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Kids learn about the history and timeline of the state of Maine including early explorers, Native Americans, English colony, American Revolution, and the Missouri Compromise.

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By the middle of the 17th century the Abenaki were living in a nightmarish landscape shaped by conflict, disease, and alcohol, and they turned to the missionaries for help and reassurance.

After the cessation of hostilities in Europe, the 1713 Treaty of Portsmouth quickly brought peace to the Maine frontier. By this time it was apparent that English population expansion would engulf southern Maine, and most Indians in the area withdrew to the St. Lawrence settlements.

The century before the American Revolution was marked by a series of destructive wars between Natives and Europeans that kept Maine - the frontier between New France, New England, and the Abenaki homelands - in constant turmoil.

The tensions were local - disputes over control of land and resources - and international. France, Spain and Great Britain engaged in numerous wars. Most were economic in nature with the European powers seeking to control both territory and resources to expand their economic power.

Religion also played a part in these struggles. The Europeans viewed control of North America as crucial to their economic and political success and fought for territory and colonies in the New World. Even the wars that were largely centered in Europe often spilled over into North America.

Tensions between the native population and Europeans began as early as the first European arrivals. In 1525 Estevan Gomez raided Nova Scotia and Maine and took some 58 surviving Indians back to Spain, and subsequent explorers, whalers, fishers, and traders continued this practice into the 18th century.

Early fishing settlements and trading posts further poisoned the relation between native and newcomer. Walter Bagnall was killed on Richmond Island in 1631, for instance, for repeatedly cheating his clients, and when John Winter arrived in 1632 he found the Indians so unfriendly he abandoned hope of trade.

Indians, on the other hand, suspected that English colonials brought on the terrible recurring epidemics, and they found it difficult, under their own political system, to rein in those who wished vengeance for trading abuses, land grabs, murders, and enslavements.

Fluctuations in the price of furs left the impression that all whites cheated them, and as the Wabanaki became more dependent on European guns, ammunition, and commodities, fur-trading - and its abuses - became an increasingly desperate matter. A heritage of mutual suspicion soured relations between Indians and whites in Maine.
Effects of European Rivalries
Rivalries between France and England in the New World further strained Indian-white relations. Most of the wars in colonial North America followed upon conflicts in Europe, and although Maine's Wabanaki did their best to remain aloof from these foreign quarrels, they were inevitably drawn into the maelstrom. Still, they entered these wars for their own reasons, maintaining a political independence that both French and English officials refused to respect.

French or English alliances with various tribes exacerbated ancient feuds and created new conflicts, and as the devastating plagues swept through the villages, these alliances were again disrupted; those who survived regrouped and exacted tribute from more debilitated or less powerful neighbors.

Was the outcome of these wars inevitable? European advantages included a technology based on metal and gunpowder and expertise with capitalist relations, while Indians clung to a culture disordered by plague and constant demographic movement. Indians, however, enjoyed an advantage in logistics and tactics.

Most of Maine's 6,000 English settlers were dispersed in "ribbon" settlements strung out along the coast or lower rivers, almost impossible to defend militarily. The English clung to what early historian William Hubbard called the "sea-border," considering the unfamiliar woods behind them "a great Chaos, the lair of wild beasts and wilder men."

This, of course, was familiar territory to the Abenaki, who could traverse the woods and waters, wait for an opportune moment, raid, and scatter. Indian tactics - sudden attack and withdrawal - prevailed against a people with little wilderness experience and a history of open-field combat.

However, these tactics were designed for short wars or raids to avenge particular wrongs or insults. Given their subsistence regimes and their limited capacity for storage, Indians simply did not have time to wage a protracted war, and when English militia began destroying their corn fields and blocking access to traditional hunting, fishing, and foraging grounds, Indians were powerless to resist.

English victories also depended on alliances with other Indians, particularly the Iroquois-Mohawk, while the Wabanaki's French allies were relatively weak south of the St. Lawrence. By the 1670s, New England contained about 50,000 inhabitants, and New France about 10,000, and there were fewer than a thousand French inhabitants in Acadia.

Most important were England's pathogenic allies - the plagues that swept through the Indian villages beginning in 1616, killing more than 75 percent of the inhabitants and leaving the rest weakened culturally, spiritually, economically, and militarily.

The Wabanaki made alliances with the French through the fur trade, and here the French had a decided advantage over the English. Fur trading relationships were based on mutual respect nurtured carefully over years. In their 1604-1605 voyage to the Gulf of Maine, Sieur de Monts and Samuel Champlain mastered the tricky diplomatic exchanges that involved ritual gift exchanges, speeches, banquets, dances, and songs, and tribal alliances, and by the early 1600s French adventurers had the upper hand in relationships with Wabanaki north and east of the Kennebec.

Since no New England river offered the trading advantages of the St. Lawrence, and since southern New England Indians grew crops more than they hunted, English colonists were less interested in the fur trade. For the French, Indians were the essence of empire; for the English they were obstacles to an agricultural empire fashioned after the English countryside.

French missionaries also were more successful than their English counterparts. They lived in the Indians' villages, knew their spiritual needs, and benefited from the cultural disruptions brought on by war and plague.

By the middle of the 17th century the Abenaki were living in a nightmarish landscape shaped by conflict, disease, and alcohol, and they turned to the missionaries for help and reassurance. Catholicism was something of a compromise with traditional religion, just as European trade was a compromise with native material culture. English missionaries were less interested in compromise and generally lacked the ability to use religion to cement military alliances.

Despite the inadequacies of English diplomacy, Indians became increasingly dependent on their trade goods. The epidemics disrupted oral communication and accelerated the loss of traditional hunting, fishing, and gathering skills.

As Indians narrowed their economic focus, their involvement in the fur-trade took on a desperate tone. Tensions increased in the mid-1640s when truck houses began selling hard liquor. As beaver populations declined, Abenaki interjected themselves as intermediaries in the trade with tribes further west, resulting in a series of violent clashes known as the "Beaver Wars."

These conflicts, involving tribes from Cape Breton Island to the Chesapeake and as far west as the Great Lakes, eventually yielded new alliances that turned the Abenaki against the English.

By 1670 Indian frustration with trade abuses, land encroachments, rum dealing, and free-roaming English livestock in their cornfields was mounting. Sensing these tensions, in fall 1674 English officials banned trade of shot and powder to Indians. The Abenaki suffered severe food shortages during the following winter, and some fled to Canada seeking French aid.

In summer 1675 war broke out in southern New England between Pilgrims and Wampanoags led by King Philip, or Metacomet, and the war strained relations all through New England. Relations between French "Papists" and Indian "heathens" fueled English fears that all Indians were conspirators of King Philip, and with war raging to the south, the General Court sent commissioners to Maine trading posts to enforce the ban on arms. English scalp hunters, given a bounty to hunt Indians south of the Piscataqua, no doubt crossed the river into Maine as well.

Madockawando, the chief sagamore on the Maine coast, withdrew to the Penobscot, where French traders at Pentagoet and Port Royal provided muskets and shot.

In July magistrates met with local Indians to encourage neutrality, but later that summer British sailors accosted the wife and child of Squando, a sagamore among the Saco River Abenaki, and overset their canoe to test the theory that Indian babies could swim from birth. The baby died, and as native law required, Squando sought revenge on white settlers.

In September a party of 20 Indians robbed a trading house belonging to Thomas Purchase at Brunswick. Purchase's neighbors pursued the raiders up the New Meadows River, surprising and killing one, and the resulting skirmish was the first battle of King Philips War in Maine.

In Falmouth members of the Wakely family were tomahawked and two children carried away as captives, and throughout the fall Indian bands continued raiding English settlements from Saco to Casco Bay. With no knowledge of the interior, militia and settlers alike were forced to "huddle together, in danger of being shot down," until winter snows and lack of ammunition restricted Indian military movement.

At a conference in Pemaquid in 1676 English officials gained an uneasy armistice that lasted until several Indians were kidnapped nearby and carried off as slaves. Indians insisted on powder and shot, and English negotiators refused, demanding that the Abenaki admit blame for the war and join in attacking other hostile tribes.

That summer Abenaki and their allies, including Micmacs and remnants from King Philips' troops, attacked settlements eastward to Cushnoc on the Kennebec, moving from cabin to cabin in swift raid-and-retreat maneuvers. In August the well-established trading post at Arrowsic fell in hand-to-hand combat, and the fort, mills, mansion house, and outbuildings were burned.

Later that fall the Pemaquid settlement was destroyed as Indians cut off access to the neck of land separating men in the fields and fishing boats from women and children in the village. With no alternative but to return to their homes, the men regained the fortress, but many were killed or taken prisoner.

Settlers fled to the nearby islands and watched as the "whole circle of the horizon landward was darkened and illuminated by the columns of smoke and fire rising from the burning houses of the neighboring Main." After a month, they sailed south. In the course of five weeks, 60 miles of coast east of Casco Bay had been wiped clean of English settlements.

Hardships were equally severe on the Abenaki side. Families fled their villages, leaving fields unharvested. Denied access to their guns, ammunition and fishing grounds, many starved.

Despite overtures for peace on both sides, seafaring slavers continued to murder and kidnap along the coast, and in September 1676 Major Richard Waldron invited 400 Indians to a conference at Dover, New Hampshire, and used the occasion to enslave around 200.

In February Waldron led an expedition eastward to ransom English captives and capture Madockawando. Although he failed on both accounts, he managed to kill eight peace-seeking Indians at Pemaquid.

In 1678 the provincial government of New York, which controlled Maine between 1677 and 1686, signed the Treaty of Casco. According to its terms, the Abenaki recognized English property rights but retained sovereignty over Maine, symbolized by an annual land use tax for every English family. The treaty also stipulated closer government regulation of the fur trade.

In 1686 Sir Edmund Andros, appointed governor of the Dominion of New England, took charge of Indian relations. Although widely resented as a representative of the Catholic King Charles, Andros acted decisively to regulate the fur trade in a manner that would ensure fair prices and protect native clients from abuses. Pemaquid was designated the sole trading post between the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers, and ammunition was traded only in amounts deemed necessary for hunting.

Despite fresh memories of a horrible conflict, settlers refused to abide by the terms of the Treaty of Casco. Traders continued unfair practices, settlers placed nets across the Saco River, preventing fish from migrating upriver to the Wabanaki villages, and livestock ruined Indian corn. Negotiations and further treaty attempts were not successful and confrontations continued.

During King William's War (1689-1699), Comte de Frontenac, the aggressive governor general of New France, launched a campaign to conquer all of North America. A large force of French and Indians drove the English from the settlements east of Falmouth. Baron de St. Castin, who lived with his family in a village of 160 Etchemin Indians on the Bagadauce River near present-day Castine, became a target for militia raids, and he helped launch a series of attacks on Maine settlements in the summer of 1689.

The major event of the war came in September 1689 when 200 Norridgewock, Penobscot, and Canada Indians converged on Peaks Island In Casco Bay and, on September 20, attacked the Back Cove settlements. Major Benjamin Church arrived by sloop at sunrise at Fort Loyal, and after a "fierce fight" drove the Indians from the area.

Exhausted by war and discouraged by French ambivalence, in 1693 the Abenaki sued for peace, but the English refused to negotiate on realistic terms. This brought another round of attacks on English settlements in 1694.

The English at Fort William Henry, built under the authority of Governor Sir William Phips in 1692 at a huge cost, fell to a force of Canadian-based Abenaki in August 1696, and the English once again abandoned the lower Kennebec. Massachusetts counterattacks against Port Royal and Quebec were largely ineffectual, as were several raids up the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers.

France and England concluded a peace in 1697, and in 1699 the Wabanaki agreed to a treaty. In 1698 Father Sebastien Rasle (also spelled Rale or Rasles) built a mission at the Indian village in Norridgewock on the upper Kennebec River, and this became a center for French-Indian interaction. With the coast east of Wells nearly devoid of English settlers, Rasle's mission became the southern boundary of New France.

In the quarter century after King William's War, Falmouth, once the center of a vigorous trade in fish, masts, spars, timber, and sawed lumber, slowly revived. Sawmills, gristmills, and boatworks again dotted the rivers and inlets between the Piscataqua and Kennebec, and farms sent hay, dairy products, cattle, sheep, swine, cordwood, and fish to Massachusetts ports for the local and coastwise trade.

Returning settlers took up a quasi-military life. Garrison houses, usually under a militia command, provided nuclei for small settlements either just outside or within a stockade. During daylight, men and women worked in their fields under protection of scouts and guards. For most of the period, English Maine lived in a state of virtual siege. Only the larger seaports - Boston, Salem, Portsmouth, Kittery - enjoyed sufficient security to benefit from the military expenditures from Great Britain.

By 1701 France and England were engaged in what came to be known as Queen Anne's War. When France proved less willing to supply arms, the Penobscots ratified a series of neutrality agreements with Massachusetts. But in August 1703 an expedition of about 500 French and Micmac Indians from the St. Lawrence devastated the coastal towns and forts from Wells to Falmouth, and Massachusetts declared war on all Maine Indians. Militia raids in the upper Saco kept villagers from their fields and from critical foraging areas.

After the cessation of hostilities in Europe, the 1713 Treaty of Portsmouth quickly brought peace to the Maine frontier. By this time it was apparent that English population expansion would engulf southern Maine, and most Indians in the area withdrew to the St. Lawrence settlements under the command of Governor Vaudreuil.

Indian military successes were significant, and the upper Kennebec remained a contested territory. With English settlers pushing upriver, the Massachusetts militia rebuilt the fort at Brunswick, giving the English power to prevent Indians from reaching the coast for foraging and fishing activities. Indian security in central Maine was becoming more tenuous.

Despite the peace treaty, wars involving Indians and Europeans and between Europeans were not over. Dummer's War in 1721-1727 began as a series of skirmishes in Maine and Vermont in territory claimed by both French and English.

By this time the Muscongus Company had pushed the English frontier eastward to the St. Georges in Thomaston. Responding to Indian raids in March 1723, acting Governor William Dummer sent militia under Colonel Thomas Westbrook into the Kennebec region to burn Indian villages and fields, and in August 1724 a combined force of English militia and Massachusetts and Mohawk Indians destroyed the village at Norridgewock, killing as many as 100 Indians and Father Rasle.

Another desperate encounter took place in April 1725 on the upper Saco valley when a party of bounty hunters under John Lovewell encountered an Indian troop near the Pigwacket village. Lovewell and 11 other English were killed, along with an equal number of Indians.

During this war the French offered only limited aid, leaving Massachusetts free to focus its attention on the Wabanaki. With the destruction of Norridgewock, the Penobscots emerged as leaders of a new intertribal alliance, and after consulting with Vaudreuil, leaders ratified a treaty with Massachusetts in summer 1727.

Seventeen years of peace followed Dummer's War and during that time, English resettled to the St. Georges River. Hostilities resumed in 1744 during King George's War after a group of English scalp hunters killed or wounded several Penobscot Indians. In 1745 Canadian Indians attacked Pemaquid and Fort St. Georges, and despite minimal Penobscot and Kennebec participation, Massachusetts again declared war on the Wabanaki in August 1745.

In this war, colonial forces, including those from Maine, prevailed against the French stronghold at Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island, but in Maine military action was limited to occasional skirmishes. The war ended with the Treaty of Falmouth in October 1749.

The sixth and final Anglo-Abenaki war, known as the Seven Years, or French and Indian war (1754-1760), was largely fought in the Ohio Valley. In Maine, Governor William Shirley used rumors of French maneuvers on the Kennebec to construct Fort Halifax above Norridgewock at Winslow. Many Penobscots withdrew from the St. Georges area when both Massachusetts and the French demanded that the Indians take up arms against the other.

In 1759, English forces defeated the French at Quebec, ending the long struggle for control of North America. During the next few years Indian family bands re-occupied tribal grounds on the upper Penobscot, Kennebec, and Saco rivers.

Governor Bernard banned white hunters and trappers from the upper Penobscot and sent surveyor Joseph Chadwick to mark the limits of English settlement at the falls above the Kenduskeag, but theft, murder, poaching, land encroachment, and an explosion of white settlement up the river valleys made a return to the old ways all but impossible.

Between the late 17th century and the early 19th century, Great Britain, France, and others in Europe engaged in nearly constant warfare. The battles for economic and political power spilled into North America, catching the native populations in the middle. By the time a lasting peace came between France and Britain, European descendants had permanent settlements in North America and the native populations were relegated to the fringes.

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By the middle of the 17th century the Abenaki were living in a nightmarish landscape shaped by conflict, disease, and alcohol, and they turned to the missionaries for help and reassurance. After the cessation of hostilities in Europe, the 1713 Treaty of Portsmouth quickly brought peace to the Maine frontier.

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Between 1675 and 1763 there was a nearly continuous series of wars in Maine between the British and the French/ Native Americans. Both groups wanted Maine's land and resources. The wars were related to conflicts in Europe at the same time.

More wars resulted over the next 50 years: Dummer's War Dummer's War Governor Dummer's War

1722-1725. One of a series of colonial wars in which English colonists fought with French and Native Americans. This one was in Northern New England, Vermont, New Hampshire and Maine and was mostly a series of skirmishes. It was the peak of Indian warfare in Maine, with colonists taking the major Abenaki settlement at Norridgewock, burning Old Town, and fighting at Fryeburg. (1722-1727), (1744-1751), and the (1754-1763). Maine's Old Fort Western was built in 1754.

These years were devastating to settlers and Indians alike. From 1689 to 1713, not a single English home stood in Maine north of Wells.

English treatment of the Indians aggravated the situation. They forced tribal leaders to sign land deeds that were misunderstood. The French encouraged the Indians to attack English settlers. English retaliation against the Natives included bounties on scalps.

The English captured French Quebec in 1759, and the subsequent signing of the ended the French and Indian Wars. It also ended the French presence on the Maine coast, resulting in slow, but increased settlement of and downeast Down East downeast; down-east

Easternmost part of Maine, or Maine in general, is often referred to as Down East. It is so called because it lies down wind and to the East from Boston. Maine after 1760. All of Canada was given to England. The British issued a proclamation promising Indian tribes the right to keep all the lands they held at the end of the war. Bad feelings between the English and the Indians still existed, however, because the English continued to encroach on Indian lands for farming and hunting.

Throughout these wars, Europeans on the coast of Maine created sparse but determined settlements of fishermen, traders, and lumbermen who paid little attention to official developments and proclamations of the English and French nobility. These small settlements of Scotch-Irish Borderlanders Scotch-Irish

Scottish families living in Northern Ireland. Also called Scotch-Irish. Many Maine settlers were from this group of people, who were known for their toughness and ability to live on the frontier. fishermen and farmers were the origins of Maritime Maine.

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Between 1675 and 1763 there was a nearly continuous series of wars in Maine between the British and the French/ Native Americans. Both groups wanted Maine's land and resources. The wars were related to conflicts in Europe at the same time. More wars resulted over the next 50 years: Dummer's War Dummer's War Governor Dummer's War 1722-1725.

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Migrants, family of Mexicans, on road with tire trouble

The Great Depression of the 1930s hit Mexican immigrants especially hard. Along with the job crisis and food shortages that affected all U.S. workers, Mexicans and Mexican Americans had to face an additional threat: deportation. As unemployment swept the U.S., hostility to immigrant workers grew, and the government began a program of repatriating immigrants to Mexico. Immigrants were offered free train rides to Mexico, and some went voluntarily, but many were either tricked or coerced into repatriation, and some U.S. citizens were deported simply on suspicion of being Mexican. All in all, hundreds of thousands of Mexican immigrants, especially farmworkers, were sent out of the country during the 1930s--many of them the same workers who had been eagerly recruited a decade before.

The farmworkers who remained struggled to survive in desperate conditions. Bank foreclosures drove small farmers from their land, and large landholders cut back on their permanent workforce. As with many Southwestern farm families, a great number of Mexican American farmers discovered they had to take on a migratory existence and traveled the highways in search of work.

El Rio - Mexican FSA Camp - 1940

Many found temporary stability in the migrant work camps established by the U.S. Farm Security Administration, or FSA. The FSA camps provided housing, food, and medicine for migrant farm families, as well as protection from criminal elements that often took advantage of vulnerable migrants. The FSA set up several camps specifically for Mexican Americans in an attempt to create safe havens from violent attacks.

The camps also provided an unexpected benefit. In bringing together so many individual farm families, they increased ties within the community. Many residents began organizing their fellow workers around labor issues, and helped pave the way for the farm labor movements that emerged later in the century. This interview with a leader of the FSA camp in El Rio, California describes some of the day-to-day issues that the camp residents dealt with.

Two Mexican workers

Although farming was an important source of employment for Mexican immigrants, by the end of the 1930s Mexican Americans were established throughout the American workforce. Mexican immigrants and their descendants could be found in most of the industries of the Southwest, including ranching and mining. America's growing rail network was particularly important for Mexican immigrants. The railroad industry had long turned to immigrants from Mexico as a source of low-cost labor. In return, Mexican workers found that the railways offered not only employment, but also mobility. They often used this relatively inexpensive form of travel to move their families further into the North and East of the U.S., and into a more urban way of life.

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Depression and the Struggle for Survival | Mexican | Immigration and Relocation in U.S. History | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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Migrants, family of Mexicans, on road with tire trouble The Great Depression of the 1930s hit Mexican immigrants especially hard. Along with the job crisis and food shortages that affected all U.S. workers, Mexicans and Mexican Americans had to face an additional threat: deportation.

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The History of the 'L'

The Chicago 'L' has been winding its way through the city's alleys and rumbling past windows for well more than a century. For many Chicagoans, it's part of everyday life. But it wasn't always the system people know today - or even known by the same name.

The first L lines were privately owned and operated as separate companies. In 1892, according to CTA historian and expert Graham Garfield, who tracks the extensive history of the 'L' in great detail on Chicago-L.org, the Chicago and South Side Rapid Transit Railroad began operating the first elevated train. A steam locomotive pulled wooden coaches between terminals at Congress Street and what is now Pershing Road. The tracks plotted a 3.6-mile line adjacent to alleys, so it was dubbed the "Alley 'L.'" The Green Line still uses those tracks today. Service was extended to 63rd Street in Jackson Park to serve the World's Colombian Exposition.

Another steam-powered elevated railroad known as the Lake Street Line began operating between what is now Laramie Avenue on the West Side and the edge of downtown in 1893. This is today's Green Line to Oak Park.

The Metropolitan West Side Elevated was the third 'L' company to open, but the first to use electric technology. Its main line began operating in 1895, starting at Franklin Street and branching in three separate directions toward Garfield Park, Douglas Park, and Logan Square.

Portions of these tracks are today's Blue and Pink Lines.

Before 1897, All the 'L' lines terminated just short of downtown. Enter Charles Tyson Yerkes, a mass-transit mogul who would later play a role in developing London's underground. Yerkes already owned some of the city's streetcar system. He worked to get permission, sometimes with deception and bribery, from landowners downtown to construct the Union Loop, which eventually became the downtown Loop commuters know today. Once Chicagoans had direct access to the shopping and businesses of downtown, ridership increased.

Watch: 1920s-Era 'L' Train

The Yerkes-owned Northwestern 'L' added yet another line for Chicagoans in 1900, this time north from the Loop to Wilson Avenue. It was extended multiple times in the decade that followed, including a branch that ended at Kimball and Lawrence avenues (today's Brown Line), and an extension of the original branch to Howard Street (present-day Red Line) and eventually Linden Avenue in Wilmette (today known as the Purple Line).

In 1919, passengers could do something that 'L' riders can't do today: take a train from the Loop all the way to Milwaukee. Samuel Insull's "North Shore Line" shared tracks with the 'L' up to Linden in Wilmette and continue on from there as its own line. A high-speed Skokie Valley branch of the North Shore Line later split off from the 'L' line at Howard Street. Today this is the Yellow Line and it ends at Dempster Street in Skokie. (The North Shore line went out of business in 1963.) In 1924, the various lines, which were owned by separate groups, were consolidated into one entity: the Chicago Rapid Transit Company.

As the bustling system continued to grow throughout the first half of the twentieth century, the city's first subway station was built in 1943 under State Street with a 3,300-foot platform. Later, this platform was split into two stops: Lake and Washington.

But as the automobile became more popular and people left the city for the suburbs, ridership declined. In 1947, due to the struggling finances of the separate 'L,' bus, and streetcar systems, the city and state governments consolidated them into the Chicago Transit Authority commuters know today. The last streetcar ran in 1958. Also in 1958, the Congress Line (what would later be the Forest Park branch of the Blue Line) began operating in the median of the Congress Expressway. According to Chicago-L.org, this was the first 'L' line to run down the center of an expressway.

In 1964, the Skokie Swift took off. The federal government helped to fund the re-opening of a previously defunct Skokie Valley branch of the North Shore line that ran from Howard Street to Skokie and on to Milwaukee. The project was supposed to be a two-year experiment to demonstrate that transit could work in a suburban area, including a "Park-N-Ride" that accommodated growing car usage.

And as cars flew down the Dan Ryan, so did a new train line. The new Dan Ryan branch was extended to 95th Street in 1969 and provided much-needed 'L' access for residents of the far South Side; this branch would ultimately become part of the Red Line. In 1984, rail service was extended to O'Hare in the median of the Kennedy Expressway so Chicago residents and visitors alike could travel all the way to the city's largest and busiest airport. Called the Milwaukee Line at the time, the Blue Line used to end at Logan Square, but it was extended to Jefferson Park in the 1970s before going to O'Hare.

In 1993, CTA rail routes got the colorful new names we know today: the Ravenswood Line became the Brown Line, the North Side Main Line, State Street Subway, and Dan Ryan branch all became the Red Line, and so on. In the same year, the CTA began operating the Orange Line to Midway Airport. The Pink Line, the CTA's newest line, opened in June 2006, serving 54th Avenue and Cermak Road.

Sources
The Chicago Transit Authority Chicago-L.org The Chicago Architecture Center Encyclopedia Britannica

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The History of the 'L' | Sidetracks | Chicago by 'L'

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The Chicago 'L' has been winding its way through the city's alleys and rumbling past windows for well more than a century. For many Chicagoans, it's part of everyday life. But it wasn't always the system people know today - or even known by the same name.

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Lorraine Hansberry's A Raisin in the Sun chronicles the efforts of an African American family to move out of the ghetto to a better neighborhood. It draws upon a complicated and difficult part of Chicago's history. The play is set sometime between 1945 and 1959, and illustrates many of the conflicts that surrounded the questions of race and housing during this period in Chicago. Although less well known than The Great Migration of 1910-1930, when large numbers of African Americans first moved to Chicago from the South, the period of 1940-1960 actually saw more African Americans arrive in the city, owing to such factors as the availability of industrial jobs during World War II and the collapse of the Southern share-cropping system.

The housing market in Chicago was tight even before the end of World War II when veterans returned in need of housing. African Americans were primarily limited to an area of Chicago known as the "Black Belt," which was located between 12th and 79th streets and Wentworth and Cottage Grove avenues. Approximately 60,000 blacks had moved from the South to Chicago during 1940-44 in search of jobs. In an effort to keep the newly arriving African Americans out of their neighborhoods, whites within a residential block formed "restrictive covenants," legally binding contracts that specified a house's owner could not rent or sell to black people. Such covenants, by restricting African Americans to the Black Belt, increased overcrowding within this area during the war. When overcrowding continued into the post-war years as more blacks moved north to Chicago, many families would often live in one apartment.

Such overcrowding, while difficult in itself, also contributed to generally poor housing conditions for black families. Because there were so many people living in this one area, demand far exceeded supply, and landlords would divide apartments into tiny units called "kitchenettes" and charge exorbitant rents. These apartments often had no bathrooms, with all the occupants of a floor having to share a single hall unit. Buildings sometimes lacked such basic amenities as proper heating. Residents used kerosene lamps instead, and their improvised stoves often overheated and caused fires. The partitions used to divide the apartments were flammable as well, adding to the hazardous conditions. Approximately 751 fires occurred in one year in the Black Belt, many of them fatal. Despite building codes, landlords were rarely penalized for owning slum housing and the few landlords who were fined found it was far more profitable to pay the usually small fine than to maintain their buildings. These conditions of ramshackle and dangerous housing, neglect and indifference from city officials and poor sanitation resulted in infestation by rats. This is illustrated in A Raisin in the Sun when Travis Younger and his friends kill a rat as "big as a cat." Rats reportedly attacked sleeping children, sometimes maiming and even killing them. Tuberculosis and other diseases spread; the infant mortality and overall death rates were higher in the Black Belt than in the rest of Chicago.

After the war there was an outward migration from the Black Belt into surrounding neighborhoods. In 1948, the Supreme Court declared restrictive covenants unconstitutional. A predominantly white housing boom on the fringes of the city and in the suburbs meant more available housing in the city. An increasing number of African Americans were moving into the middle class and were finally able to get out of the slums-some were able to move to better neighborhoods and enjoy a far better quality of life. In other cases, however, the migration of African Americans only amounted to an expansion of the slums they were trying to escape. Unscrupulous real estate speculators played a large role when African Americans sought to move into better, primarily white neighborhoods. In order to increase their profit margin, speculators would play on the white people's fears of black neighbors. Working-class whites were especially vulnerable to such practices. Their homes often were their only asset and owners feared declining property values. Practices known as "block busting," in which speculators tried to convince working-class whites that their neighborhoods were going to deteriorate owing to an influx of African Americans, took advantage of such fears. Thus, when the speculators offered cash for a house, the white owners often accepted less than the house's actual value on the assumption that their houses would be worth even less later.

Taking advantage of patently racist practices by banks such as "red-lining," speculators were able to make a handsome profit off of the incoming African Americans, sometimes doubling their money. Banks would draw a red line around an "undesirable" neighborhood and deny mortgages to the new African American residents. As a result, although African Americans fought housing discrimination by protesting and filing lawsuits, the first African American families seeking to move into these areas would have no choice but to work with the speculators on extremely disadvantageous terms. They could acquire houses for a low down payment, but the speculators would demand an astronomically high monthly payment. Since the black families would also have to sign an installment contract that left the title to the house in the speculator's possession, a family could be evicted for the smallest violation of the housing agreement. Desperate to make the high payments, African American families resorted to the practice of taking in large numbers of boarders. This recreated the condition of too many occupants in too little space. Burdened with the monthly payment to the speculators, they would not have the money to keep up the property they had sought so desperately and the neighborhood would deteriorate. Additionally, black neighborhoods did not receive the same quality of city services; and so the area that had originally looked like the promised land to African Americans became another slum.

Integration of neighborhoods was an extremely charged affair. Riots by white mobs were not uncommon. Most Chicagoans, however, had no idea of the situation's volatility. For much of the 1940s the major newspapers, at the request of the Chicago Commission on Human Relations, would simply not report the occurrence of these riots. The white families who lived along the border of the "Black Belt," and could not afford to move formed neighborhood associations to let blacks know that they were not welcome. In A Raisin in the Sun, Karl Lindner, of the Clybourne Park Improvement Association, visits the Younger family and states, "Negro families are happier when they live in their own communities." Mr. Lindner offers to buy the property back from the Younger family for more than they paid. More often, efforts to keep African Americans out were not so gentle.

Sometimes, the first African American family to move into a white area would require police escorts in order to move around the neighborhood. They suffered constant verbal abuse and the threat of physical violence. Their property was damaged by hurled bricks and explosives were thrown through their windows. African Americans endured danger and ostracism in the neighborhoods where they were simply seeking a decent place to live.

Sources

Grossman, James R. Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners and the Great Migration. University of Chicago Press, 1991.

Hirsch, Arnold R. Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960. Cambridge University Press, 1983.

Strickland, Arvarh E. History of the Chicago Urban League. University of Missouri Press, 2001.

Travis, Dempsey J. An Autobiography of Black Chicago. Urban Research Press, 1981.

Winger, Stewart. "Unwelcome Neighbors." Chicago History, v. 21, n. 1 and 2, 1992.

Content last updated: April 30, 2003

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Lorraine Hansberry's A Raisin in the Sun chronicles the efforts of an African American family to move out of the ghetto to a better neighborhood. It draws upon a complicated and difficult part of Chicago's history. The play is set sometime between 1945 and 1959, and illustrates many of the conflicts that surrounded the questions of race and housing during this period in Chicago.

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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On page 53, Chich says "It's our Umpqa stories and traditions that keep you Indian." This made me curious to learn more about the Umpqua Nation. In present day, the Umpqua Nation becomes part of The Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde.

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Black written, owned, and produced Newspaper in Harlem

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Black written, owned, and produced Newspaper in Harlem

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Location & Contact

Tribal Headquarter Address
9615 Grand Ronde Road
Grand Ronde, OR 97347

Fax *: 503-879-2025
*Please do not fax medical information to this number, use the Health and Wellness fax 503-879-2071

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Chachalu Museum and Cultural Center | Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde

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Location & Contact Tribal Headquarter Address 9615 Grand Ronde RoadGrand Ronde, OR 97347 Fax *: 503-879-2025 *Please do not fax medical information to this number, use the Health and Wellness fax 503-879-2071

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Curzon is a Black character during the American Revolution. Being a formerly enslaved person fighting for freedom, when freedom is not guaranteed for that person, is a complicated idea. Why would Black people fight in the American Revolution (either for the British or for the Colonies?)

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Firsthand account of what his life was like as an enslaved man.

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to the audio recording of this interview.

Interviewer: Herman Norwood

HN: Yeah, when you were a slave. Who did you work for?

Well, I belonged to, uh, B., when I was a slave. My mother belonged to B. But my, uh, but, uh, we, uh, was all slave children. And after, soon after when we found out that we was free, why then we was, uh, bound out to different people. [names of people] and an all such people as that. And we would run away, and wouldn't stay with them. Why then we'd just go and stay anywheres we could. Lay out a night in underwear. We had no home, you know. We was just turned out like a lot of cattle. You know how they turn cattle out in a pasture? Well after freedom, you know, colored people didn't have nothing. Colored people didn't have no beds when they was slaves. We always slept on the floor, pallet here, and a pallet there. Just like, uh, lot of, uh, wild people, we didn't, we didn't know nothing. Didn't allow you to look at no book. And then there was some free born colored people, why they had a little education, but there was very few of them, where we was. And they all had uh, what you call, I might call it now, uh, jail centers, was just the same as we was in jail. Now I couldn't go from here across the street, or I couldn't go through nobody's house without I have a note, or something from my master. And if I had that pass, that was what we call a pass, if I had that pass, I could go wherever he sent me. And I'd have to be back, you know, when uh. Whoever he sent me to, they, they'd give me another pass and I'd bring that back so as to show how long I'd been gone. We couldn't go out and stay a hour or two hours or something like. They send you. Now, say for instance I'd go out here to S.'s place. I'd have to walk. And I would have to be back maybe in a hour. Maybe they'd give me hour. I don't know just how long they'd give me. But they'd give me a note so there wouldn't nobody interfere with me, and tell who I belong to. And when I come back, why I carry it to my master and give that to him, that'd be all right. But I couldn't just walk away like the people does now, you know. It was what they call, we were slaves. We belonged to people. They'd sell us like they sell horses and cows and hogs and all like that. Have a auction bench, and they'd put you on, up on the bench and bid on you just same as you bidding on cattle you know.

In the 1930s, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) sponsored a federal project dedicated to chronicling the experience of slavery as remembered by former slaves and their descendants. Their stories were recorded and transcribed, and this site presents dozens of select sound recordings and hundreds of transcriptions from the interviews. Beyond the content of the interviews, little to no biographical information is available on the individuals whose interviews appear here.

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Slavery and the Making of America . The Slave Experience: Living | PBS

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to the audio recording of this interview. Interviewer: Herman Norwood HN: Yeah, when you were a slave. Who did you work for? Well, I belonged to, uh, B., when I was a slave. My mother belonged to B. But my, uh, but, uh, we, uh, was all slave children.

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Termination of Nations in Oregon (like the Umpqua)

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Termination of Nations in Oregon (like the Umpqua)

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https://www.loc.gov/resource/wpalh2.21011811/?sp=2

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On page 12, Esperanza explains "They both knew that even though it was 1930 and the revolution in Mexico had been over for ten years, there was still resentment against the large landowners."
What is this revolution they are talking about? Why would bandits want to kill Papa?

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Langston Hughes (1902-1967), known for his lyric poetry, often wrote insightful commentaries about African-American culture and race relations in the United States. In his poem, Hughes stresses the fact that Booker T. Washington wanted to train the head, the heart, and the hand. He focuses on Washington's practicality and explains the educator's strategy with the statement.

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Newspaper discussing the death of Custer in the Battle of Little Bighorn

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Newspaper discussing the death of Custer in the Battle of Little Bighorn

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Black Soliders in the American Revolution

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Black Soliders in the American Revolution

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Learn about African Americans during the Civil War including soldiers and regiments. Famous patriots such as Crispus Attucks, James Armistead, William Lee, and Peter Salem.

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The U.S. Constitution, Fourteenth Amendment Ratified 1868

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The U.S. Constitution, Fourteenth Amendment Ratified 1868

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The U.S. Constitution, Fourteenth Amendment
Ratified 1868
Courtesy of National Archives, Washington, DC. www.ourdocuments.gov
return to main documents page

The fourteenth amendment to the Constitution was enacted under Reconstruction. The amendment granted blacks citizenship and the civil rights that citizenship implied.

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a state, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such state.

Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any state, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any state, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.

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Slavery and the Making of America . The Slave Experience: Legal Rights & Gov't | PBS

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The U.S. Constitution, Fourteenth Amendment Ratified 1868 Courtesy of National Archives, Washington, DC. www.ourdocuments.gov return to main documents page The fourteenth amendment to the Constitution was enacted under Reconstruction. The amendment granted blacks citizenship and the civil rights that citizenship implied. Section 1.

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An Elder from The Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde

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An Elder from The Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde

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The Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde is the Nation that Regina's people (the Umpqua Nation) createdafter the Termination became illegal.

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The Mexican Revolution, which began on November 20, 1910, and continued for a decade, is recognized as the first major political, social, and cultural revolution of the 20th century. In order to better understand this decade-long civil war, we offer an overview of the main players on the competing sides, primary source materials for point of view analysis, discussion of how the arts reflected the era, and links to Chronicling America, a free digital database of historic newspapers, that covers this period in great detail.

Background

Prior to the arrival of European conquistadors, the region now known as Mexico was home to one of the world's most advanced Empires: the Aztecs. After a brutal period of colonialism and eventual conquest in 1521, the most powerful citizens were European, Spanish-born citizens or the peninsulares living in the New World. Three centuries later, in 1821, the war for Independence (starting in 1810) ended, freeing Mexico from New Spain. This was a war that, however, benefited mainly the criollo (Spanish-blooded upper class) minority. A century later, in 1910, the majority of the population of Mexico were , half-indigenous and half-Spanish-blooded Mexicans, and these indigenous peoples again rose up in a violent armed struggle, the Mexican Revolution.

The motives for waging the Mexican Revolution grew out of the belief that a few wealthy landowners could no longer continue the old ways of Spanish colonial rule; a feudal-like system called la encomienda. That system needed to be replaced by a modern one in which those who actually worked the land should extract its wealth through their labor.

Two great figures, Francisco "Pancho" Villa from the north of Mexico and Emiliano Zapata from the south, led the revolution and remain key cultural and historical symbols in this fight for social reform. The (supporter of land reform) ideals of Zapata and his followers, the Zapatistas, are summarized in their mottos: "Tierra y Libertad" ("Land and Freedom") and "La tierra es para el que la trabaja" ("The land is for those who work it"). These slogans have not ceased to resonate in Mexican society.

The Mexican Revolution started in 1910, when liberals and intellectuals began to challenge the regime of dictator Porfirio Díaz, who had been in power since 1877, a term of 34 years called El Porfiriato, violating the principles and ideals of the Mexican Constitution of 1857.

In late 1910, Francisco I. Madero, in exile for his political activism, drafted the Plan de San Luis Potosí (Plan of San Luis Potosí), which was widely distributed and embraced by rebel movements across the nation. In this plan, Madero called for an uprising starting on November 20, 1910, to restore the Constitution of 1857 and replace dictator Díaz with a provisional government. Its main purpose was to establish a democratic republic and to abolish unlimited presidential terms. By early 1911, a large armed struggle was underway in the northern state of Chihuahua led by local merchant Pascual Orozco and Francisco "Pancho" Villa. The success of the northern troops, or La División del Norte, sparked uprisings against terratenientes across the country. (For this and other key terms see glossary).

In the southern state of Morelos, as early as 1909, Emiliano Zapata had started recruiting thousands of peasants to fight for land reform in support of El Plan de Ayala, approved by Zapata's supporters in 1911. Under this plan land reform to help campesinos (landless peasants) by re-distributing the land back to the peasants and away from powerful landowners was paramount.

On May 25, 1911, Mexican President Porfirio Díaz resigned and left the country. Former exile, Francisco I. Madero, author of the Plan of San Luis Potosí (mentioned above) became president after the elections in 1911. He was assassinated in early 1913 by a commander of the federal forces, Victoriano Huerta, who joined the counterrevolutionaries led by Porfirio Díaz's nephew in order to seize power. Huerta dissolved the congress after the assassination of Madero and assumed power, but faced heavy opposition. In 1914, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson sent American Marines to Vera Cruz, Mexico, to support the revolutionaries. Students can examine this intervention via the EDSITEment lesson " To Elect Good Men": Woodrow Wilson and Latin America." Loosing key battles to revolutionary troops, Huerta resigned in the same year and left the country.

After the end of the Huerta's presidency, Venustiano Carranza, a wealthy landowner and chief of the Northern Coalition, gathered revolutionary and military leaders to a conference to determine the future of Mexico. Villa, Zapata, and their followers supported the Plan de Ayala for land reform (see above), in opposition to Carranza and his supporters, all of whom supported the Plan de San Luis Potosí.

Eventually, Carranza (now supported by the United States) and his followers, called for a constitutional convention to draft a supreme law of Mexico, which was later presented to congress. The final version was approved in 1917, enshrining agrarian reform and unprecedented economic rights for the Mexican people. After approval of this constitution, in 1917, Carranza as the president of Mexico proceeded to ignore its promises. As a consequence, the revolution continued until 1920. Carranza was assassinated and General Álvaro Obregón rose to power.

Art, Literature, and the Revolution

The Mexican Revolution gave birth to a variety of new artistic currents in literature, the visual arts, and music. The literature of the Mexican Revolution is a rich field and includes works recognized as masterpieces of Latin American literature such as Los de abajo ( The Underdogs) by Mariano Azuela, which was published in 1915 and remains a literary classic.

Born in 1873, Azuela was a field physician with the revolutionary troops of the north. His own experiences and the circumstances that drove people to fight in the revolution, as well as the often brutal conditions of war, are depicted in his novel with sometimes crude realism. The novel narrates the story of Demetrio Macías, who is considered an enemy to the local terrateniente and has to escape persecution. He leaves his family and escapes to the mountains, gathering a group of people to fight in the Mexican Revolution against the troops of General Huerta. The different kinds of people who are part of the Demetrio Macías group represent the diverse factions that fought in the revolution: the educated and idealistic men; the desperate and poor campesinos; and the different types of women who joined the struggle. Towards the end of the book, the revolutionaries appear to have lost sight of their initial goals and ideals and morale disappears.

A more recent novel, Pam Muñoz's Esperanza Rising, tells the story of the migrants who fled to United States from a teenage girl's point of view. The EDSITEment lesson Esperanza Rising: Learning Not to Be Afraid to Start Again (also available in a Spanish version) will be useful for teachers who want to reflect on the human costs of the Mexican Revolution.

Other forms of cultural expression dealing with the Mexican Revolution include the muralist movement in painting and music. It is worth to also note that some of the most popular foods in Mexico (and outside of Mexico) come from the days of the Mexican Revolution, including famous "foods-on-the-run," such as "" or "tacos de discada norteña."

Mexican Muralist Movement: Art for the People, Telling the People's Story

Once the armed struggle ended, it was necessary to rebuild a shattered nation. Newly elected president, General Álvaro Obregón named José Vasconcelos secretary of public education. Vasconcelos had a serious challenge: How to succeed in educating the people of a country in which the overwhelming majority were illiterate? Public art was to be part of the answer, and a solution to start educating the nation was attempted through the Muralist Painting movement. Among the most important muralists are " Los tres grandes" ("The Three Great Ones"): Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, and David Alfaro Siqueiros. The Muralists viewed art not primarily as an aesthetic or expressive product but as an educative one, an art of the people.

The Muralist Movement lasted approximately half a century, from the early 1920s to the 1970s. Through it, both the art and culture of Mexico were put at the service of society and the ideals of the Mexican Revolution. Muralist painters, many of whom were no strangers to political activism, used the walls of public buildings, palaces, universities, and libraries to tell both the story of the revolution and of the daily life of the people. The mural paintings defined the nation's identity and recognized Mexico's indigenous ancestry. They documented the suffering of the indigenous at the hands of the Spanish conquistadores, while also recognizing Mexico's shared history and culture. The Mexican muralists influenced artists throughout the Americas, and some murals were painted in the United States, including the Epic of American Civilization by José Clemente Orozco at Dartmouth College.

The Corridos: A Musical Legacy of the Mexican Revolution

The tradition of the of the Mexican Revolution can be traced to medieval Europe's mester de juglaría (ministry of troubadours). The -the recording of events in song-are stories told in poetic form and sung to simple music, much like English ballads, that use colloquial language. The corridos grew in popularity in Mexico during the 1800s, but the Mexican Revolution, which took place in a predominantly illiterate nation with a dismantled infrastructure, gave birth to a large number of them that narrated a variety of events, such as important battles, or celebrated great leaders and fighters of the revolution.

Therefore, the corridos became a way to record, celebrate, or mourn events, places, or people during the revolution: very much like a newspaper put to music. The corrido tradition documents aspects of Mexico's culture and identity on a wide variety of subjects. For instance, each state of Mexico has its own corrido documenting important characteristics, products, regions, and people. There are also corridos dedicated to the soldaderas, the storied, iconic female soldiers of the revolution-and even to famous horses.

In a corrido, the singer, or corridista, generally prefaces the performance by supplying the place, date, and lead character of the corrido to the audience, and then develops a story about him/her told in song. The corrido usually ends with a friendly farewell. Corridos do not hesitate to praise and romanticize great leaders as heroes, and label as "traitors" those who opposed the revolution. General Victoriano Huerta, who was president of Mexico for less than one year, is referred to in the corrido "The Taking over of Zacatecas," as a "drunkard" with "twisted feet."

Listen to corridos, and see the lyrics (bilingual), while singer Antonio Aguilar performs, accompanied by .

"La toma de Zacatecas" (VIDEO) commemorates, celebrates and documents an important battle during the Mexican Revolution.

"El centauro de oro" (VIDEO) is dedicated to Francisco "Pancho" Villa, calling him by his nickname. His soldiers were called "Los dorados" ("The Golden Ones"). This celebrates Francisco Villa and his immortality in the history of Mexico.

"Corrido del general Zapata," (VIDEO) is a corrido to honor Emiliano Zapata, also called "El Atila del Sur" ("Atila of the South"). This celebrates the great revolutionary leader of the south.

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The Mexican Revolution: November 20th, 1910

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The Mexican Revolution, which began on November 20, 1910, and continued for a decade, is recognized as the first major political, social, and cultural revolution of the 20th century.

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Black Soliders during the American Revolution

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Black Soliders during the American Revolution