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by Ron Brandt

Outcome-based education has been the topic of acrimonious debates in many states and school systems. The furor surprised some educators who, after years of hearing calls for "results" from political and business leaders, assumed that most parents and citizens would support a move to more definite outcomes and means of assessing them. Perhaps the majority of people do agree with the principles of OBE-or would if they understood them-but highly vocal critics have how raised enough questions about how OBE might work in practice to create doubts among informed members of the public about its desirability.

Should education be outcome-based? Some might argue that it already is, to some extent. Nearly all education institutions have goals that supposedly guide their work. When educators plan curriculums or teachers plan lessons for their classes, they usually start by clarifying the purposes.

Still, advocates of OBE say that traditional schools are really time-based. Teachers and principals may want students to learn something, but they typically allocate a certain amount of time to study of that topic and then move on, whether or not students have mastered it. For schools to be fully outcome-based, they must organize so that outcomes are fixed, and time and other resources needed to achieve the outcomes are variable.

OBE is more of a philosophy than a uniform set of practices. Many states and school systems have adopted the philosophy in part by emphasizing outcomes schools are expected to achieve, but few have changed all of their rules and regulations to be compatible with the notion that every aspect of schooling must be based on outcomes rather than on other considerations, such as length of the school year. Similarly, some programs that are consistent with the OBE philosophy do not use that terminology. Some have no special designation; some are called results-based or performance-based. The programs described below represent some of the varied approaches to OBE.

The Johnson City Model

A well-established example of OBE in actual use is the Johnson City, New York, schools (Vickery 1990). The Johnson City program, called by its developers the Outcomes-Driven Developmental Model or ODDM, was launched by John Champlain in the early 1970s. The program was originally described as a mastery learning program (the term outcome-based was not in use at that time). Al Mamary, former superintendent, says the major difference between mastery learning and ODDM is that ODDM puts increased emphasis on the studentapos;s role. In a mastery learning program, teachers take responsibility for making sure that most students learn. Under ODDM, students are informed of the outcomes and expected to assume responsibility for achieving them (Brandt 1994). ODDM is described as having a strong philosophical and psychological base as well as a technical one.

The High Success Network

Perhaps the best-known model of OBE was developed by Bill Spady and his associates at the High Success Network. Spady lists four principles that he believes should characterize OBE:

Clarity of focus (having specific outcomes gives a strong sense of purpose to everything teachers and students do).

Design down, deliver up (when planning curriculum, educators start with the outcomes and work backwards; when planning instruction, teachers teach what students need to learn to demonstrate the outcomes).

High expectations (OBE departs from traditional education in its assumption that all students can learn well-although not in the same way and not necessarily on the same day), an.

Expanded opportunities (students must be permitted to demonstrate their learning in different ways, and they must have numerous opportunities to demonstrate the outcomes, not just one. Spady calls this "grading in pencil").

Concerned that some people equate outcome-based education with mastery learning, Spady and his colleague Kit Marshall have developed a way of categorizing OBE programs. Mastery learning, they explain, is a technique for insuring that more students learn well, but it applies to any content. Outcome-based education incorporates the principles of mastery learning but goes beyond them to be concerned with what students are to learn and why.

Spady and Marshall use the term traditional OBE for OBE programs in which the outcomes are defined as mastery of traditional subject matter: English, mathematics, science, and so on (Spady and Marshall 1991). Programs with content outcomes but also higher order outcomes such as being able to work with others are transitional. Spady and Marshall advocate transformational OBE, in which outcomes are derived from careful analysis of what students must be able to do to succeed in the future. These transformational outcomes are be demonstrations of life "performance roles" such as problem solver and teacher (Spady 1994). The action planning workbook by Charles Schwahn that follows in this chapter of the ASCD Curriculum Handbook stems from this TOBE approach.

The McREL Model

An approach complementary to OBE that many educators have found to be helpful is the performance assessment system developed by Bob Marzano and associates at the Midcontinent Regional Educational Laboratory (McREL). Responding to educators whose school systems have adopted transitional outcomes and who need a valid way to assess them, the model involves writing performance tasks that specifically include elements of several different outcomes in one challenging task (Marzano, Pickering, and McTighe 1993). Because assessment of student performance is an essential part of OBE, the Marzano model is a useful supplement to transitional OBE programs.

Educators who accept the OBE philosophy begin by involving teachers, parents, citizens, and students in establishing the outcomes students are to demonstrate. These outcomes may be traditional-in terms of subject matter-or may include other outcomes, such as ability to communicate in a variety of forms, or the ability to perform life roles, such as "creators and producers.".

When outcomes have been established, educators should design curriculum to give students the knowledge and skills they need to demonstrate the outcomes. In many cases the outcomes will be such that they can be assessed only with performance assessment, not conventional tests, so the school's assessment processes will need to be different. Finally, educators need to examine every other aspect of the school's operation to determine what changes are needed-in grading policies, for example-to insure that larger numbers of students will in fact be prepared to demonstrate the outcomes.

References

Brandt, R. (1994). "On Creating an Environment Where All Students Learn: A Conversation with Al Mamary." Educational Leadership 51, 5: 18-23.

Spady, W. (1994). "Choosing Outcomes of Significance." Educational Leadership 51, 5: 18-23.

Spady, W., and K. Marshall (1991). "Beyond Traditional Outcome-Based Education." Educational Leadership 49, 2: 67-72.

Vickery, T. R. (1990). "ODDM: A Workable Model for Total School Improvement." Educational Leadership 47, 7: 67-71.

A Word About This Special Topic

If your school or district has already decided to take an outcome-based approach, no matter which model you choose, careful planning is essential to the process. The following section will help you examine your own existing system, determine where you are on the continuum, and lay the foundation for success. Charles Schwahn poses the essential questions and outlines the steps educators need to take in planning to implement outcomes-based education.

This Special Topic takes the form of a workbook excerpted and adapted from a four-part "handbook" Schwahn uses to train districts in Transformational Outcomes Based Education (TOBE). We believe that this section on establishing a purpose is straightforward and self-contained enough to be used independently by schools and districts wanting to begin the first planning phase.

This planning workbook is divided into the following subsections:

The Introduction describes the format and outlines the four processes of this TOBE Action Planning Model.

"Using the Action Planning Workbook" provides an overview of the four steps of the action planning process.

"The Purpose Leadership Arena" contains guidelines and worksheets to be used for the first step: creating a mission statement, student exit outcomes, and a vision statement.

An explanation of next steps describes the remaining processes of this TOBE Action Planning Model.

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by Ron Brandt Outcome-based education has been the topic of acrimonious debates in many states and school systems. The furor surprised some educators who, after years of hearing calls for "results" from political and business leaders, assumed that most parents and citizens would support a move to more definite outcomes and means of assessing them.

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Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a teaching method in which complex real-world problems are used as the vehicle to promote student learning of concepts and principles as opposed to direct presentation of facts and concepts. In addition to course content, PBL can promote the development of critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and communication skills. It can also provide opportunities for working in groups, finding and evaluating research materials, and life-long learning (Duch et al, 2001).

PBL can be incorporated into any learning situation. In the strictest definition of PBL, the approach is used over the entire semester as the primary method of teaching. However, broader definitions and uses range from including PBL in lab and design classes, to using it simply to start a single discussion. PBL can also be used to create assessment items. The main thread connecting these various uses is the real-world problem.

Any subject area can be adapted to PBL with a little creativity. While the core problems will vary among disciplines, there are some characteristics of good PBL problems that transcend fields (Duch, Groh, and Allen, 2001):

The problem must motivate students to seek out a deeper understanding of concepts.

The problem should require students to make reasoned decisions and to defend them.

The problem should incorporate the content objectives in such a way as to connect it to previous courses/knowledge.

If used for a group project, the problem needs a level of complexity to ensure that the students must work together to solve it.

If used for a multistage project, the initial steps of the problem should be open-ended and engaging to draw students into the problem.

The problems can come from a variety of sources: newspapers, magazines, journals, books, textbooks, and television/ movies. Some are in such form that they can be used with little editing; however, others need to be rewritten to be of use. The following guidelines from The Power of Problem-Based Learning (Duch et al, 2001) are written for creating PBL problems for a class centered around the method; however, the general ideas can be applied in simpler uses of PBL:

Choose a central idea, concept, or principle that is always taught in a given course, and then think of a typical end-of-chapter problem, assignment, or homework that is usually assigned to students to help them learn that concept. List the learning objectives that students should meet when they work through the problem.

Think of a real-world context for the concept under consideration. Develop a storytelling aspect to an end-of-chapter problem, or research an actual case that can be adapted, adding some motivation for students to solve the problem. More complex problems will challenge students to go beyond simple plug-and-chug to solve it. Look at magazines, newspapers, and articles for ideas on the story line. Some PBL practitioners talk to professionals in the field, searching for ideas of realistic applications of the concept being taught.

The problem needs to be introduced in stages so that students will be able to identify learning issues that will lead them to research the targeted concepts. The following are some questions that may help guide this process:

What will the first page (or stage) look like? What open-ended questions can be asked? What learning issues will be identified?

How will the problem be structured?

How long will the problem be? How many class periods will it take to complete?

Will students be given information in subsequent pages (or stages) as they work through the problem?

What resources will the students need?

What end product will the students produce at the completion of the problem?

Write a teacher's guide detailing the instructional plans on using the problem in the course. If the course is a medium- to large-size class, a combination of mini-lectures, whole-class discussions, and small group work with regular reporting may be necessary. The teacher's guide can indicate plans or options for cycling through the pages of the problem interspersing the various modes of learning.

The final step is to identify key resources for students. Students need to learn to identify and utilize learning resources on their own, but it can be helpful if the instructor indicates a few good sources to get them started. Many students will want to limit their research to the Internet, so it will be important to guide them toward the library as well.

The method for distributing a PBL problem falls under three closely related teaching techniques: case studies, role-plays, and simulations. Case studies are presented to students in written form. Role-plays have students improvise scenes based on character descriptions given. Today, simulations often involve computer-based programs. Regardless of which technique is used, the heart of the method remains the same: the real-world problem.

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Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a teaching method in which complex real-world problems are used as the vehicle to promote student learning of concepts and principles as opposed to direct presentation of facts and concepts. In addition to course content, PBL can promote the development of critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and communication skills.

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How to teach english with technology - Chapter 7 (Part 1)

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Task-Based Instruction (TBI)
Presented as a requirement of TF 503 Teaching and Learning Strategies and Classroom Management
Designed by Ms.Chayaporn Thirachaimongkhonkun
Mr. Sunan Fathet
M.A.Teaching English as a Foreign Language @SWU Thailand

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1. 1. Presented as a requirement of TF 503 Teaching and Learning Strategies and Classroom ManagementDepartment of Western Languages Faculty of Humanities Srinakharinwirot University

2. 2. 123456 Comparing TBI and 3Ps7 Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 2

3. 3. IntroductionTask-based learning is an alternativeapproach to communicate languageteaching because a task involves aprimary focus on meaning, real-worldprocesses of language use and any ofthe four language skills. Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 3

4. 4. Defining "Task""A task is an activity where the targetlanguage is used by the learner for acommunicative purpose (goal) in order toachieve an outcome" (Willis, 1996) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 4

5. 5. Defining "Task""A piece of classroom work that involve learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing, or interacting in target language while attention is focus on meaning rather than form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right with a beginning, a middle and an end." (Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 5

6. 6. Defining "Task""Tasks are activities that call for primarily meaning-focused language use. In contrast, exercises are activities that call for primarily form-focused language use. (Ellis, 2003) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 6

7. 7. The core task elements have six components. 1 * Goals 2 * Input 3 * Procedures 4 * Teacher role 5 * Student role 6 * Settings Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 7

8. 8. 1 Goals Goal type Example establish and maintain interpersonal relations andCommunicative through this to exchange information, ideas, opinions, attitudes and feelings and to get things done have some understanding of the everyday lifeSociocultural patterns of their contemporary age group in the target language speech community; this will cover their life at home, at school and at leisure to negotiate and plan their work over a certain timeLearning-how-to- span, and learn how to set themselves realisticlearn objectives and how to devise the means to attain them to have some understanding of the systematic natureLanguage and of language and the way it workscultural awareness (Clark, 1987, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 8

9. 9. 2 Input articles from newspapers, magazines and journals radio and television scripts and documentaries comic books for entertainment publicity brochures and posters short stories, poems and plays shopping lists business cards postcards picture stories street map(Hover, 986, and Morris & Stewart-Dore,1984, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 9

10. 10. 3 ProceduresProcedures specify what learners actually do with theinput. According criteria for the task, teachersconsider the authority of learning procedures andinput. Another point of criteria for task selectioninvolves activation rather than a rehearsal rationale.Moreover, analyzing procedures should be based onthe focus or skills required to achieve the goal. (Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 10

11. 11. 4 Teacher role 5 Student role Approach RolesOral Situational learner listens to teacher and repeats; no control over content or methodsAudiolingual learner has little control; reacts to teacher direction; passive, reactive roleCommunicative learner has an active, negotiative role; should contribute as well as receiveTotal Physical learner is a listener and performer; littleResponse influence over content and none over methodology Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 11

12. 12. 4 Teacher role 5 Student role (cont.) Approach RolesThe Silent Way learners learn through systematic analysis; must become independent and autonomousCommunity learners are members of a social group or community; move from dependence toLanguage Learning autonomy as learning progressesThe Natural learners play an active role and have a relatively high degree of control over content languageApproach productionSuggestopedia learners are passive, have little control over content or methods (Richards & Rodgers,1986, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 12

13. 13. 6 Setting (Wright, 1987, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 13

14. 14. Task Types Six Task Types Willis Pattison Seven Task Task Types Types SixTask Types Jost Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 14

15. 15. Six Task Types by Willis Listing Ordering & Sorting Comparing Problem solving Sharing personal experiences Projects and creative tasks Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 15

16. 16. Six Task Types by Jost Type of Task Examples Details Brainstorming, fact A party list, memory challenge,Listing finding qualities for a jobOrdering and Sequencing, ranking Jigsaw activities, best way tosorting do something Finding similarities, Listening to TV programs,Comparing finding differences spotting differences between pictures Giving advice, Responding to an adviceProblem solving planning column, planning a dinner Finding something Learning about theDiscovery new Pyramids Debating how to How best to save the earthDebating protect something Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 16

17. 17. Seven Task Types by PattisonQuestions and answers Dialogues and role plays Matching activities Communication strategies Pictures and picture stories Puzzles and problems Discussions and decisions Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 17

18. 18. Seven Task Types by PattisonQuestions and answers Dialogues and role plays Matching activities Communication strategies Pictures and picture stories Puzzles and problems Discussions and decisions Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 18

19. 19. Examples for Task TypesListing & Discussion (Nunan, 2000, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 19

20. 20. Examples for Task Types (cont.)Ordering (Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 20

21. 21. Examples for Task Types (cont.)Ordering (Harmer, 1998) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 21

22. 22. Examples for Task Types (cont.)Matching activity (Nunan, 2001, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 22

23. 23. Examples for Task Types (cont.) Student 1 looks at the picture on this page, and Student 2 looks at the picture on page 96. Ask and answer questions to find the differences between the pictures. Use the questions in the box. Comparing (Nunan, 2003, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 23

24. 24. Examples for Task Types (cont.)Communicative activity (Nunan, 1995, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 24

25. 25. Examples for Task Types (cont.)Puzzle Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 25

26. 26. Examples for Task Types (cont.)Role Play (Richards et al., 1997, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 26

27. 27. The Framework of TBI PRE-TASK Introduction to topic and task TASK CYCLE Task, Planning, Report LANGUAGE FOCUS Analysis, Practice Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 27

28. 28. 1 Pre-task The teacher - introduces and defines the topic - uses activities to help students recall/ learn useful words and phrases - ensure students understand task instructions - may play a recording of others doing the same or a similar task The students- note down useful words and phrases from the pre-task activities and/ or the recording- may spend a few minutes preparing for the task individually Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 28

29. 29. 2 Task cycle Task Planning ReportStudents do the Students prepare Some groupstask, in pairs or to report to the present theirsmall groups. whole class (orally reports to theTeacher monitors or in writing) how class, orfrom a distance. they did the exchange written task, what they reports, and decided or compare results. discovered. Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 29

30. 30. 3 Language Focus . Analysis PracticeStudents examine and Teacher conductsdiscuss specific features practice of new words,of the text or transcript phrases and patternof the recording occurring in the data, either during or after the analysis. Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 30

31. 31. Comparing TBI and 3Ps TBI Task-Based Instruction Versus PPP Presentation-Practice- Production Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 31

32. 32. TBI TBI Pre-taskExposure Introduction to topic and task Instruction Task cycleExposure Task Use (spontaneous)Exposure Planning Instruction (as needed)Exposure (planned) Report Use (planned)Exposure Students hear task recording or read text Language focus InstructionExposure Analysis and practice: Use (restricted)Exposure Review and repeat task Use (spontaneous) PPP PPP PresentationExposure (restricted) of single 'new' item Instruction PracticeExposure (restricted) of new item: Instruction Use (restricted) drills, exercises, dialogue practice ProductionExposure Activity, role play or task to Use (free or partly encourage 'free' use of language restricted) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 32

33. 33. Advantages1. TBL is applicable and suitable for students of all ages and background.2. Students will have a much more varied exposure to language with TBL.3. Students are free to use whatever vocabulary and grammar they know, rather than just the task language of the lesson.4. Allows meaningful communication.5. Students will be exposed to a whole range of lexical phrases, collocations and patterns as well as language forms.6. Encourages students to be more ambitious in the language. Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 33

34. 34. Disadvantages1. TBI requires a high level of creativity and initiative on the part of the task.2. TBI requires resources beyond the textbooks and related materials usually found in language classrooms.3. TBI is not teacher-centered and it requires individual and group responsibility and commit mention the part of students.4. There is a risk for learners to achieve fluency at the expense of accuracy. Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 34

35. 35. Conclusion1. Task-based teaching offers the opportunity for 'natural' learning inside the classroom.2. It encourages child-centered learning.3. It helps learners develop individual differences and support learning autonomy.4. It helps learners use language in a communicative process through authentic experience while engaging the target language. Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 35

36. 36. ReferencesEllis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Harmer, J. (1998). How to teach English: An introduction to the practice of English teaching. Essex : Addison Wesley Longman Limited.Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Jost, N. (2003). Issues in Task-based Language Instruction. JALT Conference Proceedings. Tokyo : Association for Language Teaching.Willis, J. (1996). A framework for task-based learning. Essex : Addison Wesley Longman Limited.

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How to teach english with technology - Chapter 7 (Part 1) Download Now Download to read offline and view in fullscreen. Task-Based Instruction (TBI) Presented as a requirement of TF 503 Teaching and Learning Strategies and Classroom Management Designed by Ms.Chayaporn Thirachaimongkhonkun Mr. Sunan Fathet M.A.Teaching English as a Foreign Language @SWU Thailand Read more 1.

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As the language theories underlying the Audiolingual method and the Sitiuational Language Teaching method were questioned by prominent linguists like Chomsky (1957) during the 1960s, a new trend of language teaching paved its way into classrooms. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages, emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as "Communicative Approach". Historically, CLT has been seen as a response to the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM), and as an extension or development of the Notional-Functional Syllabus. Task-based language learning, a more recent refinement of CLT, has gained considerably in popularity.

Shortcomings of structuralism and behaviorism

The theories underlying the audiolingual method and the situational language teaching were widely criticized during the 1960s. Noam Chomsky, for instance, rejected the structuralist view of language and demonstrated that there is a distinction between performance and competence. The goal of the linguist is to study the linguistic competence native speakers are endowed with. He also showed, rightly, that structuralism and behaviorism were unable to account for one fundamental aspect of language, namely the creativity and uniqueness of individual sentences. A child is able to produce an infinite number of sentences that s/he has never encountered. This makes the factors of imitation, repetition and habit formation weak arguments to account for any language learning theory.

A shift towards communicative proficiency

The increasing interdependency between the European countries necessitated a need for a greater effort to teach adults the principal languages of the continent. New goals were set in language teaching profession:

The paramount importance of communication aspects of language.

The increasing interest in meaningful learning.

The growing centrality of the learner in teaching processes.

The subordinate importance of structural teaching of language.

Notional / functional dimension of language

Applied linguists and philosophers addressed another fundamental dimension of language: the functional and communicative potential of language. The speech act theory showed that we do something when we speak a language. We use language ( cf Halliday 1975)

to get things,

to control behavior,

to create interaction with others,

to express personal feelings,

to learn,

to create a world of imagination,

to communicate information.

Besides applied linguists emphasized a teaching of language based on communicative proficiency rather than mastery of structures. instead of describing the core of language through traditional concepts of grammar and vocabulary, they (Van Ek & Alexander, 1975; Wilkins, 1976) attempted to show the systems of meaning underlying the communicative use of language. They described two kinds of meanings.

Notional categories: concepts such as time, sequence; quantity, location, frequency.

Functional categories: requests offers, complaints, invitation ...

In other words, a "notion" is a particular context in which people communicate. A "function" is a specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. For example, the "notion," of shopping requires numerous language "functions," such as asking about prices or features of a product and bargaining.

One language competence or numerous competences?

For Chomsky the focus of linguistics was to describe the linguistic competence that enables speakers to produce grammatically correct sentences. Dell Hymes held, however, that such a view of linguistic theory was sterile and that it failed to picture all the aspects of language. He advocated the need of a theory that incorporate communication competence. It must be a definition of what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech community.

Later Canale and Swaine (1980) described four dimensions of communicative competence.

Grammatical competence: refers to what Chomsky calls linguistic competence.

Sociolinguistic competence: refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication takes place (role relationships, shared beliefs and information between participants ...)

Discourse competence: refers to the interpretation of individual messsage elements in terms of their interconnectedness and how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text.

Strategic competence: refers to the coping strategies that participants use to initiate terminate, maintain, repair and redirect communication

Learning theory

According to the the communicative approach, in order for learning to take place, emphasis must be put on the importance of these variables:

Communication: activities that involve real communication promote learning.

Tasks: activities in which language is used to carry out meaningful tasks supports the learning process.

Meaning: language that is meaningful and authentic to the learner boosts learning.

Acquiring or learning?

Stephen Krashen later advocated in his language learning theory that there should be a distinction between learning and acquiring. He sees acquisition as the basic process involved in developing language proficiency and distinguishes this process from learning. Acquisition is an unconscious process that involves the naturalistic development of language proficiency while learning is the conscious internalization of the rules of language. It results in explicit knowledge about the forms of language and the ability to verbalize this knowledge. Learning according to Krashen can not lead to acquisition.

Syllabus

Communicative language teaching syllabus organizes the teaching according to the notional and functional categories of language rather than according to its structures.It concentrates on the following:

Interactions: using language to communicate,

Tasks: using language to perform meaningful tasks

Learner: putting the learner's interests, needs in the forefront.

Merits of CLT

There are many advantages in teaching according to the communicative approach:

CLT is a holistic approach. It doesn't focus only on the traditional structural syllabus. It takes into consideration communicative dimension of language.

CLT provides vitality and motivation within the classroom.

CLT is a learner centered approach. It capitalizes on the interests and needs of the learner.

In a world where communication of information and information technology have broken new considerable ground, CLT can play an important role in education.

Criticism

Notional syllabus was criticized as merely replacing one kind of list, namely a list of grammatical structures, with another list of notions and functions.

The various categories of language functions are overlapping and not systematically graded like the structures of the language.

The communicative approach focuses on the use of language in everyday situations, or the functional aspects of language, and less on the formal structures. There must be a certain balance between the two.It gives priority to meanings and rules of use rather than to grammar and rules of structure. Such concentration on language behavior may result in negative consequences in the sense that important structures and rules would be left out.

The approach relies extensively on the functional-notational syllabus which places heavy demands on the learners.

A major principle underlying this approach is its emphasis on learners' needs and interests. This implies that every teacher should modify the syllabus to fit the needs of the learners.

The requirements are difficult. Not all classrooms can allow for group work activities and for teaching aids and materials.

In spite of its critics, CLT has gained widespread acceptance in the world of language study. CLT can succeed, as long as teachers don't completely reject the need for the structure provided by grammar. Teachers must strive for moderation and shouldn't neglect the merits of other methods. CLT, in the hands of a balanced teacher, can bring new life and joy to the classroom. Its vitality makes it an important contributor to language learning approaches.

Read more on the Communicative Approach.

References

H. Douglas Brown (1987).Principles of language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall

Richards, Jack C. and Theodore S. Rodgers (1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching: A description and analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Other sources: Wikipedia - CLT

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Communicative Language Teaching (The Communicative Approach)

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As the language theories underlying the Audiolingual method and the Sitiuational Language Teaching method were questioned by prominent linguists like Chomsky (1957) during the 1960s, a new trend of language teaching paved its way into classrooms. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages, emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language.

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The natural approach developed by Tracy Terrell and supported by Stephen Krashen is a language teaching approach which claims that language learning is a reproduction of the way humans naturally acquire their native language. The approach adheres to a communicative approach to language teaching and rejects earlier methods such as the audiolingual method and the situational language teaching approach which Krashen and Terrell (1983) believe are not based on "actual theories of language acquisition but theories of the structure of language "

The Natural Approach vs the Direct Method

Although The Natural approach and the Direct Method (also called the natural method) share some features, there are important differences. Like the direct method, the natural approach is

" believed to conform to the naturalistic principles found in second language acquisition. Unlike the direct method, however, it places less emphasis on teacher monologues, direct repetion,and formal questions and answers, and less focus on accurate production of target language sentences" (Richards and Rodgers, 1986:129)

Theory of language

Krashen and Terrell view communication as the primary function of language, and adhere to a communicative approach to language teaching, focusing on teaching communicative abilities rather than sterile language structures.

What really distinguishes the Natural approach from other methods and approaches are its premises concerning the use of language and the importance of vocabulary:

Language is viewed as a vehicle for communicating meaning and messages.

Vocabulary is of paramount importance as language is essentially its lexicon!

This means that language acquisition cannot take place unless the acquirer understands messages in the target language and has developed sufficient vocabulary inventory. In fact, it should be easier to reconstruct a message containing just vocabulary items than one containing just the grammatical structures.

Theory of learning

Krashen grounded the Natural approach on a number of learning tenets.

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

Krashen makes a distinction between acquisition and learning.

Krashen defines acquisition as developing competence by using language for real communication. It is a natural way of developing the abilty to speak a language, paralleling first language development in children and refers to an unconscious process that involves the naturalistic development of language proficiency through understanding language and through using language for meaningful communication.

Learning, however, refers to formal knowledge of a language. It is the process in which conscious rules about a language are developed. It results in explicit knowledge about the forms of a language and the ability to verbalize this knowledge. Formal teaching is necessary for "learning" to occur, and the correction of errors helps with the development of learned rules.

The Monitor Hypothesis

Conscious learning can function only as a monitor or editor that checks and repairs the output of the acquired system. The Monitor Hypothesis states that we may use learned knowledge to correct ourselves when we communicate, but that conscious learning has only this function. Three conditions limit the successful use of the monitor:

1. Time. Sufficient time for a learner to choose and apply a learned rule.

2. Focus on form. Focus on the correctness or on the form of the output.

3. Knowledge of rules. Knowing the rules is a prerequisite for the use of the monitor.

The Natural Order Hypothesis

The acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order. Certain grammatical structures or morphemes are acquired before others in first language acquisition of English, and the Natural Order Hypothesis claims that the same natural order is found in second language acquisition. It is also believed that errors are signs of naturalistic developmental processes. Similar developmental errors occur in learners during acquisition (but not during learning) no matter what their native language is

The Input Hypothesis

The Input Hypothesis relates to acquisition, not to learning and states that people acquire language best by understanding input that is slightly beyond their level of competence. Krashen refers to this by the formula L +1 (where L+1 is the stage immediately following L along some natural order.) Comprehension is achieved through linguistic and extralinguistic context clues including knowledge about the world, the context of the situation etc... Comprehension precedes the emergence of speaking as fluency appears only as a result of the provision of sufficient comprehensible input. By comprehensible input, Krashen means the utterances that learners understand based on linguistic and extralinguistic context and which consists of a sort of simplified code. He contends that when there is such comprehensible input, language acquisition proceeds successfully. Krashen also claims that when there is enough of such comprehensible input, L+1will usually be provided automatically and

Affective Filter Hypothesis

There are three types of emotional attitudinal factors that may affect acquisition and that may impede, block or freely passes necessary input for acquisition. These are motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. Acquirers with a high affective filter are less likely to develop competence.

In a nutshell

Teaching according to the Natural Approach involves the following principles:

Teaching according to the Natural approach focuses on communicative abilities.

One of its objectives is to help beginners become intermediate.

Vocabulary is considered prior to syntactic structures.

A lot of comprehensible input must be provided.

Use of visual aids to help comprehension.

The focus is on listening and reading. Speaking emerges later.

Reducing the high affective filter by

focusing on meaningful communication rather than on form.

providing interesting comprehensible input

The technique used in this approach are often borrowed from other methods and adapted to meet the requirement of the approach. These include:

Conclusion

The Natural Approach belongs to a tradition of language acquisition where the naturalistic features of L1 acquisition are utilized in the L2 acquisition. It is an approach that draws a variety of techniques from other methods and approaches to reach this goal which is one of its advantages. But the originality of this approach does not lie in these techniques but on the emphasis on activities based on comprehensible input and meaningful communication rather than on only grammatical mastery of language.

References:

To read more on the Natural Approach and other methods:

Richards, J. C. & Rogers, T. S. (1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching: A description and analysis. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching (4th ed.). New York: Longman

Others sources:
Wikipedia: The Natural Approach

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The Natural Approach to language teaching

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The natural approach developed by Tracy Terrell and supported by Stephen Krashen is a language teaching approach which claims that language learning is a reproduction of the way humans naturally acquire their native language.

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Background

The Silent Way is the name of a method of language teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno. It is based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom but the learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible. Elements of the Silent Way, particularly the use of color charts and the colored Cuisenaire rods, grew out of Gattegno's previous experience as an educational designer of reading and mathematics programs. The Silent Way shares a great deal with other learning theories and educational philosophies. Very broadly put, the learning hypotheses underlying Gattegno's work could be stated as follows:

Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned.

Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects.

Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned.

Let us consider each of these issues in turn.

The Silent Way belongs to a tradition that views learning as a problemsolving, creative, discovering activity, in which the learner is a principal actor rather than a bench-bound listener (Bruner 1966). Bruner discusses the benefits derived from "discovery learning" under four headings: (a) the increase in intellectual potency, (b) the shift from extrinsic to intrinsic rewards, (c) the learning of heuristics by discovering, and (d) the aid to conserving memory (Bruner 1966: 83). Gattegno claims similar benefits from learners taught via the Silent Way.

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The Silent Way (Chapter 6) - Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching

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Background The Silent Way is the name of a method of language teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno. It is based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom but the learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible.

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With the outbreak of World War II armies needed to become orally proficient in the languages of their allies and enemies as quickly as possible. This teaching technique was initially called the Army Method, and was the first to be based on linguistic theory and behavioral psychology.

View large version with all methods

Explanation

Based on Skinner's Behaviorism theory, it assumed that a human being can be trained using a system of reinforcement. Correct behaviour receives positive feedback, while errors receive negative feedback.

This approach to learning is similar to the Direct Method, in that the lesson takes place entirely in the target language.

Emphasis is on the acquisition of patterns in common everyday dialogue.

The Audio-lingual Method was widely used in the 1950s and 1960s, and the emphasis was not on the understanding of words, but rather on the acquisition of structures and patterns in common everyday dialogue.

These patterns are elicited, repeated and tested until the responses given by the student in the foreign language are automatic.

Some characteristics of this method are:

Drills are used to teach structural patterns

Set phrases are memorised with a focus on intonation

Grammatical explanations are kept to a minimum

Vocabulary is taught in context

Audio-visual aids are used

Focus is on pronunciation

Correct responses are positively reinforced immediately

Modern Usage

The Audio-lingual Method is still in use today, though normally as a part of individual lessons rather than as the foundation of the course. These types of lessons can be popular as they are relatively simple, from the teacher's point of view, and the learner always knows what to expect.

Some of the most famous supporters of this method were Giorgio Shenker, who promoted guided self learning with the Shenker method in Italy, and Robin Callan, who created the Callan method.

Developments & Problems

This extensive memorization, repetition and over-learning of patterns was the key to the method's success, as students could often see immediate results, but it was also its weakness.

It was discovered that language was not acquired through a process of habit formation.

The method's insistence on repetition and memorization of standard phrases ignored the role of context and knowledge in language learning. As the study of linguistics developed, it was discovered that language was not acquired through a process of habit formation, and that errors were not necessarily bad.

It was also claimed that the methodology did not deliver an improvement in communicative ability that lasted over the long term.

Summary

When - 1950 to 1970, some sporadic or selective use today
Focus - Sentence and sound patterns
Characteristics - Listening and speaking drills and pattern practice only in English
Supporters - B.F. Skinner, Leonard Bloomfield, Robin Callan

By Alex Taylor

Learn more:

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The Audio-lingual Method of Teaching English

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With the outbreak of World War II armies needed to become orally proficient in the languages of their allies and enemies as quickly as possible. This teaching technique was initially called the Army Method, and was the first to be based on linguistic theory and behavioral psychology.

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Grammar Translation Method: Description, history and example of a lesson using this method.