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The U.S. Constitution is one of the most important documents to people in our country. It is the basis for the system of law in our country. It is a very important written document that sets up the rules for our government and gives people important rights.

All over the world, other countries have used our Constitution as a model for how they have set up their own government.

Our Constitution has lasted over 200 years. Some changes have been made as our world has changed, but the main ideas in it have served our nation well. In the past and today, we live by its rules and enjoy the freedom it established for all Americans.

In 1775, the American Revolution began. Colonists in America went to war with Britain to gain freedom. On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was signed, saying that America would be free from British rule.

It was a long hard war, but finally in 1781, the colonists won and began to form a new nation. They wrote a document called the Articles of Confederation. The Articles of Confederation gave the country the name the United States of America. It also established a sort of friendship among the states. However, each state remained separate and sovereign. Each state made its own rule, and there was no central government. There was no president and no federal courts.

After the war, there began to be problems with this. There were disagreements over how war debts were to be repaid. Different states had different ideas about things. In Shays' Rebellion, a group of farmers angry about debts and taxes fought the Massachusetts government. There was no strong national government to help.

All of these problems worried the leaders in the new United States. They thought that the nation needed a stronger national government.

They decided to meet in Philadelphia in May of 1787 to change the Articles of Confederation. This meeting was the Constitutional Convention.

Each of the 13 states were invited to send peopled called delegates to the Constitutional Convention. Each state decided to send people except Rhode Island, because they didn't want a new government.

The Constitution, a painted mural depicting the framers of the Constitution by Barry Faulkner (1)

A total of 74 delegates were selected to attend. The delegates were the most important men in politics. Many had fought in the American Revolution. Most were political leaders in their states. Of the 74 selected, 55 actually came to the convention.

George Washington from Virginia was the general in charge of the American troops in the American Revolution. A great leader in our nation's early history, he attended the Constitutional Convention. Early in the meeting, he was chosen to lead the meeting. He was a humble man, but agreed to lead the convention.

Also from Virginia, James Madison was one of the men who had the idea for a Constitutional Convention. He believed the new nation needed a strong central government. Madison was very important at the Constitutional Convention. He worked hard on many of the decisions that were made and took detailed notes on what happened at the convention. That is how historians know so much of what happened there. Madison is sometimes called the "Father of the Constitution."

Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania was the oldest delegate. At age 81, Franklin was a distinguished leader who had helped write the Declaration of Independence.

Alexander Hamilton was a delegate from New York. Hamilton was a trusted aide to Washington during the war. He later became a lawyer and felt strongly that the United States needed a strong national government.

There were a few important men that didn't attend the convention. Thomas Jefferson was in Paris as an ambassador. John Adams was an ambassador in London.

This group of men were great thinkers and great leaders. They would be known as the founding fathers of our nation. They were the writers or framers of our Constitution.

Before reading on, answer these questions.

1. Which document said that America was free from British rule?

2. Which document established a "friendship" among the states, but let each make their own laws?

3. Which document set up the parts of our government?

4. Who was chosen to lead the Constitutional Convention?

5. Who is called the "Father of the Constitution" because of his important role?

When the 55 delegates met on May 25, 1787 in Philadelphia, they met in secret. No reporters or outsiders were allowed. The delegates did not discuss the meetings with other people. The reason was that they wanted to be free to discuss the issues without outsiders trying to influence them.

As the delegates from different states met, they had several disagreements. Those from larger states thought that larger states should have more votes. The smaller states thought that each state should have an equal vote. As a compromise, two houses of the legislature were planned. The Congress would have two parts: the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives would be divided by population. Larger states would have more representatives and more votes. The Senate would have an equal number of representatives from each state.

Another disagreement then broke out over how to count slaves when determining state population. States in the South, which had many slaves, wanted slaves to be counted, so they would have more representatives. States in the North did not want slaves to be counted. In a compromise, the delegates agreed to have each slave be counted as three-fifths of a person.

The issue of the presidency caused further disagreements. Would there be one president or a group of executives? How would the president be elected? Would he serve a lifelong term or some shorter term? The final compromise resulted in one president who would be elected by an electoral college. The president would serve four-year terms, but could be re-elected.

After these major issues were resolved, a small group of men worked on the final language of the document. On September 17, 1787, the Constitution was signed by the framers. It would not become final until the states ratified or approved it.

The Scene at the Signing of the Constitution, a painting by Howard Chandler Christy (2)

There was still debate among the states about the Constitution. Those who supported it were called Federalists. People who didn't want the Constitution were called Anti-Federalists.

Finally, in July of 1788, the ninth state ratified the Constitution, making it the supreme law of our land.

There are many important ideas in the Constitution.

One such idea is called the rule of law. This means that no one is above the law. Even the president and other people in the government must obey the law. The Constitution says, "This Constitution...shall be the supreme Law of the Land." This also means that no laws can be made that go against the Constitution. This makes the Constitution very important and strong.

The form of government established by the Constitution has three parts or branches. The branches of the government are:
1. The Executive Branch
This branch of government makes sure the laws of the nation are obeyed. In our federal government, this branch is the President and Vice President.
2. The Legislative Branch
This branch of government makes the laws. In our federal government, this branch is the Congress.
3. The Judicial Branch
This branch of government interprets the laws. The judicial branch says what laws mean and checks that they don't disagree with the Constitution In our federal government, this branch is the Supreme Court. This is the highest court of the land.

The Constitution made these three branches so there would be a separation of powers. This means that each branch is separate. They are all important in their own way.

The framers of the Constitution wanted to make sure that there were checks and balances among the different branches of government. Each branch has some power over the others. For example, if the Congress makes a law that doesn't agree with the Constitution, the Supreme Court can overrule it. If the President takes actions that are beyond his job or the law, the Congress can refuse to provide funding or even impeach the President and take away his job.

Before reading on, answer these questions.

6. Which house of Congress has an equal number of representatives for each state?

A) B)

7. Which house of Congress has more representatives for larger states?

A) B)

8. Which branch of government makes the laws?

A) B) C)

9. Which branch of government enforces the laws?

A) B) C)

10. Which branch of government says what the laws mean?

A) B) C)

11. Which of these is the most important in our government?

The Constitution begins with the words "We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union." This tells that their goal in writing the Constitution was to make the nation a better place.

The very beginning of the Constitution is called the preamble.

After the preamble, there are seven major parts or sections of the Constitution. These are called articles. For example, Article I of the Constitution tells how the legislative branch of the government will work. It defines the Congress, how it will be elected, what powers it has, and how it will work. Each article in the Constitution has several sections that give all the details.

The framers wanted the Constitution to be the law of our land for a long, long time. But they also knew that the nation would change, and that there might need to be changes to the Constitution. So, they made a way for the Constitution to be changed or amended.

Over time, many amendments or changes have been made to the Constitution. Each one is numbered. There have been 27 amendments so far.

The first 10 amendments tell about basic rights that Americans have. These 10 amendments together are called the Bill of Rights.

One concern that some people had about the original Constitution was that it didn't guarantee people any freedoms. Because the American Revolution had been fought for these freedoms, this was very important.

To guarantee these rights, 10 amendments were added to the Constitution. These are known as the Bill of Rights. These amendments were ratified by three-fourths of the states on December 15, 1791.

Some of rights guaranteed by the Bill of Rights are the freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press.

The U.S. Constitution has survived for over 200 years. It is called a living document, because it was lasted so long and sometimes changed with the times.

Think about how much the world has changed in 200 years. When the framers wrote the Constitution, there was no television, no cell phones, and no Internet. And yet, they wrote a document that can still be applied to all these new technologies.

How has the Constitution survived so well? Well, one thing the framers did was to write the Constitution very generally. Instead of making very specific laws, they wrote about general principles.

This sometimes makes the Constitution difficult to interpret, but that is the job of the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court plays a critical role in interpreting the Constitution and making it a living document.

The framers also created a way to change the Constitution through amendments. They made it very difficult to pass amendments though. They wanted to make sure that changes were carefully considered and agreed upon. Only 27 amendments to the Constitution have been ratified. The last one was ratified on May 7, 1992.

12. What is the "rule of law"? Why is it important?

13. What checks and balances are built in to our government? Why?

14. Why is it important that the Constitution is a "living document"?

15. What Constitutional issues are raised by new technologies like the Internet that didn't exist at the time the Constitution was written? How does the Constitution and our government deal with these issues?

May, 1775 - The First Continental Congress meets in Philadelphia. They write a letter to the king of Britain complaining and asking for his help.

April, 1775 - The first gunshots are fired in Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts beginning the American Revolution.

July 4, 1776 - The Declaration of Independence is signed.

1781 - British troops surrender at Yorktown, Virginia.

1781 - The Articles of Confederation take effect.

1783 - The British and the United States end the war by signing the Treaty of Paris.

May 25, 1787 - Constitutional Convention begins in Philadelphia.

September 17, 1787 - The Constitution is formally signed.

December 7, 1787 - Delaware is the first state to ratify the Constitution.

June 21, 1788 - New Hampshire is the ninth state to ratify the Constitution, causing it to take effect.

December 15, 1791 - The Bill of Rights takes effect after being ratified by three-fourths of the states.

February 7, 1795 - Amendment 11 is ratified, protecting states from some suits in federal courts.

June 15, 1804 - Amendment 12 is ratified, changing the way the President and Vice President are elected.

December 6, 1865 - Amendment 13 is ratified, abolishing slavery.

July 9, 1868 - Amendment 14 is ratified, dealing with citizenship, congressional representation, insurrectionists, and public debt.

February 3, 1870 - Amendment 15 is ratified, guaranteeing the right to vote regardless of race.

February 3, 1913 - Amendment 16 is ratified, giving Congress the right to impose income taxes.

April 8, 1913 - Amendment 17 is ratified, discussing how Senators are to be elected and replaced.

January 16, 1919 - Amendment 18 is ratified, prohibiting alcoholic beverages.

August 18, 1920 - Amendment 19 is ratified, giving women the right to vote.

January 23, 1933 - Amendment 20 is ratified, establishing the start of presidential terms and Congressional sessions and setting the process for replacing the president in case of death.

December 5, 1933 - Amendment 21 is ratified, repealing the ban on alcoholic beverages.

February 27, 1951 - Amendment 22 is ratified, limiting each president to two terms in office.

March 29, 1961 - Amendment 23 is ratified, giving the District of Columbia residents a vote in presidential elections.

January 23, 1964 - Amendment 24 is ratified, eliminating any poll taxes.

February 10, 1967 - Amendment 25 is ratified, establishing a plan for succession in event of the death or resignation of the president or vice president.

July 1, 1971 - Amendment 26 is ratified, setting the minimum age for voting at 18.

May 7, 1992 - Amendment 27 is ratified, saying pay raises for members of Congress won't go into effect until the next session of Congress.

ambassador - someone who represents their government in a foreign country; a high ranking official acting as a foreign diplomat

amendment - an addition; something that is added

delegate - a representative; someone sent to a meeting or convention to represent a group

document - an official paper; an important written record

federal - related to the national level of government

government - the group that makes and enforces the laws of a country

impeach - to remove from office; to bring a legal proceeding against a government official to remove from office because of some offense

insurrectionist - someone who has rebelled or revolted against the government; for example, people who joined the Confederacy during the Civil War

poll - tax a tax or amount of money that had to be paid in order to vote; often poll taxes were put in place to prevent African Americans or others from voting

preamble - an introduction

repeal - to cancel; to revoke

sovereign - having power to make rules

suit - law suit; a court process to make a claim

1 - U.S. National Archives, public domain

2 - Courtesy of the Architect of the Capitol, Washington, DC, U.S. National Archives, public domain

3 - U.S. Government Printing Office, Superintendent of Documents, Ben's Guide to U.S. Government for Kids, public domain

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Published by K12 Handhelds, Inc. Portal, AZwww.k12handhelds.com Copyright © 2006 by K12 Handhelds, Inc. License CC-by, This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 United States License. The U.S. Constitution is one of the most important documents to people in our country. It is the basis for the system of law in our country.

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Website - The Declaration of Independence

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Website - The Declaration of Independence

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Like many artists of the early-Federal period (c. 1789-1801), the name John Trumbull is not one immediately recognized by most Americans. Yet despite this fact, the majority of Americans are well aware of many of Trumbull's most famous paintings. Trumbull's portrait of the first Secretary of the Treasury , Alexander Hamilton, has long graced the ten-dollar bill. Although Trumbull made a career as a portraitist, his real ambition lay in the painting of larger, more ambitious historical compositions. Without doubt, the one that is most frequently reproduced in elementary school history textbooks is *The Declaration of Independence*, a painting that exists in two versions. The first is smaller in size and is part of the Yale University Art Gallery (above) while the second is the monumental version currently on display in the Capitol Rotunda (below).

Family history

Yet to understand this composition, one must first grapple with Trumbull's complicated history and personality. He was the sixth and youngest child of Jonathan Trumbull and Faith Robinson. If there was an aristocracy in colonial New England, Trumbull was born into it. His Harvard-educated father was a representative to the Connecticut General Assembly. Later he served as the Governor of Connecticut Colony (1769-1776) and then after the War of American Independence, as the Governor of the state of Connecticut (1776-1784). The artist's mother was a direct descendant of John Robinson, the so-called "Pastor to the Pilgrim-Fathers" before they sailed on the Mayflower for the New World. Given his prestigious family legacy, Trumbull the Elder had little interest in allowing Trumbull the Younger to pursue a career as a painter. Instead, Governor Trumbull sent the artist-to-be to Harvard College so that his son could find a more useful vocation in either the law or the ministry.

However, in 1772, Trumbull made a social call to the artist John Singleton Copley who was then still in Boston-just a short distance from Cambridge. When writing his autobiography almost half a century later-in 1841-Trumbull still remembered this meeting with great clarity:

We found Mr. Copley dressed to receive a party of friends at dinner. I remember his dress and appearance-an elegant looking man, dressed in a fine maroon cloth, with gilt buttons-this was dazzling to my unpracticed eye!-but his paintings, the first I had ever seen deserving the name, riveted, absorbed my attention, and renewed all my desire to enter upon such a pursuit. But my destiny was fixed, and the next day I went to Cambridge, passed my examination in fro, and was readily admitted to the Junior class.

There was, of course, no art major at Harvard during the eighteenth century, so Trumbull studied art in his free time, copying and sketching works of art that hung on the college's walls. He also learned from books he was able to borrow from the college's library. He graduated in 1773 and became one of the few artists in the history of early American art to complete a college education.

The army

Trumbull's graduation from Harvard took place during a tumultuous period in American history, and Trumbull wished to secure a commission as an officer in the Continental Army. His brother, Joseph, was the Commissary General of the Army, and likely suggested that his younger brother draw a plan of the British army's position at Boston Neck to present to General Washington as a way of introduction. Shortly thereafter, Washington appointed Trumbull as an aide-de-camp (a confidential assistant to a senior officer). The following year, in the spring of 1776, Major General Horatio Gates appointed Trumbull deputy adjutant-general (military chief administrative officer) at the rank of Colonel. Alas, Trumbull resigned his commission less than a year later because of a minor squabble with Congress as to the date of the commission. Yet despite being Colonel John Trumbull for little more than a year, the artist carried the honorific title of Colonel for the remainder of his life. His 1841 autobiography, for example, was entitled-not immodestly-*The Autobiography of Colonel John Trumbull.*

However, it was because of his (admittedly, very limited) military experience that John Trumbull believed that he was uniquely qualified to pictorially depict the major events of the American Revolutionary War. His first step, was to seek out some artistic training, and in this endeavor, he followed in the footsteps of many artists before him (and, for that matter, after him): he sailed for London and Benjamin West's studio (West was an American artist with a successful career in London). The year was 1780, and the War of Independence was still in full swing, although nearing its completion. It must have caused suspicion that a former officer in the Continental Army has arrived in London to study painting, particularly because Benjamin West, as the official history painter to the court, had the ear and confidence of King George.

Politics

In West's studio, Trumbull met Gilbert Stuart, who was perhaps West's most accomplished pupil. But Stuart and Trumbull differed in some key ways. First, Stuart always knew that portraiture would occupy most of his artistic efforts when he returned across the Atlantic Ocean, while Trumbull had the higher aspiration to paint historical compositions. More importantly, perhaps, Stuart largely kept his political beliefs during this vitriolic period to himself, while Trumbull-both in letters home and in his personal interactions about London-was decidedly anti-British. People began to notice, and on 20 November 1780, Colonel John Trumbull was arrested and charged with treason. He was imprisoned for more than 8 months and released only after powerful friends-Benjamin West and the statesman Edmund Burke among others-appealed to the Privy Council for the artist's release. This was granted on 12 June 1781, and Trumbull was given 30 days to exit Great Britain.

Connecticut and back to London

Trumbull returned to Connecticut for two years, and during that time his father again attempted to convince him to pursue another more profitable vocation. Undeterred, Trumbull returned to London and the warmth of West's studio in January of 1784. West set forth a rigorous course of study. Trumbull woke at five o'clock in the morning to study human anatomy. After breakfast several hours later, he painted for the rest of the day. His evening was capped by studying at the Royal Academy of Art. The aspiring artist made quick and steady progress. When writing to his brother Jonathan in September of 1784, for example, Trumbull remarked, "I have the pleasure to find that my labour is not in vain, & to hear Judges of the Art declare that I have made a more rapid progress in the few months I have been here than they have before known."

The history of our country

Growing in confidence, Trumbull was determined to return to the newly formed United States with paintings that would commemorate the recent victory over Great Britain. Writing to his father-whose approval, it seems, he still sought-Trumbull explained in March of 1785,

the great object of my wishes...is to take up the History of Our Country, and paint the principal Events particular of the late War.

By the end of the year, Trumbull had already begun work on two paintings of the series, images known to generations of American elementary school students because of their inclusion in history textbooks: *The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker's Hill, June 17, 1775* (above) and *The Death of General Montgomery in the Attack on Quebec, December 31 1775* (below). In 1786, Trumbull began to plan three other Revolutionary War paintings: *The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777*, *The Capture of the Hessians at Trenton, December 26, 1776*, and *The Surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown, October 19, 1781*. Interestingly, all five of these compositions are, essentially, scenes of battlefields.

The Declaration of Independence

In July of 1786, however, Trumbull accepted Thomas Jefferson's invitation to visit Paris, and he brought *Bunker's Hill* and the *Attack on Quebec* with him. Jefferson, then the United States Ambassador to France, and a bit of artist himself, managed to convince Trumbull that he should turn his artistic talents towards a scene involving the Declaration of Independence. While in Paris, Trumbull began to sketch out the composition, taking into account Jefferson's memory of the event and the [diplomat's own sketch](http://artgallery.yale.edu/collections/objects/2805) of the Assembly Room in the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia where the Declaration of Independence was first presented to Congress and subsequently signed.

The painting that resulted from this collaboration between artist and politician has become one of the most famous images in the history of American art. It can be found on the back of the (seldom used) $2 bill, and has graced American postage stamps. And yet, what the painting depicts is often misunderstood. Trumbull himself called this painting *The Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776*. However, this is inaccurate; this painting depicts not the signing of the document, but instead the presentation of a draft of it to Congress on 28 June 1776. Our attention begins with the five men standing in the middle of the painting, the so-called Committee of Five that was primarily responsible for the written document. They are-from left to right-John Adams of Massachusetts, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, Robert R. Livingston of New York, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, and Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania. Clearly, the red-headed Jefferson is the most important, for he alone holds the document that he presents to John Hancock, the President of the Continental Congress, who sits behind the desk.

Of the five men standing, Trumbull was able to paint three of them-Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin-from life and directly onto the canvas prior to departing from Europe. When the artist returned to the United States in 1789, he spent several years traveling up and down the eastern seaboard so that he could paint portraits from life. This was not always possible, however, and in 1817-some 27 years later, Trumbull was still at work on what would become his most famous image. He wrote to Jefferson that year to inform the former president as to the progress he had made on this relatively small-21" x 31"-image:

The picture will contain Portraits of at least Forty Seven Members:-for the faithful resemblance of Thirty Six I am responsible, as they were done by myself from the Life, being all who survived in the year 1791. Of the Remainder, Nine are from Pictures done by others:-one Gen[era]l Whipple of New Hampshire is from Memory: and one Mr. Ben. Harrison of Virginia is from description, aided by memory.

To compare this image to those Trumbull began at the same time-the battle paintings of the Revolutionary War Series-is interesting, for while some of those are dynamic and filled with drama, *The Declaration of Independence* is, at its essence, a static-some might claim pictorially boring-image of a group of seated men looking at a group of standing men. Indeed, other artists-Jacques-Louis David comes to mind-were able to conceive a way to depict a similar event in a visually engaging way. David's sketch for the *Oath of the Tennis Court* (below, depicting one of the first events of the French Revolution), for example, is far more dynamic and dramatic than is Trumbull's painting.

But this seemed not to matter to Trumbull, nor did it bother many members of Congress, for on 17 January 1817 they approved-by an overwhelming 150-50 majority-a proposal to commission Trumbull to complete four paintings for the Great Rotunda of the as yet uncompleted Capitol Building. Increasing the size of *The Declaration of Independence* to 12'x18' did little to enhance its dynamism. In 1828, for example, John Randolph of Virginia wrote,

the Declaration of Independence [ought] to be called the Shin-piece, for surely never was there before such a collection of legs submitted to the eyes of man.

Still others criticized the lack of accuracy in the room and furnishings, and, as importantly, as to who was actually present when the document was presented.

But these concerns were of little bother to Trumbull, who had become one of the most powerful voices-if not one of the more skilled paintbrushes-in American art during the first half of the nineteenth century. Indeed, Trumbull served as the President of the conservative American Academy of Fine Arts from 1817 until 1836. Without doubt, this position helped him receive the prestigious congressional commission in 1817 and allowed him to exert considerable influence over the direction of American art during the end of his career. Moreover, his autobiography-written just two years prior to his death-provided the opportunity to explain his (perhaps exaggerated) importance within American art. While the *Declaration of Independence* might not be the most interesting work within the history of American painting, it certainly is one of the most recognizable. Trumbull, no doubt, would approve of this.
Additional resources: This painting at the Yale Art Gallery This painting at the U.S. Capitol

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John Trumbull, The Declaration of Independence

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Like many artists of the early-Federal period (c. 1789-1801), the name John Trumbull is not one immediately recognized by most Americans. Yet despite this fact, the majority of Americans are well aware of many of Trumbull's most famous paintings. Trumbull's portrait of the first Secretary of the Treasury , Alexander Hamilton, has long graced the ten-dollar bill.

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When the possibility of a clash with the British became real, New England farmers began to arm themselves and train for battle. These troops were dubbed "minutemen" because they could be ready to fight in a minute. This monument to the minutemen stands in Concord, Massachusetts.

How could the Americans ever hope defeat the mighty British Empire in a military conflict?

Americans faced seemingly impossible obstacles. When the guns fired at Lexington and Concord in 1775, there was not yet even a Continental Army. Those battles were fought by local militias. Few Americans had any military experience, and there was no method of training, supplying, or paying an army.

Moreover, a majority of Americans opposed the war in 1775. Many historians believe only about a third of all Americans supported a war against the British at that time.

Further, the Colonies had a poor track record of working together.

How, then, could a ragtag group of patriots defeat the British?

Early Battles

The Battle of Bunker Hill was not a military victory for the colonial forces, but it served as an important morale booster. The colonists inflicted heavy casualties on the larger, more powerful British forces.

The early stages of war, in 1775, can be best described as British military victories and American moral triumphs. The British routed the minutemen at Lexington, but the relentless colonists unleashed brutal sniper fire on the British returning to Boston from Concord.

In June 1775, the colonists failed to prevail at Bunker Hill, but inflicted heavy casualties on a vastly superior military force. A year later, in 1776, while the British occupied New York, Washington led his army to two surprise victories at Trenton and Princeton that uplifted the morale of the patriots.

Regardless, by 1777 the British occupied Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, and sent that body into hiding. The British also controlled New York City and pretty much had their way in the waters along the Eastern Seaboard. In fact, there was no Continental Navy to speak of at this time. Meanwhile, the British began mounting a southward attack from Canada into upstate New York. This threatened to cut New England off from the rest of the Colonies.

Saratoga and Valley Forge: The Tide Turns

The Battle of Saratoga, in northern New York, served as a critical turning point. The British attempt to capture the Hudson River Valley ended with their surrender to General Horatio Gates in October. Washington, having lost Philadelphia, led his troops to Valley Forge to spend the winter. None of the world's powers had come to the aid of the patriot cause - yet.

In early 1778, the French agreed to recognize American independence and formed a permanent alliance with the new nation. Military help and sizable stores of much-needed gunpowder soon arrived. The tide was beginning to turn.

The surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown marked the end of the Revolutionary War. This painting by John Trumbull is 12 feet by 18 feet and hangs in the rotunda of the U.S. Capitol Building.

A New Type of War

The British grew increasingly frustrated. The loss at Saratoga was humiliating. Capturing the enemy's capital, Philadelphia, did not bring them much advantage. As long as the American Continental Army and state militias remained in the field, the British had to keep on fighting. And no matter how much damage the British did to American cities or private property, the Americans refused to surrender. This was a new type of war.

Having failed in the north, the British turned their attention to the south. They hoped to inspire Loyalist support among dissatisfied Americans - a hope that was never realized. Fighting continued. The threat of French naval participation kept the British uneasy.

A Stunning Defeat

In October 1781, the war virtually came to an end when General Cornwallis was surrounded and forced to surrender the British position at Yorktown, Virginia. Two years later, the Treaty of Paris made it official: America was independent.

How could the Americans ever hope defeat the mighty British Empire in a military conflict? Perhaps an even better question to ask is, How did the mighty British Empire ever expect to vanquish the Americans?

Major Battles of the American Revolution

Sure we've heard the names of the generals and admirals of the American Revolution, but have you heard of Major John Clarke? Probably not . . . because he was America's first master spy.
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Dearest Friend, The Day; perhaps the decisive Day is come on which the fate of America depends. -Abigail Admas (1775). So begins the future first lady's letter to her husband, John Adams, following the Battle of Bunker Hill.
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At the Battle of Saratoga, Benedict Arnold was shot in his left leg and as a result had a limp for the rest of his life. A monument to Arnold's leg can be found at Saratoga National Historical Park.

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When the possibility of a clash with the British became real, New England farmers began to arm themselves and train for battle. These troops were dubbed "minutemen" because they could be ready to fight in a minute. This monument to the minutemen stands in Concord, Massachusetts.

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This is to be used at the end of the American Revolution unit in 5th grade as a review for students. Parents can access this as well to help their child study. 

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This is to be used at the end of the American Revolution unit in 5th grade as a review for students. Parents can access this as well to help their child study. 