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Attributes of a good discussion. By Julia

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Attributes of a good discussion. By Julia

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- different points of view
- respect
- participation from everyone

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A healthy discussion creates an opportunity for students to practice and sharpen a number of skills, including the ability to articulate and defend their position and consider different points of view.

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A healthy discussion creates an opportunity for students to practice and sharpen a number of skills, including the ability to articulate and defend their position and consider different points of view.

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Cognitive factors:

Determine and communicate learning objectives

Plan a strategy

Ask good questions

Provide direction and maintain focus

Bring closure

Social/emotional factors:

Demonstrate relevance

Encourage participation

Make high-quality participation “count”

Evaluate the discussion

Physical factors:

Creating a setting conducive for discussion

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Mutually respectful exchange of ideas, including opposing ones.  (Jane O)

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Mutually respectful exchange of ideas, including opposing ones.  (Jane O)

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THE PROCESS OF GOOD DISCUSSION - by Maria

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THE PROCESS OF GOOD DISCUSSION - by Maria

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Hi there! This is an article on  the elements in the process of discussion which serve to distinguish a good discussion from a poor one.

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What is groupwork? While many practitioners may describe what they do as 'groupwork', they often have only a limited appreciation of what groupwork is and what it entails. In this piece we introduce groups and group work, define some key aspects, and suggest areas for exploration. In particular we focus on the process of working with groups.

Contents: introduction * what is a group? * working with * working with groups - a definition * three foci * exploring the theory and practice of group work * conclusion * further reading and references * how to cite this article

For some groupwork is just another way of talking about teamwork. In this context, working in groups is often presented as a good way of dividing work and increasing productivity. It can also be argued that it allows for the utilization of the different skills, knowledge and experiences that people have. As a result, in schools and colleges it is often approached as a skill to be learnt - the ability to work in group-based environments. Within schools and colleges, working in groups can also be adopted as a mean of carrying forward curriculum concerns and varying the classroom experience - a useful addition to the teacher or instructor's repertoire.

In this article our focus is different. We explore the process of working with groups both so that they may undertake particular tasks and become environments where people can share in a common life, form beneficial relationships and help each other. Entering groups or forming them, and then working with them so that members are able be around each other, take responsibility and work together on shared tasks, involves some very sophisticated abilities on the part of practitioners. These abilities are often not recognized for what they are - for when groupwork is done well it can seem natural. Skilled groupworkers, like skilled counsellors, have to be able to draw upon an extensive repertoire of understandings, experiences and skills and be able to think on their feet. They have to respond both quickly and sensitively to what is emerging in the exchanges and relationships in the groups they are working with.

Our starting point for this is a brief exploration of the nature of groups. We then turn to the process of working with. We also try to define groupwork - and discuss some of foci that workers need to attend to. We finish with an overview of the development of groupwork as a focus for theory-making and exploration.

What is a group?

In a separate article we discuss the nature of groups and their significance for human societies (see What is a group?). Here I just want to highlight five main points.

First, while there are some very different ways of defining groups - often depending upon which aspect of them that commentators and researchers want to focus upon - it is worthwhile looking to a definition that takes things back to basics. Here, as a starting point, we are using Donelson R. Forsyth's definition of a group as ' two or more individuals who are connected to one another by and within social relationships' [emphasis in original] (2016: 3). This definition has the merit of bringing together three elements: the number of individuals involved, connection, and relationship.

Second, groups are a fundamental part of human experience. They allow people to develop more complex and larger-scale activities; are significant sites of socialization and education; and provide settings where relationships can form and grow, and where people can find help and support.

Humans are small group beings. We always have been and we always will be. The ubiquitousness of groups and the inevitability of being in them makes groups one of the most important factors in our lives. As the effectiveness of our groups goes, so goes the quality of our lives. (Johnson and Johnson 2003: 579)

However, there is a downside to all this. The socialization they offer, for example, might be highly constraining and oppressive for some of their members. Given all of this it is easy to see why the intervention of skilled leaders and facilitators is sometimes necessary.

Third, the social relationships involved in groups entail interdependence. As Kurt Lewin wrote, 'it is not similarity or dissimilarity of individuals that constitutes a group, but interdependence of fate' (op. cit.: 165). In other words, groups come about in a psychological sense because people realize they are 'in the same boat' (Brown 1988: 28). However, even more significant than this for group process, Lewin argued, is some interdependence in the goals of group members. To get something done it is often necessary to cooperate with others.

Fourth, when considering the activities of informal educators and other workers and animateurs operating in local communities it is helpful to consider whether the groups they engage with are planned or emergent. Planned groups are specifically formed for some purpose - either by their members, or by some external individual, group or organization. Emergent groups come into being relatively spontaneously where people find themselves together in the same place, or where the same collection of people gradually come to know each other through conversation and interaction over a period of time. (Cartwright and Zander 1968). Much of the recent literature of groupwork is concerned with groups formed by the worker or agency. Relatively little has been written over the last decade or so about working with emergent groups or groups formed by their members. As a result some significant dimensions of experience have been left rather unexplored.

Last, considerable insights can be gained into the process and functioning of groups via the literature of group dynamics and of small groups. Of particular help are explorations of group structure (including the group size and the roles people play), group norms and culture, group goals, and the relative cohesiveness of groups (all discussed in What is a group?). That said, the skills needed for engaging in and with group life - and the attitudes, orientations and ideas associated with them - are learnt, predominantly, through experiencing group life. This provides a powerful rationale for educative interventions.

Working with

Educators and animateurs often have to 'be around' for a time in many settings before we are approached or accepted:

It may seem obvious, but for others to meet us as helpers, we have to be available. People must know who we are and where we are to be found. They also need to know what we may be able to offer. They also must feel able to approach us (or be open to our initiating contact). (Smith and Smith 2008: 17)

Whether we are working with groups that we have formed, or are seeking to enter groups, to function as workers we need to be recognized as workers. In other words, the people in the situation need to give us space to engage with them around some experience, issue or task. Both workers and participants need to acknowledge that something called 'work' is going on.

The 'work' in 'groupwork' is a form of 'working with'. We are directing our energies in a particular way. This is based in an understanding that people are not machines or objects that can be worked on like motor cars (Jeffs and Smith 201). We are spending time in the company of others. They have allowed us into their lives - and there is a social, emotional and moral relationship between us. As such, 'working with' is a special form of 'being with'.

To engage with another's thoughts and feelings, and to attend to our own, we have to be in a certain frame of mind. We have to be open to what is being said, to listen for meaning. To work with others is, in essence, to engage in a conversation with them. We should not seek to act on the other person but join with them in a search for understanding and possibility. (Smith and Smith 2008: 20)

Not surprisingly all this, when combined with the sorts of questions and issues that we have to engage with, the process of working with another can often be 'a confusing, complex and demanding experience, both mentally and emotionally' (Crosby 2001: 60).

In the conversations of informal and community educators the notion of 'working with' is often reserved for describing more formal encounters where there is an explicit effort to help people attend to feelings, reflect on experiences, think about things, and make plans (Smith 1994: 95). It can involve putting aside a special time and agreeing a place to talk things through. Often, though, it entails creating a moment for reflection and exploration then and there (Smith and Smith 2008:20).

As Kerry Young (2006) has argued, 'Working with' can also be seen as an exercise in moral philosophy. Often people seeking to answer in some way deep questions about themselves and the situations they face. At root these look to how people should live their lives: 'what is the right way to act in this situation or that; of what does happiness consist for me and for others; how should I to relate to others; what sort of society should I be working for?' (Smith and Smith 2008: 20). This inevitably entails us as workers to be asking the same questions of ourselves. There needs to be, as Gisela Konopka (1963) has argued, certain values running through the way we engage with others. In relation to social groupwork, she looked three 'humanistic' concerns. That:

* individuals are of inherent worth.

* people are mutually responsible for each other; and

* people have the fundamental right to to experience mental health brought about by social and political conditions that support their fulfilment. (see Glassman and Kates 1990: 14).

Working with groups - a definition for starters

What does it mean, then, to say that we work with groups, or that we are groupworkers? A problem that immediately faces us is that most commentators and writers come at this question from the tradition or arena of practice in which they are located. However, if we bring together the discussion so far we can say that at base working with groups involves engaging with, and seeking to enhance, interactions and relationships within a gathering of two or more other people.

Some will be focusing on issues and problems, and individual functioning. It is not surprising, for example, that Gisela Konopka (1963) writing from within social work would have this sort of focus - although she does look across different areas where these might arise:

Social group work is a method of social work which helps individuals to enhance their social functioning through purposeful group experiences, and to cope more effectively with their personal, group or community problems.

However, as Allan Brown (1992: 8) and others have pointed out, many groupworkers look beyond helping the individual with a problem. Groupwork can emphasize 'action and influence as well as reaction and adaption' ( op. cit.). Thus, Allan Brown argues:

... groupwork provides a context in which individuals help each other; it is a method of helping groups as well as helping individuals; and it can enable individuals and groups to influence and change personal, group, organizational and community problems. (Brown 1992: 8. Emphasis in the original)

This particular way of conceptualizing groupwork is helpful in that it looks to strengthen the group as what Lawrence Shulman (1979: 109; 1999; 2015) described as a 'mutual aid system'. The worker seeks to help people to help each other. Crucially, it is concerned with the ways in which both individuals and groups can build more fulfilling lives for themselves and for communities of which they are a part. It also looks to wider change.

Three foci

From this exploration I want to highlight three foci for groupworkers. They need to 'think group, attend to purpose, and stay in touch with themselves.

Thinking group

For the worker working with a group entails 'thinking group' (McDermott 2002: 80-91). 'Thinking group' means focusing on the group as a whole - 'considering everything that happens in terms of the group context (also the wider context in which it is embedded -social, political, organizational) because this is where meaning is manifest' ( op. cit.:81-2). She continues:

In advocating for the group worker to keep in mind that, while groups are comprised of individuals, at the same time their coming together may enable the expression of powerful forces reinforcing as sense of commonality and solidarity. These are the building blocks for the development of trust. Trust and its counterpart - reciprocity amongst members, may establish the bonds which serve to enable members to achieve their individual and common goals. The task of the worker is to nurture such developments. ( op. cit.: 82)

For Fiona McDermott the capacity to 'think group' is the single most important contribution that groupworkers can bring to their practice. They need to avoid working with individuals in the setting of the group, but rather see individual growth and development as something that emerges out of group interaction and group life.

Attending to purpose

As well as attending to the group as a process of harnessing the collective strengths of group members, workers also need to look to purpose. Urania Glassman and Len Kates (1990: 105-18), for example, have argued that groupworkers should attempt to effect two complementary objectives.

The development of mutual aid systems. The worker looks to work with people so that they both help each other and themselves. It is concerned with the ways in which both individuals and groups can build more fulfilling lives for themselves and for communities of which they are a part. It also looks to wider change.

Cultivating attention to, and achievement of, the purposes of the group (what Glassman and Kates describe as the actualization of purpose). Workers should look to both individual and the collective goals that the group wants to work towards. They also need to intervene in the group where appropriate to help people to clarify and achieve these.

There are, of course, forms of group work that do not have a strong emphasis upon mutual aid. Some years ago Papell and Rothman (1966) distinguished between three models of practice:

Remedial - where the aim on the part of the work/agency is individual social adaption. Cohen and Mullender (1999) have argued that remedial approaches are primarily managed by the worker/therapist and tend to involve members carrying out their own treatment plans.

Reciprocal - where the aim is to strengthen mutual aid and to mediate between individuals and society.

Social goals - where the concern is to further social justice often through collective, social action. Mutual aid and reciprocity may be a part of this, but the focus is often on achieving systemic and broader political change.

Social pedagogues and relational practitioners tend to be more oriented to mutual aid and social action.

Attending to ourselves

As Parker Palmer has argued in the context of education any attempt at reform or development will fail if we do not cherish and challenge the human heart that is the source of good practice (Palmer 1998: 3). For Palmer, good practice is rather more than technique, it flows from the identity and integrity of the worker' (Palmer 2000: 11). This means that they both know themselves, and that they are seeking to live life as well as they can. Good groupworkers are, thus, connected, able to be in touch with themselves, with those they work with and their 'subjects' - and act in ways that further flourishing and wholeness.

In a passage which provides one of the most succinct and direct rationales for a concern with attending to, and knowing, our selves Parker Palmer draws out the implications of his argument.

Teaching, like any truly human activity, emerges from one's inwardness, for better or worse. As I teach, I project the condition of my soul onto my students, my subject, and our way of being together.... When I do not know myself, I cannot know who my students are. I will see them through a glass darkly, in the shadows of my unexamined life - and when I cannot see them clearly, I cannot teach them well. When I do not know myself, I cannot know my subject - not at the deepest levels of embodied, personal meaning. I will know it only abstractly, from a distance, a congeries of concepts as far removed from the world as I am from personal truth. (Parker Palmer 1998: 2)

If we do not know who we are then we cannot know those we work with, nor the areas we explore.

Exploring the theory and practice of groupwork

The emergence of the group as a focus for intervention and work within social work and informal education in Britain and north America was a slow process and initially largely wrapped up with the response of Christians, particularly evangelical Christians, to the social conditions they encountered in the late eighteenth and throughout the nineteenth century. Examples from Britain include Hannah More and Robert Raikes and Sunday schooling; John Pound and Quentin Hogg and ragged schooling; George Williams and the YMCA; Arthur Sweatman and Maude Stanley in boys' and girls' club work. Their motives were often a complex mix of concern for others, the desire to bring people to Bible truths and values, and worries about the threat to order that the masses posed.

Alongside this a considerable amount of mutual aid activity developed during the nineteenth century especially around chapels, meeting houses, working men's clubs and in the field of adult education (see, for example, Smith 1988 on the making of popular youth work; Horton Smith 2000; Rose 2002). There was also a growing appreciation of group process and sophistication in approach within adult education. However, it was with developments in psychology and sociology (with the emergence of 'small group theory' and studies of group dynamics, for example) that the scene for a more thorough building of theory about working with groups - particularly in north America. Alongside this, the influence of progressive education as a philosophy - particularly through the work of John Dewey and William Kilpatrick - began to be felt by many practitioners (see Reid 1981a).

In the USA, courses on groupwork started to appear in the early 1920s - and the first sustained treatments of groupwork began to appear. In particular, the work of Grace Coyle (1930; 1937) drawing upon her experience of settlement work, the YWCA and adult education was influential - but many others around the field such as Eduard Lindeman (1924), Margaretta Williamson (1929) and Mary Parker Follett (1918; 1924) were exploring different aspects of working with groups. There began to be a discourse around the work that transcended professional and sector boundaries.

First, it was discovered that workers in a variety of agencies had a great deal in common and that the major component of that common experience lay in their experience with groups. Out of this recognition came the widespread use of the term social group work and the development of interest groups focusing on work with groups in a number of cities. The second discovery was that what was common to all the groups was that, in addition to the activities in which the group engaged, groups involved a network of relationships between the members and the worker, between the group as a whole and the agency and neighborhood in which the members lived. This combination of relationships was called the group process. This second realization produced a search for deeper insights into these relationships, an attempt to describe them and to understand their dynamics. (Reid 1981a:123)

Groupwork began to be seen as a dimension of social work in north America (perhaps best symbolized by it being accepted as a section at the 1935 National Conference of Social Work). It's potential as a therapeutic process was also starting to be recognized (Boyd 1935). As might be expected there was considerable debate around what groupwork was - and where it belonged (see, for example, Lieberman 1938). Although groupwork methodology was developed within recreation and informal education agencies it was increasingly being used in social work-oriented agencies within other institutions such as children's institutions, hospitals, and churches (Reid 1981b: 145-6). Influential commentators such as Gertrude Wilson (1941) argued that group work was a core method of social work and not a field, movement, or agency. At the same time theorizing about groupwork was benefiting from significant advances in the understanding of group dynamics (most especially through the work of Kurt Lewin) and small work groups (Elton Mayo's research at the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric Company being the best known).

By the start of World War II, groupwork in north America 'was beginning to change its emphasis from social action and preparation of group members for social responsibility to problems of individual adjustment' (Reid 1981b: 154). This gathered pace during the 1940s and was reflected in the publication of key practice texts - notably Grace L. Coyle's (1948) Group Work with American Youth: A Guide to the Practice of Leadership, and Gertrude Wilson and Gladys Ryland's (1949) Social group work practice; the creative use of the social process. There were those, such as Alan Klein (1953) who continued to explore the connection between groupwork and democracy - but much of the running was now being made by those working within social work and therapy. Gisela Konopka's explorations of therapeutic groupwork with children (1949), groupwork in institutions (1954) and of social groupwork as a helping process (1963) were amongst the most important here. Some more generic texts around social groupwork such Phillips (1957) also appeared.

In Britain, there was some awareness of these developments - but there was very little explicit exploration of groupwork theory and practice until the early 1950s. A number of the key figures involved in stimulating debate and exploration came from youth work - notably Peter Kuenstler at the University of Bristol. Kuenstler encouraged Grace Coyle to come to Britain to spend time with workers - and edited the first major text on social group work in Britain (Kuenstler 1955). Josephine Klein was another pivotal researcher and writer. Her books The Study of Groups (1956) and Working with Groups (1961) were major additions to the literature - and brought groups and groupwork firmly into the discourse of social work. This was helped by the attention given by the Younghusband Report (Ministry of Health 1959) to social groupwork.

Group work as form of social work is directed towards giving people a constructive experience of membership in a group, so that they may develop further as individuals and be better able to contribute to the life of the community.

There was also important work happening within community development - with studies of community groups (Spencer 1964) and small social groups (Phillips 1965). George Goetschius ' (1969) long term exploration of work with community and estate groups was also important. Further significant work followed - notably Joan Matthews (1966) explorations of working with youth groups, Leslie Button's (1974) examination of developmental groupwork, and Bernard Davies' (1975) path-breaking interactionalist perspective with regard to the use of groups in social work practice.

At the same time there had been an explosion in exploration and publishing in the United States. Aside from the obvious problem of scale, there are issues around categorizing material, quality (many texts are are repeats of a basic how-to-do-it formula), and purpose. To make life easier I have adapted a framework used by Kenneth E. Reid in his helpful study of the use of groups in social work (1981) and added in a more therapeutically strand. I am not very comfortable with the categories - but they do provide a way of mapping material:

Case-focused groupwork. This approach can be described as 'preventative and rehabilitative', 'remedial' or 'organizational' - and is focused on the individual. The group provides a means by which an individual's problems can be assessed and addressed. It is most clearly connected with social work and casework and case management. The emphasis is upon 'ameliorating or preventing the adverse conditions that negatively influence individuals and result in deviant behaviour' (Reid 1981: 191). Classic examples of this literature come from Gisela Konopka (1949, 1954, 1963) and Paul Glasser et al. (1974).

Interaction-focused groupwork. Here the group is understood as 'a system of mutual aid wherein the worker and the members are engaged on the common enterprise of carrying out the group's goals' (Reid 1981: 191). Within this category fall humanistic approaches such as those of Glassman and Kates (1990), the social groupwork of Grace Coyle and the work of William Schwartz as his associates such as Lawrence Shulman (1979, 1999, 2015).

Group therapy, T-groups and encounter groups. There was a continuing growth in discussions that looked to the group as a key element in the therapeutic process - and that drew heavily upon central traditions of practice within psychotherapy e.g. psychoanalytic, Gestalt, cognitive-behavioural etc. Allied to this was material around family therapy (through which I have hardly bared to tread). 'Classic' work appeared from Wilfred Bion (1961) and some standard works from writers such as Irvin D. Yalom (1970). Another tradition of practice that could be said to fall in this strand is that of Training groups (T-groups). Here following on from Lewin's interest in using small groups as training laboratories for teaching people interpersonal skills, Bradford's work at the National Training Laboratory at Bethel, Maine; and the later development of sensitivity-training or encounter groups (e.g. Lieberman 1973, Rogers 1970) are examples of the use of groups for interpersonal learning.

Social goals groupwork. Here the focus is on dealing with 'those problems that are related to the social order and the social value orientation in small groups' (Reid 1981: 202). This long established set of traditions of practice is closely linked to community organization/community work. See, for example Mullender and Ward (1991) and Twelvetrees (1982, 1991, 2001, 2008).

In recent years there has been a significant development in the discussion of therapeutic traditions of groupwork, and some limited attention to groupwork within mainstream schooling. Unfortunately, much of the work within the social work arena has resulted in rather pedestrian 'how-to-do-it' texts - but there have been some good introductory texts examples over the last decade or so (e.g. Benson 2000; Brown 1993; Doel 1999). Similarly, the quality of texts offered teachers and educators has been variable but one of the better examples is Jaques and Salmon (2006). Sadly, working with emergent groups, and with community groups has not had the attention it merits. This said, the growing interest in relational practice and relational social work has brought mutual aid and reciprocity back into debates (see Raineri 2017).

Conclusion

In this piece we have seen something of the development of thinking about groupwork - and explored some significant dimensions of practice. In many respects it raises as many questions as it answers. For those concerned with informal education, social pedagogy and social action there is a considerable need to explore ways of working with groups that:

is educationally informed.

has a vision of the people as social beings.

is committed to democracy and social justice.

looks to the groups that arise as part of everyday living.

While there are fascinating examples of practice in this area, there is a huge gap in the literature.

Further reading and references

Reid, K. E. (1981) From Character Building to Social Treatment. The history of the use of groups in social work, Westport, Connecticut. Excellent discussion of the development of groupwork as a method within social work.

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Reid, K. E. (1981a) 'Formulation of a method, 1920-1936' in From Character Building to Social Treatment. The history of the use of groups in social work, Westport, Connecticut. Available in the informal education archives: http://www.infed.org/archives/e-texts/reid_groupwork_formulation_method.htm.

Reid, K. E. (1981b) 'Expansion and professionalism, 1937-1955' in From Character Building to Social Treatment. The history of the use of groups in social work, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. Available in the informal education archives: http://www.infed.org/archives/e-texts/reid_groupwork_expansion.htm.

Rogers, C. R. (1970) Encounter Groups. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Schulman, L. (1979) The Skills of Helping Individuals and Groups. Itasca, Ill.: Peacock.

Schulman, L. (1999) The Skills of Helping Individuals and Groups. 2e. Itasca, Ill.: Peacock.

Shulman, L. (2015). The skills of helping individuals, families, groups, and communities. 8e. Belmont, CA: Cengage.

Schwartz, W. and Zalba, S. R. (eds.) (1971) The Practice of Group Work. New York: Columbia University Press.

Schwarz, R. M. (2017). The Skilled Facilitator: A Comprehensive Resource for Consultants, Facilitators, Managers, Trainers and Coaches. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Smith, Heather and Mark K Smith (2008) The Art of Helping Others. London: Jessica Kingsley.

Smith, Mark K. (1994) Local Education. Community, conversation, praxis. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Spencer, John C. (1964) Stress & Release in an Urban Estate. A study in action research. [Written with the collaboration of Joy Tuxford & Norman Dennis]. London: Tavistock.

Thrasher, F. (1927) The Gang. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Turner, J. C. with M. A. Hogg (1987) Rediscovering the social group : a self-categorization theory. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Twelvetrees, A. (1982; 1991, 2001, 2008) Community Work. London: Macmillan/Palgrave.

Whyte, William Foote (1943, 1955, 1966, 1981, 1993) Street Corner Society: social structure of an Italian slum. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Williamson, Margaretta (1929) The Social Worker in Group Work. New York: Harper and Brothers.

Wilson, Gertrude (1941) Group work and case work, their relationship and practice. New York, Family Welfare Association of America.

Wilson, Gertrude and Ryland, Gladys (1949) Social group work practice; the creative use of the social process. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co.

Yalom, Irvin D. (1970, 1975, 1985, 1995) The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.

Yalom, I. D. and Lescz (2005) The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy 5e, New York: Basic Books.

Young, Kerry (2006) The Art of Youth Work. Lyme Regis: Russell House Publishing.

Zander, Alvin (1985) The Purposes of Groups and Organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Acknowledgement: Photo by Saad Sharif on Unsplash

How to cite this article: Smith, Mark K. (2008) 'Groupwork', the encyclopaedia of informal education. [ www.infed.org/groupwork/what_is_groupwork.htm].

© Mark K Smith 1996, 2005, 2008, 2018

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Contents: introduction * what is a group? * working with * working with groups - a definition * three foci * exploring the theory and practice of group work * conclusion * further reading and references * how to cite this article For some groupwork is just another way of talking about teamwork.

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Celeste Headlee: 10 ways to have a better conversation

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When your job hinges on how well you talk to people, you learn a lot about how to have conversations -- and that most of us don't converse very well. Celeste Headlee has worked as a radio host for decades, and she knows the ingredients of a great conversation: Honesty, brevity, clarity and a healthy amount of listening.

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“What are the attributes of a good discussion?” - By Maria

-          Getting to see new points of view that you never thought of (and are equally valid)

-          Building on a new idea, even if you disagree with it, at the beginning.

-          Bringing a greater understanding of the topic being discussed

-          Being structured: discussion is an ordered one (someone is the moderator)

-          Whoever puts forward a statement, would have evidence (or some reasoning) behind to back it up. Eg. We don’t want people repeating what they saw in social media, without checking the sources (fake news)

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"Initiating and sustaining a lively, productive discussion are among the most challenging activities for an instructor" (Davis, 1993). Here are some strategies that will help you prepare for and lead an effective discussion.

Preparing for a discussion

Plan how you will conduct the discussion. Although the ideal discussion is spontaneous and unpredictable, you will want to do some careful planning. You should have a clear goal/objective for the discussion, a plan for how you will prepare the students, and a general idea about how you will guide the discussion (e.g., with activities, videos, questions, etc).

Remember that in the modern classroom, there are many ways to be "present" and to "participate." Reevaluate your course participation and attendance policies to be certain that they are assessing what you want them to assess, encouraging what you want to encourage, and that there aren't other options that can accomplish the same goals. For instance, if you value the exchange of ideas, does it matter whether this happens in class or online?

Help students prepare for the discussion. You can distribute a list of questions for each discussion, ask students to bring in their own questions, suggest key concepts or themes for them to focus on, or ask them to collect evidence that clarifies or refutes a particular concept or problem. Discussions will be more satisfying for you and your students if they are prepared.

Establish ground rules for participation in a discussion. In order for a discussion to be effective, students need to understand the value of actively listening to their peers, tolerating opposing viewpoints, and being open-minded. They also need to recognize the importance of staying focused and expressing themselves clearly. You might spend the first session with your students exploring the characteristics of effective and ineffective discussions.

Clearly communicate how much time you have for questions or discussion, and what you are looking for from this time. Do you ideally expect every student to have a question? Are you looking for problem-posing, questions of clarification, extensions, applications, critique? Don't assume that students know what the pedagogical purpose of the discussion is.

Ask students to state their name before they begin speaking. Use their name when responding to their question or point.

Keep background noise to a minimum. One person speaking at a time is essential if all students are expected to listen.

Be ready and willing to work with sign interpreters or CART interpreters during question and discussion periods. Slow down when you are using big words or complicated phrases and spell out key names, and urge students to do the same. See this advice about working with interpreters during lectures.

Starting a discussion

Refer to questions you distributed. Start the discussion by asking one of the study questions you assigned or by asking group members which of the questions they found most challenging.

Make a list of key points. Identify and list the important points from the reading and use these as a starting point for discussion.

Use a partner activity. Ask students to come to the discussion with 3 or 4 questions prepared. Start the discussion by having students pair off and alternate asking and answering their questions.

Use a brainstorming activity. Ask students to contribute ideas related to the discussion topic (no matter how bizarre or farfetched) and write all ideas on the board. After a set period of time or when students have run out of ideas, critically evaluate all the ideas or categorize themes.

Pose an opening question and give students a few minutes to record an answer. The process of writing down their answers will enable students to generate new ideas as well as questions. After they have finished writing, ask for volunteers or call on students to share their ideas. This activity also gives quieter students the opportunity to prepare answers they can share with the group.

Divide students into small groups to discuss a specific question or issue. Be sure to assign explicit questions and guidelines and give the groups a time limit to complete the exercise. Also ask them to select a recorder and/or a reporter who will report back to the entire discussion group.

Pose a controversial issue and organize an informal debate. Group the students according to the pro or con position they take and ask the groups to formulate 2-3 arguments or examples to support their position. Write each group's statements on the board and use these as a starting point for discussion.

Encouraging student participation

Create an inclusive discussion environment. Group members will be more likely to contribute to a discussion if they feel they are in a safe, comfortable environment. Here are some general strategies for achieving this:

See the teaching tip on Classroom Management: Creating an Inclusive Environment for more ideas on this issue.

at the beginning of term, use an icebreaker activity and ask students to introduce themselves and describe their interests and backgrounds so they can get to know one another

as the facilitator, you should also learn all of your students' names (using name cards may assist you and your students in accomplishing this task)

arrange the seating in the room, if possible, into a semicircle so that the group members can see each other

Allow students to ask questions or share ideas in class anonymously, or without "speaking out" - circulate note cards for students to write questions or comments, or to answer your questions, perhaps anonymously, and collect and address them. Online tools such as Question Cookie and Tricider can help students ask questions or share comments. You can also encourage students to ask questions in the learning management system, which you can then respond to either in class or online.

Give students low-stakes opportunities to think and discuss content - this is a "tolerance for error" approach. Students sometimes need to get it wrong, take risks, or try out different ideas to learn.

Facilitate smaller discussions among students before you ask students to share with the entire class. Many students need some time and space to try ideas out with one another first. This also gets many more students talking.

Facilitate smaller activities before discussion and questions start, so that students have time and space to compose their thoughts. For example, to help them prepare for discussion, give them the opportunity to write or solve problems quietly for a few minutes. You might even consider asking students to pass these ideas around the room to share with one another, as long as you have warned them in advance that you will do so.

Use online resources and content management systems to extend class discussions. Students won't all get the chance to contribute in a large lecture, so offer the opportunity somewhere else. Students should be given many different opportunities and spaces in which to participate (and to be graded for participation).

Have students take turns writing down questions and answers on whiteboards or on large flipchart paper, and then post the notes around the classroom for future reference-keep them up all term - build running answers to pertinent and revisited questions.

Positively reinforce student contributions. You can emphasize the value of student responses by restating their comments, writing their ideas on the board, and/or making connections between their comments and the discussion at large. Also be sure to maintain eye contact and use non-verbal gestures such as smiling and head nodding to indicate your attention and interest in students' responses.

Use a "token system" to encourage discussion. Distribute three pennies or poker chips to each student at the outset of the discussion. Each time a student speaks, a penny/chip is turned in to the facilitator. The goal is for students to spend all their pennies/chips by the end of the session. This system can be useful for limiting students who dominate the discussion and encouraging quiet students to contribute.

Silence in the classroom is okay - it is actually good - and if you become comfortable with it, students will too.

Limit your own involvement. Avoid the temptation to talk too much and/or respond to every student's contribution. After you ask students a question, count to at least five in your head before answering it yourself. When you ask students a question, if you really want them to think and be able to give an answer, be willing to wait for it. Try to encourage students to develop their own ideas and to respond to one another (that is, peer interaction). You might also sit someplace other than the "head" of the table.

Balance students' voices during the discussion. Here are some strategies for dealing with problem group members who can affect the level of student participation:

1. Discourage students who monopolize the discussion by implementing a structured activity that requires each group member to be involved, avoiding eye contact with him/her, assigning a specific role to the dominant student that limits participation (e.g., discussion recorder), or implementing time limits on individual contributions.

2. Draw quiet students into the discussion by posing non-threatening questions that don't require a detailed or correct response, assigning a small specific task to the student (e.g., obtaining information for next class), sitting next to him/her, or positively reinforcing contributions he/she does make.

3. Clarify confusing student contributions by asking the student to rephrase/explain the comment, paraphrasing the comment if you can interpret it, asking the student probing questions, or encouraging him/her to use concrete examples and metaphors.

Guiding the discussion

Keep the discussion focused. Have a clear agenda for the discussion and list questions/issues on the board to inform and remind everyone of where the discussion is heading. Brief interim summaries are also helpful as long as they don't interfere with the flow of the discussion. If the discussion gets off track, stop and bring the discussion back to the key issues.

Repeat the key point of all comments or questions for the rest of the class, using your microphone if possible. For instance: "Jennifer just asked..."

Take notes. Be sure to jot down key points that emerge from the discussion and use these for summarizing the session. You might also assign a different group member each week the specific role of recording and summarizing the progression of the discussion.

Be alert for signs that the discussion is deteriorating. Indications that the discussion is breaking down include: subgroups engaging in private conversations, members not listening to each other and trying to force their ideas, excessive "nit-picking," and lack of participation. Changing the pace by introducing a new activity or question can jump-start the discussion.

If students are having trouble communicating, avoid making remarks such as: "Slow down," "Take a breath," or "Relax." This will not be helpful and may be interpreted as demeaning. Avoid finishing the person's sentences, or guessing what is being said. This can increase their feelings of self-consciousness.

Prevent the discussion from deteriorating into a heated argument. Remind students of the ground rules for discussion: they need to practice active listening, remain open-minded, and focus on ideas and content rather than on people and personal issues. Defuse arguments with a calm remark and bring the discussion back on track.

Bring closure to the discussion. Announce that the discussion is ending and ask the group if there are any final comments or questions before you pull the ideas together. Your closing remarks should show the students how the discussion progressed, emphasizing 2-3 key points and tying the ideas into the overall theme of the discussion. Also be sure to acknowledge the insightful comments students have made. Providing closure to the discussion is critical for ensuring that group members leave feeling satisfied that they accomplished something.

Remember that not all students are comfortable with extended direct eye contact.

Evaluating the discussion

Ask students to write a one-minute paper. You can ask students to write about how their thinking changed as a result of the discussion or how the discussion fits into the context of issues previously discussed. Have students hand in their papers and review samples to assess what they have learned.

Ask students to respond to specific questions about the discussion. Was the topic defined effectively? Did the facilitator keep the discussion on track? Did everyone have the opportunity to speak? Was your participation invited and encouraged? What questions related to the discussion remain unanswered? In what ways could the discussion have been improved? You might also use a more formal questionnaire and have students rate these various aspects of the discussion.

Conduct your own informal evaluation of the discussion. Consider the following questions when making your evaluation: Did everyone contribute to the discussion? How much was I, as the facilitator, involved? Did the discussion stay focused? What questions worked especially well? How satisfied did the group seem about the productiveness of the discussion? What would I do differently next time?

Suggested reading

Brookfield, S.D. (1999). Discussion as a Way of Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc.

Clarke, J.H. (1988). Designing Discussions as Group Inquiry. College Teaching, 36(4), pp. 140-143.

Davis, B.G. (1993). Discussion Strategies. Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc., pp. 63-98.

McKeachie, W.J. (1986). Teaching Tips. Lexington, Mass.: Heath.

Asking More Effective Questions. Excellent resource on identifying different types of questions with examples

Critical Reflection: An integral component to experiential learning. Questions that promote critical reflection.

Realizing the Potential of Good Questions. Techniques for effective questioning.

Habits of Mind: The Questions Intelligent Thinkers Ask that Help Them Solve Problems and Make Decisions.

Best Practice Strategies for Effective Use of Questions as a Teaching Tool.

Prompts That Get Students to Analyze, Reflect, Relate, and Question.

Three Ways to Ask Better Questions in the Classroom.

Discussion Method Teaching: A Practical Guide.

Online Discussion Questions that Work.

You're Asking the Wrong Question.

Better Questions are the Answer.

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Facilitating Effective Discussions | Centre for Teaching Excellence

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"Initiating and sustaining a lively, productive discussion are among the most challenging activities for an instructor" (Davis, 1993). Here are some strategies that will help you prepare for and lead an effective discussion. Plan how you will conduct the discussion. Although the ideal discussion is spontaneous and unpredictable, you will want to do some careful planning.

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Think of how often you communicate with people during the day. You write emails, facilitate meetings, participate in conference calls, create reports, devise presentations, debate with your colleagues... the list goes on.

We can spend almost our entire day communicating. So, it stands to reason that communicating clearly and effectively can boost productivity.

This is why the 7 Cs of Communication are helpful. The 7 Cs provide a checklist for making sure that your meetings, emails, conference calls, reports, and presentations are well constructed and clear - so your audience gets your message.

In this article and in the video, below, we'll look at each of the 7 Cs of Communication, and illustrate each element with both good and bad examples. ...

Learn More and Join Today

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The 7 Cs of Communication: A Checklist for Clear Communication

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Think of how often you communicate with people during the day. You write emails, facilitate meetings, participate in conference calls, create reports, devise presentations, debate with your colleagues... the list goes on. We can spend almost our entire day communicating. So, it stands to reason that communicating clearly and effectively can boost productivity.

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How do you prepare for discussions in Adult Education?

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How do you prepare for discussions in Adult Education?

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Do you have any unique strategies you would like to share? Post links here! Just click the plus sign in bottom right corner ...

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Do you have any unique strategies you would like to share? Post links here! Just click the plus sign in bottom right corner ...