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To what extent is it legitimate for a researcher to draw on their own experiences as evidence in their investigations in the human sciences?

Is it possible to eliminate the effect of the observer in the pursuit of knowledge in the human sciences?

How might the beliefs and interests of human scientists influence their conclusions?

How can we know when we have made progress in the search for knowledge in the human sciences?

If two competing paradigms give different explanations of a phenomenon, how can we decide which explanation to accept?

What forms of protection against research error and bias are available to human scientists?

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Is it possible to eliminate the effect of the observer in the pursuit of knowledge in the human sciences?

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Is it possible to eliminate the effect of the observer in the pursuit of knowledge in the human sciences?

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..still thinking, I'm drafting as I go...I like using Padlet for that reason

Economics tends to see itself as the more logical, quantitative of the social sciences
So much so that the backlash against that has resulted in that newer field of Behavioural Economics.
The way that I would approach the KA about the observer effect is to take a subject that Economics relies on to a large extent in the tools it uses i.e. accounting. The reason being is that accounting is, by its nature, much more quantitative and students are likely to perceive less of an observer effect in accounting. I would have them document the ways, if they see any, in which accounting would be impacted by the observer effect
I would then introduce them to the article "The Observer Effect in Accounting" - an accessible synopsis of research on the observer effect. Which shows how measurement noise makes it difficult to parse all the data and truly understand what is happening in the business and yet decisions are being taken based upon that data by external investors that then in turn influences decision making with the company. So choices of how data is presented can have materially different outcomes. It then becomes relatively straight forward in Economics to link this back to something like the Balance of Payments and the policy decisions made based on the BoP.

Another AoK
Not sure how to answer this but I'd love to juxtapose this against the Arts which seems, without the observer effect, to lose the very essence of what makes something art. I'd love to hear some thoughts on how best to do this.

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Perspectives KQ‘s:                                                            

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Perspectives KQ‘s:                                                            

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• How can it be that scientific knowledge changes over time?
• What role do paradigm shifts play in the progression of scientific knowledge?
• How does the social context of scientific work affect the methods and findings of science?
• In what ways have influential individuals contributed to the development of the natural sciences as an area of knowledge?
• Does the precision of the language used in the natural sciences successfully eliminate all ambiguity?
• Does the list of disciplines included in, or excluded from, the natural sciences change from one era to another, or from one culture or tradition to another?
• Does competition between scientists help or hinder the production of knowledge?

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Consider how ONE of these knowledge questions can be answered. 

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Consider how ONE of these knowledge questions can be answered. 

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• How can it be that scientific knowledge changes over time?

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Scientists, especially in the Natural sciences, follow common principles to conduct their work. The core of these principles could be the following: the use of ideas, theories, and hypotheses; reliance on evidence; the use of logic and reasoning; and the communication of results, often through a scientific article. Having this in mind, the emergence of new ideas and theories (via the evergrowing bank of knowledge that is being accumulated through time), the new hypotheses that are being proposed, and the new evidence that is being collected... the communication and publishing of results that via such a means creates an opportunity for peer reviews that help with certainty create the grounds for further scientific development. A published scientific article allows other researchers to review and question the evidence, the methods of collection and analysis, and the scientific results. Scientists introduce ideas, develop theories, or generate hypotheses that suggest connections or patterns in nature that can be tested against observations or measurements (i.e., evidence). With the development of scientific tools, these observations and measurements become more accurate. So this aswell incites change. While these principles are common to all scientific and engineering research disciplines, different scientific disciplines use specific tools and approaches that have been designed to suit the phenomena and systems that are particular to each discipline. For example, the mathematics taught to graduate students in astronomy will be different from the mathematics taught to graduate students studying zoology. Laboratory equipment and experimental methods for studying biology will likely differ from those for studying materials science. Thus, the change and development in the principles incites changes in the specific fields of science. If these become very immense, a paradigm shift might take place. Scientific knowledge also can be affected by social needs since society can see certain fields as more important and practical thus deserving of more funding, thus more subject to change than others

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Consider how this same question might or might not be answered with reference to a different AOK

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Consider how this same question might or might not be answered with reference to a different AOK

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AOK History
This might happen with the introduction of new evidence that might change the current interpretation making it more objective. Changes in Historical knowledge might take place if, for example, it were to be found out that a certain historian was biased while interpreting or acted according to their ideological belief. Naturally,historical knowledge might change if the tools change... Something better than carbon dating becomes available etc.

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An idea...perhaps a way of tieing the KQ to both AOK's would be by looking at it through the historiography of science lens.... I'm not sure that it adds much to what you've already outlined but using the language and methodology of History could help tie two AOK's together a little???

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How might the existence of different historical perspectives be beneficial to historical knowledge?

The multiplicity of historical perspectives may aid in understanding the underlying causes as to why a certain event took place in the past. Hence, the extent to the consideration of different perspectives in history is beneficial relies on the purpose for which that consideration is taking place. To ascertain the reasons and causes of a conflict in the past, it is necessary to identify the differing perspectives as to why that specific conflict took place and in doing so sidelining the narrative associated only with the majority. Once perspectives are acknowledged, an objective interpretation of a conflict’s causes may be acquired – I use ‘objective’ cautiously here as this is rarely the case. In another sense, the existence of varying historical perspectives is beneficial to the process of producing knowledge. This understanding is based on the notion that taking various perspectives into consideration is an integral aspect of the historical method in terms of the evidence and accounts that are provided. On the other hand, numerous perspectives on a single topic may be detrimental to historical knowledge, especially when there is no basis upon which the knowledge produced by these perspectives can be judged against. The quality of historical knowledge is proportionate to the degree of certainty that it produces regarding a certain historical topic. A multiplicity of perspectives may blur the truth and render all other narratives equally worthy of consideration, especially, as previously stated when there is no solid foundation upon which to judge that knowledge, raising the importance of the availability of evidence – preferably physical in this context.

An AoK to which this could be transferred:

In the context of human sciences, a multiplicity of perspectives could aid in better understanding and interpreting a political event. The logic behind the existence of a multiplicity of perspective and the extent to which it is beneficial to the knowledge of human sciences does follow that of history in my opinion.

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This really could be a way of tackling the problem. thank you for the advice

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Can a work of art have meaning of which the artist themselves is unaware?

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Can a work of art have meaning of which the artist themselves is unaware?

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Note: rereading the task, I now realise I was still in the frame of mind of previous tasks, of finding ways to address the question with a group of students. Hopefully there is enough of an 'answer' among the lesson ideas below.

I would maybe add 'unaware...at the time of creating the piece?' I think this question in relation to this AOK could be a good opportunity to introduce the importance of finding examples with a personal connection for the TOK Exhibition in particular. The way I might approach this is to ask which students have tried to create something (painting, music, a game) and then ask them about their process. It would be interesting to hear from the students if they have been surprised by what others see, and whether or not they believe these interpretations are as valid as their own intended ones.

There is a strong connection to my own subject, Language and Literature, where students might study different theoretical approaches to the study of literature and language texts, some of which marginalise the author's own views. This could be pointed out as another opportunity for finding examples from their own experiences, in this case for the TOK Essay.

I find it harder to make connections to the other AOKs with this perspective, but I suppose a scientist, mathematician or academic working the human sciences may not be fully aware of the importance of a discovery, and will need the community to see what it is they have really uncovered, but I cannot think of a specific example for this. Maybe Freud, with his very specific ideas about what to focus on in analysis of a person, was at the time unaware that his specific ideas and interests were not nearly as important as the process of psychoanalysis that he introduced. My knowledge about this is limited.

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Hi Michael,

Your post had me thinking of the movie I watched last night on Netflix (Munich The Edge of War). Seems like a great resource to look at perspective in history if students were already familiar with the concept of Neville Chamberlain as the appeaser. The movie does a great job of bringing a different, although not entirely new, perspective to the events leading up to Britain declaring war.

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Hi there,

Also watched this movie a few days ago. You're right! Not entirely new, but relevant.

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Reading through your explanation and the fact that knowledge can be reviewed by other scientists highlights the importance of scientific authority and the role of consensus in validating scientific knowledge that has developed from its original form.

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I was thinking about this for a couple of days...
I think that the AOK of Human sciences could be used as the other AOK...
If, for example, a new model is introduced (an alternative perspective) to explain human behaviour and is accepted by the community, then the scientific knowledge might change or be altered. The premise of this is that knowledge builds on itself and we strive for better and more accurate understanding of the real world. If one model explains human behaviour more accurately, than it may become the dominant one and its predecessor might become part of history. This depends on the model and its acceptance by the community.

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That is a fascinating idea to apply this to the arts. Think of the possibilities this raises and it would be fully accessible to students. It has also taken on a positive and necessary role. Marilynne

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That is a fascinating idea to apply this to the arts. Think of the possibilities this raises and it would be fully accessible to students. It has also taken on a positive and necessary role. Marilynne

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• What is it about mathematics that enables mathematical results to remain

unchanged over time?

• How significant have notable individuals been in shaping the nature and

development of mathematics as an area of knowledge?

• What is the role of the mathematical community in determining the validity of a

mathematical proof?

• Is mathematical knowledge embedded in particular cultures or traditions?

• Does personal experience play any role in the formation of claims in

mathematics?

• Is progress harder to make in mathematics than in other areas of knowledge?

• If mathematics is created by humans, is it still possible to accept mathematical

truths as objective facts about the world?

• Are all of the areas of knowledge in the TOK course themselves embedded in a

particular tradition or bound to a particular culture?

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Consider how ONE of these knowledge questions can be answered.

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Consider how ONE of these knowledge questions can be answered.

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Is mathematical knowledge embedded in particular cultures or traditions?

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Pure mathematics is deductive. To be more precise, only deductive proofs are accepted in mathematics. Thus considering pure mathematics, it could be said that pure math is not embedded in a particular culture or tradition. It is rather an innate human ability – reason that if nurtured and if the basic needs are met (Maslow hierarchy of needs) can emerge anywhere and at any time.

Applied mathematics is the application of mathematical methods by different fields such as physics, engineering, medicine, biology, finance, business, computer science, and industry. Thus, applied mathematics is a combination of mathematical science and specialized knowledge. The term "applied mathematics" also describes the professional specialty in which mathematicians work on practical problems by formulating and studying mathematical models. The key word here is practical. If a culture places high value on a specific type of knowledge, for example… engineering, the bank of this field’s knowledge will increase and the specific area will prosper. Thus it could be said that some mathematical knowledge could be seen as imbedded in particular cultures.

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Consider how this same question might or might not be answered with reference to a different AOK

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Consider how this same question might or might not be answered with reference to a different AOK

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I believe we could take Arts here. These are seom of my thoughts:
All cultures have certain types of Art. This might be various forms of art, yet they are art. Consider cave paintings.
Nevertheless, not all cultures have, for example, Modern art or performance art.  Not all cultures have the same purpose/functions/intentions of art  and expect the same reactions when presented with art.
Again Maslow springs to mind. If the representatives of a particular culture are starving, they will not place great emphasis on art.

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What is it about mathematics that enables mathematical results to remain unchanged over time?

The only things that are certain in life are death and taxes.  A comment often made usually during a discussion about the uncertainties of one’s personal life, or career, or the broader meaning of ‘life’.  Certainly, death is a certainty, as the singer/poet Jim Morrison (and others) was said to have remarked, “No one gets out of here alive”.  And taxes?  From ancient times until our own contemporary age, the counting up of what one owes – to the government, to the king, to the leader, whomever is in control of such things – and whether in euros or dollars, pieces of eight, doubloons or shekels – an accounting is made, and what is owed is expected to be paid.  It makes no difference what we call them, the immutability of numbers, the very concrete concept embodied in one/uno/eins/egy or any of hundreds of languages spoken on the planet, one is one as surely as two is two, et cetera. Though mathematics can be considered a ‘language’ with a vocabulary and meanings and rules of usage, at it’s core the world of numbers remains unchanged over time.  It has always been so, from the earliest barter economic systems onward.  I will give you one of these for one of those, or two of those depending on the value assigned to these and those.

The usefulness of mathematics lies in its quality of immutability, that mathematical theorems and formulas are unchanging constants, that regardless of the spoken or written language used, numbers remain.

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What is it about mathematics that enables mathematical results to remain unchanged over time?

The only things that are certain in life are death and taxes.  A comment often made usually during a discussion about the uncertainties of one’s personal life, or career, or the broader meaning of ‘life’.  Certainly, death is a certainty, as the singer/poet Jim Morrison (and others) was said to have remarked, “No one gets out of here alive”.  And taxes?  From ancient times until our own contemporary age, the counting up of what one owes – to the government, to the king, to the leader, whomever is in control of such things – and whether in euros or dollars, pieces of eight, doubloons or shekels – an accounting is made, and what is owed is expected to be paid.  It makes no difference what we call them, the immutability of numbers, the very concrete concept embodied in one/uno/eins/egy or any of hundreds of languages spoken on the planet, one is one as surely as two is two, et cetera. Though mathematics can be considered a ‘language’ with a vocabulary and meanings and rules of usage, at it’s core the world of numbers remains unchanged over time.  It has always been so, from the earliest barter economic systems onward.  I will give you one of these for one of those, or two of those depending on the value assigned to these and those.

The usefulness of mathematics lies in its quality of immutability, that mathematical theorems and formulas are unchanging constants, that regardless of the spoken or written language used, numbers remain.