomach.

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- Mechanical and Enzymatic Digestion starts here.
- Teeth and tongue chew  food into a bolus shape with a large surface area.
- The salivary glands release enzymes (amylase, which hydrolyses starch to glucose)

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The digestive system is a tube that goes  straight through your body.

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- Catalyzes the carbon fixation.
- Makes about 50% of protein in chloroplasts.
- Facilitates process.

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Inputs:
- CO2
- ATP
- NADPH
Outputs:
- Glucose
- H2O
- ADP + Pi
- NADP+
Site:
Stroma

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Inputs:
- H2O
- Light
- ADP + Pi
- NADP+
Outputs:
- O2
- ATP
- NADPH
Site:
Thylakoid

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Energy from a photon excites energy in a molecule of chlorophyll, which drops down an energy level. It's an extremely efficient process.

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6CO2 + 12H2O ->
C6H12O6 + 602 + 6H2O
(or)
carbon dioxide + water ->
glucose + oxygen + water

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Photosynthesis is the process plants undergo to make energy out of sunlight.

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Ethanol

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Lactic acid

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Two  Disadvantages of  Anaerobic Respiration

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Two  Disadvantages of  Anaerobic Respiration

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- Much less efficient form of respiration compared to  aerobic.
- Produces toxic by-products.

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Organisms can undergo anaerobic respiration when they don't have oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor.

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Animals will undergo anaerobic respiration when they don't have oxygen as  their terminal  electron acceptor.

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Inputs:
- NADH
- FADH2
- O2
- ADP + Pi
Outputs:
- NAD+
- FAD
- H2O
- 32 - 34 Pyruvate
Site:
Cristae

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Inputs:
- Pyruvate
- ADP + Pi
- NAD+
- FAD
Outputs:
- O2
- 2ATP
- NADH
- FADH2
Site:
Matrix of Mitochondria

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Inputs:
- Glucose
- ADP + Pi
- NAD+
Outputs
- 2 Pyruvates
- 2ATP
- 2NADH
Site:
Cytoplasm

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Chemical Equation for Cellular Respiration

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Chemical Equation for Cellular Respiration

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6CH12O6 + 6O2 ->
6CO2 + 6H2O
(or)
glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water

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Cells use aerobic respiration to make energy in order to survive.

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Plasmolysis is the separation of a plasma membrane from a cell wall due to a decrease in intracellular volumes of cytosol.

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The movement of particles against their concentration gradient. Some examples of active transport are exocytosis and endocytosis.

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Facilitated diffusion occurs when a transmembrane protein facilitates the movement of a molecule along it's concentration gradient.

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The movement of particles along their concentration gradient from high to low. This is a passive process and requires no energy.

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The movement of water from high solvent concentration to low water concentration through  a semi permeable membrane. This is a passive process and requires no energy.

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Part of the phospholipid bilayer. The cholesterol molecule helps to balance the phospholipid bilayer and keep it from crystallising.

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Helps to stabilizes the phospholipid bilayer.

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Glycoproteins help to stabilize the phospholipid bilayer.

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Integral proteins are a part of the  phospholipid  bilayer.

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Transmembrane proteins help certain molecules get through the plasma membrane.

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Contains:
- Transmembrane Protein
- Integral Protein
- Glycoprotein
- Glycolipid
- Cholesterol molecule

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Fatty acid tails connect to a phosphate heads to make up a lipid.

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Phosphate heads make up lipids when two fatty acid tails connect  to a single phosphate head.

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Hydrophobic:
- Non polar
- Fatty molecules.

Lipids are made up of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.

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Disaccharides are Carbohydrates that are made up of two sugar molecules.

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When a hydrolysis reaction occurs, water is gained.

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Storage polysaccharide.

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Storage polysaccharide

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Structural polysaccharide.

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A carbohydrate whose molecules consist of a number of sugar molecules bonded together.

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Protein are made out of amino acids.
Amino Acids are made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Sulfur (CHONS)

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When a condensation reaction occurs, two monosaccharides form peptide bonds to create a disaccharide.
When a condensation  reaction occurs, water is released.

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Sucrose is a disaccharide made from glucose and fructose.

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- Glucose is an output of - photosynthesis.
- It creates glycolysis bonds  with Fructose when it undergoes a condensation reaction.

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Ribose is a monosaccharide.

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Fructose creates glycolysis bonds with Glucose when it under goes a condensation reaction. Sucrose is the disaccharide product of this reaction.

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A monosaccharide is a  carbohydrate which is made up of one sugar molecule.

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Cn(H2O)n

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Carbohydrates have a big role in energy storage / use / transformations. Combines with proteins and lipids to perform structural roles.
Made up of:
- Carbon
- Hydrogen
- Oxygen

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When multiple polypeptide chains are joined together.

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Final folded 3D shape of the polypeptide chain.

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Two different  types of folding.
- Alpha Heliixes
- Polypeptide Chains

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Polypeptide chain. Ready to be folded.

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DNA is transcribed into mRNA. The message goes to a ribosome. The ribosome reads the message. Then protein is made out of amino acids.

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Tails that allow the bacterial cell to swim.

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DNA is the 'recipe' for the cell. DNA is the carrier of genetic materia

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- DNA
- Ribosomes
- Flagella

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Packages the proteins and prepares them for transport outside the cell.

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The Rough ER folds proteins for travel through and outside cell.

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Synthesizes proteins for cell to use.

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- Cell Membrane
- Cytoplasm
- Nucleus
- Ribosomes
- Mitochondria
- Endoplasmic  Reticulum
- Golgi Apparatus

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Stores DNA and coordinates the cells activities.

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The mitochondria transforms glucose into ATP.

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Chloroplasts  use chlorophyll inside plant cells to make energy by means  of photosynthesis.

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Helps hold the cells organelles in place.

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protects the cell and regulates molecules entering and leaving the cell.

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Main protection barrier of plant cells

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Main protection barrier of plant cells.

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- Cell wall
- Membrane
- Cytoplasm

- Chloroplasts

- Mitochondria
- Nucleus
- Ribosomes
- Endoplasmic  Reticulum
- Golgi Apparatus

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- Bacterial cells
- Smaller than eukaryotic cells, but sophisticated cells.
- Lacking in nucleus.

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- Plant cells
- Animal cells
- Bigger cells compared to prokaryote cells.
- Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus.

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The building block of life.