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The need for education and public awareness were two ideas that many other padlets (including mine) had. The bad reputation of the herpetofauna is a result of many superstitions during the past. If the public (especially young people) stop hating these animals, they will start to understand them, and finally they’re going to love them. And along with this, conservation of the herpetofauna and its habitats will be a lot easier.

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Most of us agree that the loss and alteration of habitat, IAS, diseases and overexploitation are some of the most universal threats for the herpetofauna. But the ways in which these threats occur are different from place to place because they are mostly man- made, and humans change their environment differently, depending on their needs. In any case, everybody agree that the herpetofauna of their area is under threat and many species need protection urgently.

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Theme 3: Physiology & Ecology of the herpetofauna

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Theme 3: Physiology & Ecology of the herpetofauna

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The physiology and ecology of a species is related to the envirronment it lives. For this reason most of the European species have similar adaptations, comparing with other herpetoAreas (e.g. Colombia, South Africa). In these cases many species have bright colors, are more venomous than the European species or have adapted to live in extreme conditions (without food/ water abundance, really high temperatures, high competition, etc.).

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Many herpetoAreas were regions of Greece, for this reason there were many similarities concerning both the ecosystems and species richness. But in comparison with other European countries I would say that Greece is very rich with regards to its herpetofauna due to the many different ecosystems, the climate, and its geomorphology (Mediterranean country with many isolated islands, at the crossroad of 3 continents). In comparison with more tropical countries, it is not as rich as them.

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Poster to promote the organization & invite volunteers to partcipate

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Poster to promote the organization & invite volunteers to partcipate

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Βusiness plan of a local voluntary organisation which aims to protect the local herpetofauna

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Βusiness plan of a local voluntary organisation which aims to protect the local herpetofauna

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Specifically

Name: Voluntary Organization for the Protection of the Greek Herpetofauna: “O.P.G.H.”

House: OPGH is a local voluntary organization for the protection of the Greek herpetofauna which is housed in Ioannina city, Greece, outside the university campus.

Purposes: It aims to raise awareness for the local reptile and amphibian species, help the public learn about them and protect them from all the threats they face, according to the relevant treaties.

Threats of the Greek herpetofauna:

Intentional killing

Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation

Invasive Alien Species

Climate Change

Diseases

Overexploitation for collections

Actions:

Picking up rubbish from streets, ponds, lakes, rivers, beaches all around Epirus, or other parts of Greece if possible

Hospitalisation of injured wild animals and release back in the wild

Leaflet distribution to raise awareness, and inform the public

Field work (herping): Species identification and participation in inventory & monitoring surveys conducted by the University of Ioannina

Bazaar organization in order to raise money for our needs (e.g. hospitalization expenses, leaflet printing)

More actions and projects will be added if there are more ideas and volunteers to keep up with all these responsibilities!

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Βusiness plan of a local voluntary organisation which aims to protect the local herpetofauna

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Βusiness plan of a local voluntary organisation which aims to protect the local herpetofauna

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In general

When starting a voluntary organization the most important thing is promotion. The public don’t know what you want to achieve and why. Thus, in the very beginning poster sticking, talking on a local radio station, or sharing leaflets is necessary in order to attract volunteers. In the case of protecting the local herpetofauna, awareness should be raised and the following questions must be answered:

What is the herpetofauna? Which organisms is it consisted of?

How many reptiles and amphibians our area has? Which are they?

Why should we protect it? Why protection is an emergency?

Is herpetofauna dangerous to us?

What kind of actions could be possibly taken?

At the end of the leaflet/ interview/ poster whoever wants to participate should be invited in a place at a precise day and hour.

If there is no place to house the organization this is something that has to be solved immediately.

The name of the organization is the next step.

When all the above are arranged, action must be taken: Regular meetings in which all the members of the organization will be present, in order to evaluate the progress you have done until now, come up with new ideas, welcoming new members, starting new projects, etc.

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THEME 5: Herpetofauna & humans > Step 2- CREATE

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THEME 5: Herpetofauna & humans > Step 2- CREATE

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Red-Eared Terrapin (Trachemys scripta elegans)

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American Bullfrog (Lythobates catesbeianus)

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Overexploitation: frog legs as a gourmet dish

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Overexploitation: frog legs as a gourmet dish

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Ioannina, Greece

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The threats herpetofauna faces nowadays lead to the extinction of many species every year and the worseness of the status of many others. There are a lot of actions that can be taken, in all levels of society: scientific, public, political, personal.

First of all, it would be helpful if anyone could recognize whereas an animal is a legless lizard or a snake, or even better a venomous snake or not. It would be really helpful if education had to do with practical issues, for example first aid, survival, environmental awareness, conservation and sustainability, etc. If that was the case, then more people would know that the herpetofauna is as important as any other taxon and intentional killing in no reason and overexploitation would be avoided. The public would also know that freeing pets inside wild populations can spread diseases that cannot be easily eliminated, or introducing a species in a new ecosystem, away from its natural range, can lead to imbalance or even collapse of the new ecosystem.

Secondly, everybody can reduce the amount of plastics or other pollutants they use and recycle more. In this case, many habitats would stay clean and urban waste would be reduced.

Moreover some really strict laws for the conservation of these animals should be considered a high priority. Even if there are some environmental NGOs and other organizations, as well as some local and international treaties, in many cases they are not taken into consideration. Some areas (e.g. hotspots) and some organisms (e.g. Threatened species) must be conserved at all costs, and political and economic interests should step aside in these cases. NGOs and volunteers should also organize events to raise public awareness and actively participate in conservation actions.

But the most important part in estimating the biodiversity loss, applying conservation plans and giving new solutions to problems is the scientific community. Scientists have access in museum collections, they can understand data from databases or previous studies and they can use new technologies in order to help facing most of the threats.

Having in mind that a lot of studies about species populations have been conducted in the past scientists can use them as a comparison measurement to today’s studies so that they will be able to understand how many species are facing extinction and how much their habitats have been deteriorated.

The new studies concerning the herpetofauna and its conservation should combine different field and lab methods to be more precise. In my opinion inventory and monitoring surveys should be conducted, in combination with clipping and tagging in terms of field methods. For example, catalogues with species, species abundances and population sizes can be created with data from past studies and be completed with data from new studies. More data from museum collections can be added, too. Visual encounter surveys (time constrained, random routes in an area, during day and night hours to estimate one or more species abundance), microhabitat surveys (find the species living in different microhabitats inside an area), transect sampling (study all the species in a given random transect), calling surveys during the breeding season (only for anurans to estimate breeding sites and sex ratios), roadkills (to study the activity of a species and its breeding sites) and trapping are some of the methods that can be combined. They are usually cheap and easy to repeat methods.

Back in the lab DNA extraction from the samples is needed in order for scientists to be able to understand if a population is isolated and its individuals inbreed with each other (something that can lead to population collapse and local extinction of a species at any time). By studying the stomach content scientists will be able to see if there is food abundance or not. Different food sources reduce intraspecies competition and allow more births to occur. Lastly, by imitating environmental conditions and the amount of pollutants, pesticides, medicines, etc. of an area in the lab they will be able to understand the way a substance affects the environment (soil, water) or the species (eggs and larvae development, sensitivity of immune system etc.).  These methods are much more expensive and need experts to be conducted.

In conclusion, a combination of all the above would help facing most of the threats against the herpetofauna. It would also strengthen the conservation of many other species, which are related to the herpetofauna in a prey- predator relation or simply live inside the same protected area.

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Overexploitation: Overexploitation of the herpetofauna in Greece occurs mainly for the food market and for collections.

Food market: In Greece the main protein source from meat is farming animals (goats, sheep, cows, poultry). Therefore, eating frog legs is considered a gourmet dish. It is particularly associated with the city of Ioannina and its adjacent lake Pamvotida. Reptile dishes are not served.

Collections: In Greece, as well as anywhere else, keeping too many samples of a species for a personal or a research collection was usual in the past. Nowadays, the consequences of these acts are known and people are much more careful. A lot of studies are carried out "in situ" and the animals are freed in their natural habitat soon after the study. Moreover many experiments can be conducted without killing the animals due to the best understanding of their biology and anatomy and due to technological advancements. Nevertheless, many collectors keep collecting too many individuals for their personal collections, especially individuals with rare colors or patterns.

UV-B: There are three types of ultraviolet radiation: UV-A (315-400nm), UV-B (280-315 nm) and UV-C (200-280 nm). Most biomolecules do not absorb the higher UV-A wavelengths and most of the UV-C radiation is absorbed by stratospheric ozone; however, UV-B is particularly harmful to living organisms. Ambient levels of UV-B radiation in the atmosphere have risen significantly over the past few decades most likely due to decreases in stratospheric ozone, climate warming and lake acidification. Because amphibian eggs lack shells, and adults and tadpoles have thin delicate skin, they are extremely sensitive to increased levels of UV-B radiation. It is likely that increases in ambient levels of UV-B radiation have significantly contributed to amphibian population declines.

Invasive Alien Species: Reptile and amphibian species are constantly introduced to ecosystems outside their native ranges, mainly due to globalization and transportation development. In the new ecosystems they are introduced these species usually have food abundance and no predators and and they can easily grow in numbers. They sometimes spread pathogens in no resistant native populations, they are highly competitive with native species for food sources and spawning sites and they often feed on native species. In Greece, The American Bullfrog (Lythobates catesbeianus) was introduced in Agia Lake, Crete and is considered responsible for the population decrease of the endemic Cretan frog (Pelophylax cretensis).
Another example of Invasive Alien species in Greece is the Red-Eared Terrapin (Trachemys scripta elegans), a very popular pet in Europe, which is often released in the natural environment by its owners. It is considered highly competitive for native pond turtles.

Climate Change:

The timing of amphibian breeding is largely driven by environmental cues such as temperature and moisture and because of this their breeding phenology may be directly affected by global warming. Amphibians in temperate regions may be even more susceptible to increasing temperatures. Most temperate species spend a large portion of the year inactive, escaping either cold winters or hot summers. Subtle increases in temperature or moisture trigger them to emerge from their hibernacula. Immediately upon emergence, they migrate to ponds or streams to breed. Thus, one hypothesized direct effect of global warming on amphibians is a trend towards early breeding as the average temperatures increase. If amphibians breed too early in the season they may be more vulnerable to early snowmelt induced floods.

Moreover in a lot of amphibian and reptile species sex determination is temperature-dependent. This means that higher temperatures due to global warming can easily change the sex ratios in many populations.

Furthermore, it is likely that climate change is affecting amphibian populations in subtle and more complex ways. For example, local changes in the environment can decrease immune function and lead to pathogen outbreaks and elevated mortality. Or conditions can change to become more favorable for growth of a pathogen. Another possible scenario for both amphibian and reptile species is the distribution shift of many species northwards and uphill (following the optimum temperatures and the climbing tree line) due to temperature rising, leading to increasing competition between different species.

https://www.froglife.org/what-we-do/disease-ranavirus-2/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranavirus

https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B0RIvato4N7pNWUwM2U4YzYtNDA1ZS00YzlkLWJiOGUtMTRlNzkxMGI3YzVi/view

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batrachochytrium_dendrobatidis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batrachochytrium_salamandrivorans
https://amphibiaweb.org/declines/ClimateChange.html

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The last decades human activities have restricted the habitats of reptiles and amphibians (e.g. urbanization and alteration from forest to agricultural areas), or isolated one habitat from another (e.g. road and dam constructions). These phenomena are known as habitat loss and habitat fragmentation. Moreover in many cases the habitat has also been degraded by contaminants, pollutants, pesticides, plastics etc. All the above have led to a significant number of species facing the danger of extinction. Habitat destruction is considered the number one threat to the herpetofauna today.

Habitat degradation is the diminishment of habitat quality, which leads to a reduced ability to support its native biological communities.

Habitat loss is the removal and replacement from a habitat type to another one.

Habitat fragmentation is the breaking up of habitats into discontinuous isolated patches.

Most of the times when an area is degraded more than one of the above occur at the same time. The point is that the more the human activities expand to new territories with no impact assessment, the natural habitat of many species is getting more and more limited. Mining activities, intensive agriculture and farming, urbanization, forest fires, deforestation, road and dam construction, pollution from pesticides, toxic factory waste, urban waste and plastic, as well as overgrazing are some of the most important threats for the herpetofauna. This makes sense, if we think about the life cycles and the adaptations of the herpetofauna. Amphibians are ectotherms, have permeable skin, anamniotic eggs, and both an aquatic and terrestrial life stage. Reptiles are ectotherms and they usually don’t migrate if the environment is no more suitable for them.

Diseases: Reptiles and amphibians are susceptible to a variety of different pathogens including fungi, viruses, and bacteria.

Ranavirus is a temperature and density dependant virus, infectious to amphibians and reptiles. The ranaviruses appear to have evolved from a fish virus which subsequently infected amphibians and reptiles. Infectious animals may display one or more of the following symptoms: drowsiness (lethargy), abnormal wasting (emaciation), redness of the skin (erythema), skin ulcers or sores, bleeding (systemic haemorrhaging), especially from mouth/anus, breakdown of limbs (limb necrosis), eye problems. The most common symptom is simply to find a large number of dead frogs in a short space of time.

Aeromonas hydrophila: This bacteria species appears to be part of the natural microbiota of healthy frogs, but it can become pathogenic and cause disease. Disease caused by A. hydrophila was historically referred to as red leg disease, but bacterial septicemia and bacterial dermato- septicemia are more appropriate terms for the disease.  Systemic infection with A. hydrophila can lead to erythema (reddening) of the skin on the legs and ventrum. Individuals also can show edema (swelling) in the body and legs, anorexia, epidermal ulcers, and skin sloughing. Internal organs such as the spleen, liver, and kidneys may become enlarged or hemorrhage. Importantly, many of these signs of disease are similar to infections caused by other pathogens. Moreover A. hydrophila appears to be an opportunistic or secondary invader that capitalizes on dead or morbid amphibians that were infected with other pathogens

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) or the amphibian chytrid fungus, is a fungus that causes the disease chytridiomycosis in amphibians which infects their keratinized skin. After it was first discovered in 1998, the disease devastated amphibian populations around the world, in a global decline towards multiple extinctions. Some amphibian species appear to have an innate capacity to withstand chytridiomycosis infection due to symbiosis with Janthinobacterium lividum. Even within species that generally succumb, some populations survive, possibly demonstrating that these traits or alleles of species are being subjected to evolutionary selection.

Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) is a pathogenic chytrid fungus that infects salamanders and newts and emerged only recently as a potentially important threat to species in Europe. It was described in 2013 based on a strain collected from skin tissue of fire salamanders. It is related to the well-known chytrid B. dendrobatidis. Like this species, it causes chytridiomycosis, which is manifested in skin lesions and is lethal for the salamanders.

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Herpetofauna threats, signs of climate change & strategies to face these threats

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Herpetofauna threats, signs of climate change & strategies to face these threats

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Introduction

Greece hosts a lot of reptile and amphibian species. Both amphibians and reptiles live in a plethora of different habitats and have a lot of adaptations to their environment. Due to human activities a lot of habitats have degraded or modified in a way that they can no more support native biological communities. Hence, many species seem to be in peril due to habitat degradation, loss and fragmentation of their natural habitat. Moreover many of them face the danger of contagious diseases, overexploitation and Climate Change. Last but not least many species have to face Invasive Alien Species which seem to be highly competitive in some cases and intentional killing by people due to unawareness. There are a lot of actions that have to be taken, so that both the herpetofauna and its natural habitats are safe.

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Habitat loss and degradation: Ski Center construction

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Habitat loss and degradation: Ski Center construction

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Evritania, Central Greece

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Habitat loss and degradation: Forest fires

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Habitat loss and degradation: Forest fires

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Peloponnese, Greece

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Habitat fragmentation: alteration from forest to agriculture

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Habitat fragmentation: alteration from forest to agriculture

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Habitat degradation: Plastics in the sea

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Habitat degradation: Plastics in the sea

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Aegean Sea

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Milos Island, Aegean Sea

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Same place, 100 years later

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Evritania, Central Greece

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Aoos river, Epirus

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The Amphibians and Reptiles of the Aegean Sea

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The Amphibians and Reptiles of the Aegean Sea

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As a group [reptiles] are neither 'good' nor 'bad,' but iare interesting and unusual, although of minor importance. If they should all disappear, it would not make much difference one way or the other" ( Zim and Smith 1953, p. 9). Fortunately, this opinion from the Golden Guide Series does not persist today; most people have come to recognize the value of both reptiles and amphibians as an integral part of natural ecosystems and as heralds of environmental quality ( Gibbons and Stangel 1999). In recent years, as overall environmental awareness among the public has increased, concerns have come to include interest in the ecological state of reptile and amphibian species themselves and of their habitats. Increased awareness may stem from better education about threats to biodiversity in general, and to reptiles and amphibians in particular, and possibly even from an innate attraction to these taxa ( Kellert and Wilson 1993).

From the perspective of many nonscientists, the two vertebrate classes comprising reptiles and amphibians, collectively referred to as the herpetofauna, are interchangeable. For example, the Boy Scout merit badge pamphlet for herpetology was called simply Reptile Study from 1926 to 1993 ( Conant 1972, Gibbons 1993), and major zoos (e.g., National Zoo in Washington, DC; Zoo Atlanta; and San Diego Zoo) use only the name "reptile" to refer to the facility that houses both amphibians and reptiles. Thus, public attitudes about the need for conservation of reptiles are probably linked to concern about amphibian declines and deformities (Alford and Richards 1999, Johnson et al. 1999, Sessions et al. 1999), which have been the subject of numerous, well-documented scientific studies.

Because amphibians are distributed worldwide, but herpetologists who document amphibian declines are not, it is difficult to accurately assess what portion of amphibian populations are experiencing significant declines or have already disappeared. Furthermore, the means of determining a species' conservation status is a rigorous and time-intensive process, and therefore counts of "officially" recognized endangered and threatened species are likely to grossly underestimate the actual number of imperiled species (Table 1). The worldwide amphibian decline problem, as it has come to be known, has garnered significant attention not only among scientists but also in the popular media and in political circles.

The reptile problem

Despite the fact that reptiles and amphibians are often considered collectively, reptile declines deserve spotlighting and elucidating in their own right. The differences between the two groups are substantial. Modern amphibians and reptiles are products of independent lineages that have been separate for the past 300 million years ( Pough et al. 1998). Many of the differences between the groups are obvious and considerable. For example, the integument of reptiles is covered with scales, whereas amphibians have a highly permeable, glandular skin, a feature often touted as enhancing the environmental sensitivity of amphibians to toxic chemicals in both terrestrial and aquatic situations ( Vitt et al. 1990). Additionally, reptile eggs possess a calcareous shell, whereas amphibian eggs are enclosed by simple gelatinous membranes, making the eggs more susceptible to uptake of environmental contaminants (but see Pechmann and Wilbur 1994). The differences between amphibians and reptiles are not limited to morphology and reproductive biology; they also include ecological and behavioral traits. Most amphibians rarely travel more than a few hundred meters over the course of their lives (Semlitsch and Ryan 1998); many reptiles may move several kilometers both terrestrially and aquatically and have home ranges encompassing tens or hundreds of square kilometers (Brown 1993), and individual sea turtles may cover half the globe annually (Ernst and Barbour 1989).

Nonetheless, the similarities between the ectothermic tetrapods-amphibians and reptiles-link them inexorably. Species of both classes occupy similar habitats and are equally vulnerable to habitat degradation. Thus, syntopic species of amphibians and reptiles are correspondingly defenseless against the global threats of deforestation, draining of wetlands, and pollution from agricultural runoff. Although the amphibian decline problem is a serious threat, reptiles appear to be in even greater danger of extinction worldwide (Table 1).

Population declines can be difficult to detect; hence, long-term studies of natural populations and communities are generally regarded as indispensable for understanding normal population trends and fluctuations (Tinkle 1979). Long-term studies of amphibians and reptiles document temporal variation attributable to natural causes (Cody 1996). For example, Shine (1991) reported dramatic declines in Australia of the common blacksnake ( Pseudechis porphyriacus), a large frog-eating snake, due to food shortages during extended drought conditions. Only the smaller snakes survived, suggesting that large snakes may be relatively more susceptible to declines caused by food shortages. Gibbons (1990) reported a natural decline for an isolated population of slider turtles ( Trachemys scripta) on a coastal island. The turtle population had no juvenile recruitment, presumably because of constant predation on smaller individuals by alligators ( Alligator mississippiensis) that had become established on the island; only large adult turtles survived. Natural fluctuations and local extinctions are common in both reptiles and amphibians ( Pechmann et al. 1991, Blaustein et al. 1994c) and generally are no cause for alarm. However, not all declines are natural.

In this article, we consider the vulnerability of reptiles within the context of the factors known or suspected to be associated with amphibian declines, using the six categories of concern established by Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation (PARC; Gibbons and Stangel 1999): habitat loss and degradation, introduced invasive species, environmental pollution, disease and parasitism, unsustainable use, and global climate change. An additional category comprises unexplained declines for both reptiles and amphibians, wherein the disappearance of populations or a decline in numbers is a certainty but the cause is unknown. Of course, decline of a species may often be a cumulative effect of more than one of the potential causes, as proposed for the documented declines of the Milos viper ( Microvipera schweizeri) of Greece ( Nilson et al. 1999) and the asp viper ( Vipera aspis) of the Swiss Jura mountains ( Moser et al. 1984, Jaggi and Baur 1999).

Our account is not exhaustive; rather, we provide documented examples of reptile populations in peril and decline. The aggregate of examples of amphibians and reptiles indicates that the world's herpetofauna face stressors from both known and unknown origins that, without remediation, can only lead to continuing declines, extirpations, and extinctions.

Distinguishing natural declines from anthropogenic ones

Amphibian declines are indisputably real and disquieting on a global scale. Yet providing unequivocal supporting documentation for the decline of any particular population or species can be an onerous task, and some expectations of scientific rigor may be unable to be met (Pechmann et al. 1991). One persistent incertitude regarding amphibian declines is whether a decline is simply within the natural range of variability for a population or is instead a consequence of anthropogenic causes that could portend an unrecoverable situation.

One difficulty in demonstrating whether observed trends in estimated population sizes constitute normal fluctuations or "unnatural" declines is that most field studies of amphibians or reptiles have not had the duration or consistency to make such determinations convincingly (Pechmann and Wilbur 1994). "Snapshots" (i.e., short-term monitoring) of population size and structure may demonstrate current status but do not reveal long-term trends in population size or health. For example, Petranka et al. (1993), who used short-term monitoring, and Ash (1997), who did long-term monitoring, came to different conclusions regarding the effects of clearcutting on recovery time of terrestrial salamander populations. To be sure, the strongest support for a decline is a long-term data set that has registered population levels for particular species in particular locations. However, the accumulation of numerous accounts from shorter-term studies of a variety of amphibian species in diverse habitats and geographic regions lends credence to pleas for concern about declines.

Studies of decline among reptiles, like those conducted for amphibians, have not always been carried out as rigorously as scientists would prefer. Nonetheless, the ever-increasing number of perceived declines among reptiles and the documentation of adverse impacts on individuals that presumably can be projected into demographic changes are harbingers of a crisis situation. Our intent is to show the phylogenetic and geographic breadth of perceived problems with many reptiles, on the premise that they foreshadow a more intense and widespread problem.

Habitat loss and degradation

Many scientists consider loss of suitable habitat to be the largest single factor contributing to declines of amphibians (Alford and Richards 1999). For example, some regions of the United States retain less than 20% of the wetland acreage they once had (Leja 1998), and consequent declines in associated amphibian populations have been documented ( Lannoo et al. 1994). Numerous semiaquatic reptiles rely on those very same wetlands. In South Carolina, the elimination or alteration of more than 90% of Coastal Plain Carolina bay wetlands (Bennett and Nelson 1991) has reduced essential habitat for black swamp snakes ( Seminatrix pygaea), eastern green water snakes ( Nerodia floridana), and chicken turtles ( Deirochelys reticularia), all of whose distribution patterns are restricted primarily to seasonal wetlands ( Buhlmann 1995, Dorcas et al. 1998). Likewise, as bogs disappear in the eastern United States, so too do bog turtles ( Clemmys muhlenbergii), and as streams and rivers are polluted, dammed, or channelized, riverine map turtles ( Graptemys) decline (Buhlmann and Gibbons 1997). Even if the jurisdictional wetland itself is protected, in many cases the surrounding terrestrial habitat needed by semiaquatic reptiles for nests, hibernation sites, and other refugia is not (Burke and Gibbons 1995).

Just as habitat alterations may affect terrestrial salamanders (deMaynadier and Hunter 1995), they may also cause declines in terrestrial reptiles. The loss of 97% of the southeastern longleaf pine habitat ( Ware et al. 1993), which has contributed to the decline of the flatwoods salamander ( Ambystoma cingulatum; Means et al. 1996), has also reduced suitable habitat for gopher tortoises ( Gopherus polyphemus), eastern indigo snakes ( Drymarchon corais), and eastern diamondback rattlesnakes ( Crotalus adamanteus; Guyer and Bailey 1993, Stephen H. Bennett, South Carolina Natural Heritage, Columbia, SC, personal communication).

Cultivated pine plantations in southeastern South Africa have been implicated in the endangerment of the rare short-headed legless skink ( Acontias breviceps) and the disappearance of another lizard (Eastwood's long-tailed seps, Tetradactylus eastwoodae; Branch 1998). In the Chiricahua mountains of southeastern Arizona, the elimination of native bunchgrasses by cattle grazing was considered to be the primary cause of a detectable decline in the bunchgrass lizard ( Sceloporus scalaris), which use bunchgrasses for cover from predators and for protection from harsh winter conditions (Ballinger and Congdon 1996). Habitat loss is the biggest problem in the decline of snakes in Australia (Shine 1991). The link between intact habitat and species persistence and well-being is a basic tenet of ecology and conservation biology ( Meffe and Carroll 1994, Mittermeier et al. 1999) and needs no further discussion.

The mere presence of humans may constitute an insidious form of habitat degradation in some instances, even if the habitat itself remains intact. Based on a 20-year study, a wood turtle ( Clemmys insculpta) population of more than 130 animals in a forested watershed in New Haven County, Connecticut, has been virtually eliminated since the area became open to the public (Garber and Burger 1995). The possible mechanisms of decline included removal, road kill, handling by recreationists, increased number of predators attracted by food waste, and disturbance by dogs.

Introduced invasive species

Introduced species have been cited as a problem for many amphibians (Stolzenburg 1999). For example, the distribution and abundance of several western US frog species have been severely reduced by non-native fishes and bullfrogs ( Rana catesbeiana), which were and continue to be introduced to wetland "island" habitats of low- and high-elevation lakes (Fisher and Shaffer 1996). The collapse of endemic reptile faunas on true islands after the introduction of exotic species is similarly well documented and pervasive; non-native rats, cats, and mongooses have extirpated numerous lizard species on many islands (Case and Bolger 1991). The tuatara ( Sphenodon punctatus), a primitive reptile, historically inhabited the two main islands of New Zealand and at least 40 of the offshore islands ( Daugherty et al. 1990). The tuatara became extinct on the main islands in the nineteenth century and on 10 offshore islands within the last few decades, and is experiencing population declines on many of the other islands as a result of introduced mammals, primarily rats. Feral pigs in the Galapagos Islands, first noted by Darwin in 1835, are just one of the non-native species that have caused the near extinction of the Galapagos tortoise ( Geochelone elephantopus; Thornton 1971). Introduced rats are suspected to have destroyed both the eggs and young of the tortoises, but the initial cause of decline was 18th-century mariners who stopped at the islands and stocked their ships with live tortoises as food for the sailors (Pritchard 1967).

Even the introduction of non-native reptiles can disrupt indigenous reptile communities. For example, Losos et al. (1993) showed that the invasion of Grand Cayman by exotic brown anoles ( Anolis sagrei) caused behavioral changes and shifts in habitat use by the native species, Anolis conspersus. Likewise, the introduction of the brown tree snake ( Boiga irregularis) has been implicated in the extirpation of the gecko ( Nactus pelagicus) from the islands of Guam and Tinian; the brown tree snake is also considered responsible for dramatic declines in other species of native lizards on 13 of the Marianas Islands (Rodda 1992).

Although island faunas are most susceptible to disruption, the detrimental effects of invasives on native reptiles are not limited to islands. In the continental United States, imported fire ants ( Solenopsis invicta), introduced in Mobile, Alabama, as early as 1918 (Wilson 1950), have been reported to prey on both eggs (Moulis 1997) and young ( Allen et al. 1997) of reptiles. Fire ants are implicated as a primary cause of extirpation of the Texas horned lizard ( Phrynosoma cornutum) from part of its geographic range (Goin 1992).

Invasive species need not be other animals. Both the desert tortoise ( Gopherus agassizii) and the gopher tortoise are threatened by the introduction of non-native plant species ( Stewart et al. 1993, Lovich 1995) that alter habitat structure, native plant community composition, and even fire frequency. The black legless lizard ( Anniella pulchra nigra) was considered for federal endangered status, in part because of the negative impact of non-native Hottentot fig plants on the lizards' prey base in disturbed sand-dune habitat (Rutherford and Rorabaugh 1995); nonetheless, an official decision was made not to list the species after viable lizard populations were found in undisturbed habitat with native vegetation (Morey 1998). In Idaho, reptile species richness decreased an average of 5% from 1978 to 1998 at 24 sample sites in the Snake River Birds of Prey Area (John Cossel Jr. and Charles R. Peterson, Idaho State University, Pocatello ID, personal communication). According to Cossel and Peterson, the changes in reptile populations may have been influenced by a decrease in native shrub habitat caused by the prevalence of exotic annual grasses and the effects of wildfires that have burned over 50% of the area since the 1970s.

Environmental pollution

Numerous environmental contaminants-metals, pesticides and herbicides, and radioactive waste, for example-have direct and indirect effects on both amphibians and reptiles (e.g., Hinton and Scott 1990, Hall and Henry 1992). Amphibians have been the subject of numerous ecotoxicological studies, including assessment of the direct effects of contaminants such as fertilizers ( Marco et al. 1999) or the more subtle effects of steroid-mimicking contaminants (Hayes 1997). Reptiles are studied far less than amphibians with respect to the fate and effects of contaminants ( Hopkins et al. 1999), but they have received sufficient toxicological study to provide convincing evidence that some individual reptiles are adversely affected by many contaminants (Hall 1980, Fontenot et al. 1994). For example, slider turtles ( Trachemys scripta) exposed to metal and radioisotope contaminants incur genetic damage ( Lamb et al. 1995). The degree to which contaminants cause population-level effects remains largely unknown, both for amphibians and for reptiles.

Contaminant effects in reptiles are known mainly from turtles and crocodilians. Many turtles and crocodilians, because they have environmental sex determination and large eggs that can incorporate high levels of environmental pollutants, are especially sensitive to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (Guillette and Crain 1996). At some contaminated sites, turtles accumulate PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), dieldrin, and other contaminants in tissues and eggs ( Bishop et al. 1994, Cobb and Wood 1997); sex reversal and abnormal gonads have been found in turtles exposed to PCBs ( Bergeron et al. 1994, Guillette et al. 1995). Male American alligators ( Alligator mississippiensis) inhabiting Lake Apopka, a chemically contaminated lake in Florida, had significantly reduced plasma testosterone levels and permanent gonadal alterations ( Guillette et al. 1994).

Even nonlethal effects of endocrine disrupters on reptiles may result in demographic shifts whose consequences for populations are presumably detrimental. Population-level effects might also occur through changes to patterns of individual energy allocation. For example, in coal-ash polluted wetlands, water snakes ( Nerodia fasciata) with high body burdens of metal contaminants exhibit elevated metabolic rates, which may result in less energy being devoted to reproduction, growth, and storage ( Hopkins et al. 1999).

Disease and parasitism

Parasites and disease have been documented or suspected as causes for declines in some amphibian species ( Daszak et al. 1999). In some cases, sublethal environmental stressors may suppress immune systems (Carey 1993) and allow disease agents to kill weakened animals (Alford and Richards 1999). Recently, however, a spreading "extinction wave" of chytrid fungus is thought to be causing the decline of anurans in Central America and Australia ( Berger et al. 1998, Lips 1999); moreover, researchers believe that the fungus is killing otherwise healthy animals ( Daszak et al. 1999). An iridovirus may be the primary cause of the periodic population crashes in the Sonora tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum stebbinsi ( Jancovich et al. 1997). Some amphibian biologists now believe that disease may rival habitat destruction as the largest single cause of the decline of amphibians.

Among reptiles, the widespread upper respiratory tract disease, a contagious respiratory ailment caused by the bacterium Mycoplasma agassizii, is a potential cause of population declines in desert tortoises in the US Southwest and gopher tortoises in the Southeast ( Jacobson 1993, Smith et al. 1998). Shell diseases have been implicated in the decline of turtles (e.g., shell lesions on sliders, Lovich et al. 1996; cutaneous dyskeratosis affecting the shell and thickened forelimb scutes of desert tortoises, Jacobson 1994; and emaciation and lesions of the plastron of federally listed flattened musk turtles, Sternotherus depressus, Dodd 1988). Individuals in many green sea turtle populations are severely affected by viral fibropapillomas, resulting in growths that can impair vision, locomotion, and feeding ability (Herbst 1994). As is often the case in amphibians, diseases that are debilitating to wild populations of reptiles are most likely secondary expressions in individuals with impaired resistance caused by one or more primary environmental stressors, such as habitat degradation, invasive species, or pollution.

Unsustainable use

Human use of animals, including reptiles and amphibians, is an integral part of many cultures. Harvesting must be biologically sustainable, however, if populations and species are to persist ( Pough et al. 1998). Overcollection for food, the pet trade, and biological supply houses has been suggested as having had an impact on some amphibian populations (Dodd 1997). In the United States, noteworthy examples for amphibians occurred in the late 1800s to early 1900s, when commercial collectors harvested for the frog legs market. Hundreds of thousands of red-legged frogs ( Rana aurora draytonii) were collected from wetlands in California (Jennings and Hayes 1985), and over 20 million leopard frogs ( Rana pipiens) were taken annually in northwestern Iowa ( Lannoo et al. 1994). Midwestern wetlands today harbor fewer frogs, although it is difficult to apportion the relative losses among the causes of wetland habitat destruction and degradation, introduction of predators, and previous commercial impacts ( Lannoo et al. 1994). In India, the frog-leg trade has resulted in severe population declines of the Indian bullfrog ( Rana tigrina) and the green pond frog ( Rana hexadactyla); an estimated 70 million frogs are exported illegally each year (Oza 1990).

Human use of a species is sustainable if it can be continued indefinitely without adverse effects on population survival (Ross 1998). Much of the use of reptiles is clearly unsustainable. Commercial impacts on reptiles have been more pervasive and severe than on amphibians (e.g., see Williams 1999). The severity of the turtle crisis on a global scale was emphasized by Rhodin (1999), who reported that of the approximately 293 taxa (mainly species, but including some subspecies) of freshwater turtles, tortoises, and sea turtles known to be extant over the last few centuries, 3% (9 taxa) are already extinct in the wild. An additional 4% (12 taxa) are critically endangered, 11% (32 taxa) are endangered, and 21% (61 taxa) are vulnerable.

The crisis is particularly acute for Asian freshwater turtles and tortoises, which are harvested as a local food source. Moreover, the international trade in turtles-which are eaten, sold as pets, or used in traditional Chinese medicinal remedies-is both extensive and unregulated ( Sharma 1999). A recent report indicated that most turtle species in Vietnam and southern China are endangered and that turtles can no longer be found in the wild in Vietnam ( Kiester and Juvik 1997). China is the biggest consumer of turtles in the food trade. Because the trade in turtles is not regulated, few records have been kept, but existing records indicate that the trade in live turtles to China is thousands of tons per year ( Mockenhaupt 1999). The commercial trade in freshwater turtles exceeds any possible sustainable levels, and extinction of some species in the wild can be expected within the next decade.

Most species of sea turtles continue to decline in all warm oceans of the world. The leatherback sea turtle ( Dermochelys coriacea) was recently reported to be "on the road to extinction and further population declines can be expected" unless appropriate measures are taken to reduce mortality rates in adults, hatchlings, and eggs ( Spotila et al. 1996). The estimated worldwide population of leatherbacks nesting on beaches in 1980 was 115,000, compared with just 34,500 in 1995. Exploitation of leatherbacks in the Atlantic Ocean, through illegal harvesting of both adults and eggs, is considered to be a major contributor to the decline of the species ( Spotila et al. 1996). Likewise, for Kemp's Ridley sea turtle ( Lepidochelys kempii), harvests of nesting females and their eggs on the largest known nesting site contributed to declines from 42,000 nesting females in 1947 to only a few hundred by 1975 ( Hildebrand 1982).

Among North American turtles, the diamondback terrapin ( Malaclemys terrapin), a small, estuarine turtle species with a geographic range from Cape Cod to Texas, declined severely following heavy exploitation as a gourmet food item from the late 1800s to the early 1900s ( Carr 1952). With forced reductions in harvesting, many populations were able to recover, but the terrapin now faces significant new threats, including highway mortality ( Wood and Herlands 1997) and drowning in commercial and recreational crab traps ( Bishop 1983, Roosenburg 1991). Renewed commercial harvest of the diamondback terrapin has also been documented ( Garber 1988).

Commercial turtle trappers for the restaurant trade stepped up harvests of one of the largest freshwater turtles in the world, the alligator snapper ( Macroclemys temminckii), from the 1960s through the 1980s ( Roman et al. 1999). Consequently, as evidence from survey efforts suggests, the species has been drastically reduced in numbers in some of the southeastern US rivers it once inhabited ( Moler 1992, Jensen 1998).

The enormous and once common populations of the arrau ( Podocnemis expansa), a communally nesting turtle of the Orinoco and Amazon Rivers in South America, are now greatly reduced in size because of human consumption of eggs and nesting females ( Pritchard and Trebbau 1984), an overexploitation problem identified almost two centuries ago ( Humboldt 1814, from Pritchard and Trebbau 1984). Declines from similar causes have befallen the terecay ( Podocnemis unifilis) in tropical lowlands of South America ( Thorbjarnarson et al. 1993) and the river terrapin ( Batagur baska) in India ( Bhupathy 1997).

Overharvesting for food is a problem not just for turtles but also for lizards, having contributed to declines in green iguanas ( Iguana iguana) and spiny-tailed iguanas ( Ctenosaura similis) in tropical America ( Fitch et al. 1982).

The pet trade appears especially hazardous for some turtle species. In 1994, population declines were reported in box turtles ( Terrapene carolina) in 16 states, ranging from Massachusetts to Florida and Oklahoma to Wisconsin ( Lieberman 1994). Documentation of box turtle declines-including records showing that, since 1995, 29,896 box turtles had been collected for the pet trade and shipped from Louisiana-resulted in unanimous passage of Act 81 by the Louisiana Senate and House of Representatives in 1999; the act prohibits the commercial harvest of the state's native box turtle populations. Overcollection for export is a serious factor in much of the box turtle decline and may exacerbate the effects of habitat loss ( Lieberman 1994). Habitat destruction and illegal collecting for the pet trade are the primary threats to bog turtles ( Clemmys muhlenbergii); Copeyon 1997). The number of northern populations has been reduced by 50%, with most of the decline occurring over the last 20 years. Of the 191 remaining bog turtle habitats known in 1996, 33 were classified as in good condition, 67 as fair, and 76 as poor; the status of 15 was unknown.

Overcollecting is also a problem for some snake species. The ocellated mountain viper ( Vipera wagneri) in eastern Turkey has been sought by the pet trade and removed from the wild in large numbers, posing "a serious threat to survival of the species" ( Nilson et al. 1990). Populations of several boa and python species have declined because of harvesting of wild snakes for their skins ( Pough et al. 1998). Rapid declines of large-bodied snakes, which tend to have a suite of life-history traits that make them more susceptible to population declines than smaller species (e.g., Dodd 1993), have been documented throughout the world in recent years (e.g., Shine and Fitzgerald 1996). For example, females of the increasingly rare timber rattlesnake ( Crotalus horridus), which may exceed a meter in length and typically take 9 years to reach maturity, produce fewer than a dozen young every 3 years ( Brown 1993). Large-bodied species such as rattlesnakes ( Crotalus) have long generation times, a life-history trait that, when combined with habitat loss, human persecution, and intensive overcollection (e.g., "rattlesnake roundups"; Brown 1993), has led to dramatic declines of some species and made approximately one-third of rattlesnake species vulnerable to extinction ( Greene 1997). High harvest rates of snakes with low reproductive frequencies, such as the filesnake ( Acrochordus arafurae) in Australia, would almost certainly be unsustainable ( Shine et al. 1995).

These examples demonstrate that sustainable use of some long-lived reptile species is problematic. Because longevity in reptiles is associated with delayed sexual maturity, high adult survivorship, and low fecundity ( Pough et al. 1998), populations of long-lived species cannot remain stable (or grow) when adults and older juveniles are harvested at high rates ( Congdon et al. 1993, 1994). This is not to say, however, that all such long-lived species should be commercially off-limits. The key to sustainability is having species- and population-specific management plans and tightly controlled use ( Ross 1998).

For example, three decades ago, several species of crocodilians were on the verge of extinction because of a combination of threats, including habitat destruction ( Ross 1998) and unsustainable harvest of adults for the leather trade ( Brazaitis 1989). After years of total protection, several species have recovered; a few are farmed or ranched commercially ( King 1989). In some crocodile species, adult females are protected and only small numbers of eggs, small juveniles, and larger males are removed from the wild ( King 1989). In contrast, 7-8% of all alligators more than 1.2 m in length are harvested annually in some Florida populations ( David et al. 1996). In addition, a 50% annual harvest rate of alligator eggs or hatchlings is allowed because removal at these life stages does not reduce recruitment into adult-size classes ( Rice et al. 1999). Closely monitored alligator populations, and presumably populations of other long-lived species of reptiles, can sustain the legal, regulated harvest of some proportion of eggs, hatchlings, or adults with negligible effects.

Global climate change

Few ecologists will dispute the link between increases in greenhouse gases and global temperature. However, whether the current rate of climate change reflects natural variation or has an anthropogenic cause is hotly debated. For the purposes of this article, we accept the argument that the earth is undergoing unprecedented rapid climatic change ( Schneider and Root 1998) that includes alterations in climate variables such as temperature and rainfall patterns, storm severity, and storm frequency. If one accepts that human-induced climate change is occurring (e.g., Vinnikov et al. 1999), then the consequences for herpetofaunal diversity can be addressed.

The obvious effects of climate change on biodiversity are mediated through changes in habitat. For example, global warming may further diminish prairie wetland habitat in the United States ( Poiani and Johnson 1991). Future wetland acreage in the United States may be greatly reduced under a variety of climate circulation models ( Halpin 1997), and aquatic and semiaquatic species will suffer declines as habitat disappears. Although many habitats are expected to undergo dramatic change (e.g., Guertin et al. 1997, Still et al. 1999), predictions of species habitat shifts in response to global warming cannot be based solely on analyses of climate-space changes, because species distributions are also a function of dispersal ability and biotic interactions ( Davis et al. 1998). Existing nature reserves will be inadequate to preserve current biodiversity, because an already fragmented landscape will impede the ability of species to respond to climate-induced habitat changes ( Halpin 1997). Because of their limited dispersal abilities, reptiles and amphibians are especially vulnerable to rapid habitat changes and may suffer many more extinctions than birds as a result of a rapid rate of climate change ( Schneider and Root 1998).

In discussions of observed amphibian declines, little mention has been made of climate change ( Dodd 1997), with two notable exceptions. First, the famed golden toad ( Bufo periglenes) extinction in Costa Rica may have been caused, at least in part, by global warming effects on montane dry-season mist frequencies ( Pounds et al. 1999). Fauna in tropical montane cloud forests may be particularly susceptible to rapid climate shifts that may change patterns of cloud formation and thereby the availability of water ( Still et al. 1999). Second, Blaustein et al. (1994a) have suggested that ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation has adverse effects on some amphibians, including reduced hatching success and decreased survival to metamorphosis. However, an increase in the level of UVB caused by depletion of the ozone layer probably does not pose an immediate threat to reptile eggs, which are seldom exposed to UVB radiation.

As with the amphibian studies, few researchers have directly assessed effects of climate change on reptiles. It is nonetheless reasonable to expect that climate changes could result in conditions that eliminate or severely restrict species with limited distributions ( Schneider and Root 1998), as has been suggested for some Australian lizards ( Brereton et al. 1995) and crotaline snakes of North America and the neotropics ( Greene and Campbell 1993). Additional effects of warming on some reptiles, based on empirical evidence with freshwater turtles, include enhanced juvenile growth rates, earlier ages at maturity, and shifts in functional sex ratios ( Frazer et al. 1993). Global warming may have the greatest impact on those reptiles (crocodilians and some turtles) that have temperature-dependent sex determination ( Janzen 1994), whereby the sex ratio of the hatchlings is determined by nest temperatures during incubation. Unless shifts occur in the pivotal temperatures at which sex is determined, or female nest-site choices (i.e., shade versus sun) evolve to keep pace with rising temperatures, altered sex ratios could affect population demographics and persistence.

Enigmatic declines

Finally, in addition to the many cases of declines that have some reasonably understood causes, some amphibian populations have declined, and even gone extinct, without any discernible causes. One well-known example is the gastric brooding frog ( Rheobatrachus silus) of Australia. Shortly after the discovery of its unusual system of parental care, in which the young develop in the safety of the mother's stomach ( Tyler and Carter 1981), the gastric brooding frog ceased to be found in nature. Disjunct populations of the green salamander ( Aneides aeneus) in the southern Appalachians have apparently declined, but without similar declines in other portions of its range (Jeff Corser, USGS-BRD, Twin Creeks Resource Center, GSMNP, Gatlinburg, TN, personal communication).

Similar cases exist for reptiles. For example, no living specimen of the Round Island burrowing boa ( Bolyeria multocarinata) in the Indian Ocean has been seen since 1975 ( Bullock 1986); the species may have become extinct in recent decades ( Greene 1997). Although all species of reptiles native to North America in precolonial times persist in some regions, the current ranges of many are but a remnant of the much larger areas formerly occupied. Natural populations of indigo snakes have not been found in some regions of their historic range in more than 40 years ( Mount 1975, Conant and Collins 1998), and the species is "declining in abundance and distribution throughout its U.S. geographic range" ( Hallam et al. 1998). Likewise, sightings of the southern hognose snake ( Heterodon simus) have not been reported from either Alabama or Mississippi in more than 18 years ( Tuberville et al. 2000), even in large protected areas with relatively pristine habitats.

Documenting declines

Regrettably, many amphibian populations and species that are thought to be declining have not been monitored over long periods of time, making short-term changes in population size difficult to evaluate critically. The best long-term studies of amphibian populations that allow for critical evaluation of population trends share a common characteristic: The subjects of these studies occur in high density either spatially (e.g., Jordan's salamander, Plethodon jordanii; Hairston 1987) or temporally (e.g., mole salamanders, Ambystoma talpoideum; Pechmann et al. 1991; and natterjack toads, Bufo calamita; Banks et al. 1994).

Many of the species that have become symbols for the declining amphibian phenomenon are seasonally active anurans that arrive over restricted periods of time at breeding sites where they congregate in greater densities than at any other time of the year. Researchers sit ready to record their arrival and abundance, and if the animals fail to show up when expected, a problem is suspected; if such absences are protracted, then the change is presumably real ( Blaustein et al. 1994c). The phenology of these amphibians permits detection of breeding activity; therefore, determination of whether the absence of breeding adults is a short-term aberration or an indication of a real decline becomes a matter of accumulating the data necessary to demonstrate a statistically significant trend (for discussion, see Blaustein et al. 1994c, Pechmann and Wilbur 1994, Reed and Blaustein 1995).

Among reptiles, declines in sea turtles are perhaps the best documented because, like many amphibians, they engage in an annual reproductive event (in this case, oviposition) with a predictable site and time. A few snake species in colder temperate regions are known to hibernate communally, and numbers can be assessed upon emergence ( Parker and Brown 1973). But what of the majority of reptile species that do not congregate to breed or hibernate and do not occur in particularly high densities? For example, the racer ( Coluber constrictor), a common North American snake, is found in a wide variety of terrestrial habitats. Like most other ectotherms, racers are more active, and therefore more commonly encountered, in the warmer months. However, aside from some regions where communal hibernation occurs ( Parker and Brown 1973), determining the abundance of racers is difficult because of their stochastic patterns of activity. Herpetologists would be hard-pressed to describe densities accurately during any season over a wide geographic range. Because racers do not congregate at a breeding site, how could we take a census to know when and if racer populations were declining at a substantial rate on a widespread basis without mounting an intensive, long-term sampling program? The clandestine nature of many reptiles, often combined with comparatively large home ranges, low population densities, and rareness of congregational behavior, makes documenting population trends very difficult. As a result, populations may wither with little notice. Once an unmonitored species or population is recognized as being unexpectedly depauperate or absent, the cause of decline may be unknown and unknowable.

Based on the accumulated evidence that many if not most declines reported for amphibians are indeed real, the proper course for conservation initiatives is to assume the worst for all herpetofauna, and therefore to implement abatement measures while gathering more data. Although the lack of long-term data often may preclude the identification of the cause of a decline, or even in some cases the corroboration of a decline, the absence of that data does not rule out the existence of a correctable problem.

Conclusion and recommendations

The declines of many reptile populations are similar to those experienced by amphibians in terms of taxonomic breadth, geographic scope, and severity. As with amphibians, the causes are known with certainty in some instances, suspected in many, and unknown in others. Some extirpations are local whereas others are more widespread. The difficulty in documenting the scope and source of each reptile (or amphibian) population decline should not be underestimated.

Biologists must be pragmatic in assessing which causes of population declines can be obviated directly. The impact of habitat degradation, introduced invasive species, and unsustainable use can be controlled immediately and proximally through legislation and cultural shifts in environmental attitudes. Minimally, society must place a premium on maintaining habitats of sufficient size and quality not only for imperiled taxa but for herpetofauna in general ( Beebee 1992, Semlitsch 1998). For example, protecting the basins of wetlands is pointless if the surrounding terrestrial zone that is fundamentally linked to the wetland is allowed to be destroyed. Second, the release of invasive non-native species that could be harmful to reptile populations must be proscribed. Third, restricting trade in sensitive reptile species for which sustainable removal cannot be demonstrated will require the passage or strengthening and enforcement of legislation. In the case of Asian turtles, legislative remedies could be too little, too late-a stopgap remedy is necessary. The only way to prevent the imminent extinction of a large number of the more than 80 species of turtles native to southern Asia will be to maintain populations in ex situ captive breeding and genetic reserve programs. With changes in cultural attitudes, strengthening of international trade regulations, and increased habitat protection, the reintroduction of these species into the wild may be possible.

Much of today's commercial exploitation of reptiles in the United States and elsewhere requires urgent governmental action to implement internationally accepted and enforced controls. Despite the fact that conservation measures can be implemented effectively through legislation (as happened with legislation for protection of Louisiana box turtles and American alligators), the political pressures against accomplishing such goals cannot be overstated. The lack of support by the World Trade Organization for recommendations to curtail sea turtle exploitation (WTO 1998) brings the problem into perspective on an international scale.

Direct and indirect effects of environmental pollution, disease and parasitism, and global climate change are more difficult to quantify in many instances and will be more difficult to change in the short term. Nonetheless, we must endeavor to understand these potential factors to ameliorate their impact on natural populations of reptiles and their habitats.

Finally, long-term monitoring of reptile populations is essential and must be aided by the establishment of standard methods and techniques. It is equally important that the academic community, land managers, and conservation organizations recognize that rigorous field programs focusing on the distribution, abundance, status, and trends of populations and species are critical and worthwhile. Herpetofaunal inventories should become a standard part of environmental assessment programs, and the publication of field survey efforts that document potential or suspected declines should be encouraged. When long-term and widespread monitoring becomes the norm, declines are likely to become less equivocal (in terms of protracted declines versus natural fluctuations) and the causes less mysterious.

The disappearance of reptiles from the natural world is genuine and should be a matter of concern not simply because of reptiles' perceived associations with amphibians, but because reptile declines, like those of amphibians, are growing and serious in their own right. Current evidence suggests that amphibian and reptile declines, which are exacerbated by burgeoning human populations, constitute a worldwide crisis.

Acknowledgments

Manuscript preparation was aided by Financial Assistance Award Number DE-FC09-96SR18546 from the US Department of Energy to the University of Georgia Research Foundation. We thank Ab Abercrombie, Justin Congdon, William Hopkins, Laura Janecek, Christopher Romanek, and Joseph Pechmann for discussion and comments on the manuscript. We also appreciate the help of Stephen H. Bennett, John Cossel Jr., Charles R. Peterson, Paul Moler, Woody Woodward, and Jeff Corser for providing information on the status of particular species. This paper supports the PARC (Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation) effort to promote education about reptiles and amphibians.

References cited

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Global Decline of Reptiles, Déjà Vu Amphibians: Reptile species are declining on a global scale. Six significant threats to reptile populations are habitat loss and degradation, introduced invasive species, environmental pollution, disease, unsustainable use, and global climate change

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As a group [reptiles] are neither 'good' nor 'bad,' but iare interesting and unusual, although of minor importance. If they should all disappear, it would not make much difference one way or the other" ( Zim and Smith 1953, p. 9).

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Both amphibians and reptiles live in a plethora of different habitats and have a lot of adaptations to their environment. Due to human activities a lot of habitats have degraded or modified in a way that they can no more support native biological communities.

A lot of areas with water (ponds, lakes, rivers, streams), rocks and water vegetation are suitable habitats for amphibians. Forests, meadows, rocks and water bodies are suitable habitats for reptiles. In Greece there are many natural habitats with these features on both continental Greece and its islands. The Aegean Sea and Peloponnese are two hotspots concerning amphibian and reptile biodiversity in Greece.

The last decades human activities have restricted these habitats (e.g. urbanization and alteration from forest to agricultural areas), or isolated one from another (road and dam construction). These phenomena are known as habitat loss and habitat fragmentation. Moreover in many cases the habitat has also been degraded by contaminants, pollutants, pesticides, plastics etc. All the above have led to a significant number of species facing the danger of extinction.

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THEME 4: Threats to the herpetofauna> Step 3- CREATE

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THEME 4: Threats to the herpetofauna> Step 3- CREATE

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People encounter reptiles for the fisrt time

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People encounter reptiles for the fisrt time

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People encounter reptiles for the first time

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People encounter reptiles for the first time

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Extinction Risks and the Conservation of Madagascar's Reptiles, Richard K. B. Jenkins et. al.,  2014

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Proposal for the conservation and sustainability of Malagasy reptiles.

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Proposal for the conservation and sustainability of Malagasy reptiles.

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My name is Olga Grizi and I am a member of the “Madagascar’s Herpetofauna Friends (M.H.F.)” club, a non- scientific herpetological club in Madagascar in which we inform the public about the herpetofauna of our area and we help them to get familiar with it in real life through field expeditions.

Unfortunately, the Malagasy reptiles are threatened due to habitat degradation, removal from their natural habitat for international trade and in some cases, human consumption. There are over 370 native reptile species and 39% of them are considered as threatened in the IUCN Red List (Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable in their natural habitat).

For these reasons there must be something done by everyone (government, the public, scientists) to avoid the worseness of the situation. Our role is to propose some activities that our team could organize to raise awareness.

1. More Campaigns: Projects for the public in which we will emphasize the following:

What is a reptile?

How many reptiles exist in Madagascar?

Where do reptiles live?

Are they useful and if so, why?

Which reptiles are dangerous for humans and what should we do in case we encounter a reptile?

Why reptiles found only in Madagascar (endemic reptiles) are really important and what will happen if they go extinct?

*Campaigns can be held in schools, parks and convention centers.

2. Field Activities: For both children and adults. People should get out of their comfort and “face” the animals they live with. In these activities it will be easy to understand practically the theory from the projects and they will be able to catch, identify and finally know some reptile species.

3. Leaflets & videos for educational purposes.

4. Promote the herpetofauna as an alternative “attraction” of our island: Our purpose is to persuade businessmen and the government that the herpetofauna can support our island economically via ecotourism much better than (illegal) trade can. The magnificence of the area in aspect of biodiversity can support all local businesses: hotels, restaurants, museums, businesses with local products, etc.
In this way we protect the reptiles, their habitats and at the same time we give options for the local market to develop in different ways, putting an end to pet trade and wood harvesting.

5. Propose the increase of the management authorities inside each protected area: more rangers, scientists, vets and experts. Apart from the fact that this measure can lead to decrease of the unemployed, it also prevents from illegal trade and hunting for consumption, in other words allows the increase of reptiles’ sustainability.

6. Promote reptiles’ benefits: The poison, for example, can be used as a medicine. Moreover, these animals themselves can protect us from contagious diseases by controlling the number of rodents.

7. Raise money to fund more research and conservation assessments: organize bazaars, concerts, etc.

In conclusion, I hope that our proposal will help our community understand the importance of the situation for the future of the Malagasy reptiles, or even better help other people come up with better ideas and solutions about what has to be done.

Olga Grizi

Member of the “Madagascar’s Herpetofauna Friends (M.H.F.)”

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THEME 4: Threats to the herpetofauna > Step 1- Activate your prior knowledge

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THEME 4: Threats to the herpetofauna > Step 1- Activate your prior knowledge

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(Kastellorizo island, Greece)

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Amphibians- Salamandra Lyciasalamandra luschani
Physio- Ecological Profile

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Amphibians- Salamandra Lyciasalamandra luschani
Physio- Ecological Profile

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Generally:

Nocturnal

More active at the surface during and after rainfall and at dropping atmospheric pressure, generally more active in winter (November- April), the rest of the year it lives underground

Antipredatory machanisms:

Defensive position: trunk raised above the substrate and arched.

Distress call

Eating behavior:

Feed on invertebrates (arthropods, earthworms, slugs), different preferences between adults and young, but also between males and females

Active foragers with highly diverse diets

Natural enemies: scorpions, birds, hedgehogs, rats

Mating:

Sexual maturity: 3 years

Viviparous (1-2 young)

Mating season: winter

Gestation period: one year

Male carries the female on its back (amplexus) and leaves a spermatophore for the female

https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%81%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%BB%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B6%CE%BF%CF%85

https://amphibiaweb.org/species/4256

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/41241/86525768

http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-YZLQ201103005.htm

https://books.google.gr/books?id=7Z6XCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA247&lpg=PA247&dq=Lyciasalamandra+luschani+behavior&source=bl&ots=daKJTsbIzK&sig=ACfU3U1RsVNwGq6Pqx_jzt2LokYeDboadQ&hl=el&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwigpcW11_zgAhU14aYKHSV6DusQ6AEwAXoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=Lyciasalamandra%20luschani%20behavior&f=false

Diet Composition of the Salamander Lyciasalamandra luschani basoglui on the Greek Island of Kastellorizo in the Southeast Aegean, Sea Rosa-Maria POLYMENI, Canella RADEA, Costis PAPANAYOTOU, 2011

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Our Wonderful Nature (The Common Chameleon)

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Chamaeleo chamaeleon 1, Gewone kameleon, Saxifraga-Edo van Uchelen

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Reptiles- Chamaeleo chamaeleon
Physio- Ecological profile

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Reptiles- Chamaeleo chamaeleon
Physio- Ecological profile

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Antipredatory mechanism:

Staying still

Moving back and forth imitating leaf movement

Eating behavior:

Mostly insectivorous, but also eats fruits

Rapid extension of its long, sticky tongue which can be extended twice as long as its body

Intraspecies behavior:

Solitary animals with their own territory, only members of the opposite sex can invade to their territory during mating season

They get involved to a territorial dispute if other animals invade to their territory

Communication by changing color: Colors vary between yellow and dark brown and color changes are not used as camouflage, which is the common belief, but to express emotions, to communicate and also as a response to light and temperature changes

Cannibalism (adults eat juveniles): This weird behavior has led to minimal habitat overlap depended on age- juveniles live exclusively on low grasses, while adults live on bushes and trees. This is how juveniles avoid cannibalism.

Mating:

Sexual maturity: 1 year after birth

Females lay one clutch of eggs per year

Mating season: mid- july to mid- September

Incubation: 10-12 months

Eggs laid deep into the soil

Larger females are preferred by males because they can lay more eggs

Senses:

Limited Hearing (sound frequencies in the range of 200–600 Hz)

Excellent vision, with each eye moving independently (so they can observe two different objects simultaneously) and having a full 360-degree arc of vision around their bodies

Monocular depth perception

See in both visible and ultraviolet light

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chameleon#Senses

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00265-005-0102-z

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THEME 3: Physiology and ecology of the herpetofauna > Step 3- CREATE

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THEME 3: Physiology and ecology of the herpetofauna > Step 3- CREATE

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In Greece, the last population of this species still survives in Samos Island. It has been listed as an Endangered (EN) species in Greece.

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Endemic species to Greece & Albania. Found only in high altitudes (1600-2000m). It feeds mainly on orthoptera, but also on small rodents and reptiles. It is diurnal and viviparous. It is poisonous, but has a weak poison. IUCN: EN

(For more info see at the beginning of this padlet)

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/53789650/53790137

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=181&sid=144

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Endemic species to Turkey & Greece. This species is found in Mediterranean scrubland and mountain steppe habitats. It can be found in rural gardens, cultivated land, olive groves and among ruins. It mates during spring and the females give birth to between two and 15 young. It is mostly diurnal but when temperatures are high, it prefers hunting in the afternoon and at night. It feeds on small mammals and birds. It whistles when is threatened. It is poisonous and its bite needs medical treatment.

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/61537/86548598

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=177&sid=144

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Endemic species, found only in the Greek islands: Milos, Kimolos, Sifnos.  It can be found throughout the islands on dry, sunny hillsides and in traditionally cultivated land, in densely vegetated areas close to water with rocky outcrops, and also in pools of water. Its most important habitat is small creeks. The female lays a clutch of between four and 11 eggs. It feeds on birds, rodents and other reptiles. It is nocturnal during summer and diurnal during spring and autumn. It is threatened by illegal collection of animals, direct persecution when encountered (because it is poisonous), accidental mortality on roads and ongoing habitat loss through mining and quarrying concessions. Illegal collection, mortality and mining are still ongoing, but at a lower level than before as a result of regulation and conservation measures. Fires (caused by humans) and tourist development are also important threats. In the species' stronghold in western Milos there are tourist developments causing habitat loss and increased shortage of water. IUCN: EN

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/12654/3369754

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=175&sid=144

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Endemic to Greece (islands of Eastern Aegean), Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq. It looks like a worm and his eyes are atrophic, covered with skin. It is a fossorial species (it lives underground and digs holes) found in a variety of sparsely vegetated Mediterranean habitats. Very rarely it can be observed on the surface. It moves in underground holes that open itself on soft soil and sand, as well as in holes from invertebrate nests. It is also hidden under stones and rocks. It feeds on small invertebrates. It is often found in moist, sandy soils that are easy to excavate and have a high level of humus. It can presumably occur in low intensity agricultural land. The females lay one or two eggs in a clutch. There is some persecution because it is mistakenly identified as a snake. It is a harmless reptile.

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/157272/5067037

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=81&sid=79

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Ophiomorus punctatissimus (Bibron & Bory de Saint-Vincent, 1833)

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Ophiomorus punctatissimus (Bibron & Bory de Saint-Vincent, 1833)

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Endemic to Greece (Peloponnese) & Turkey. It is not a snake, it is a legless lizard. This means that it has eyelids and acoustic openings, unlike snakes. It prefers areas with low vegetation up to 900m altitude and is hidden under stones and fallen leaves or buried in soft soil. It avoids high summer temperatures by digging deeper into the ground. It feeds on invertebrates. Females give birth to 2-4 eggs.

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/61540/86101074

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=134&sid=129

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Endemic to Greece & Turkey. This species is found in rocky and well vegetated areas that are often close to water. It can be found in cultivated land, among ruins and in rural gardens. It is an ovoviviparous species, the female gives birth to between three and eight young. It feeds on arthropods and other invertebrates.

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/157291/120690621

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=137&sid=129

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In Europe endemic only in Greece & Cyprus. It is a diurnal species found climbing in bushes in dry to humid habitats. It inhabits shrubland, plantations, open pine woodland, orchards (such as almonds and olive groves) and gardens. It is a harmless reptile. It moves slowly with a characteristic movement while approaching its prey, which is caught with its sticky tongue that can be extended longer than its body. Its fingers and tail help while climbing, while its eyes move independently, having the ability to look in different directions at the same time. It has the ability to change its color depending on the environment or its mood. It feeds mainly on insects, but also with small lizards. The females produce a single clutch of between five and forty-five eggs per year; these are buried in the soil. Mating is very intense, so 30-40% of females may die after it. Chameleons usually do not exceed their third year of life. It is threatened locally by loss of habitat through urbanization and the development of tourist facilities, agricultural intensification, predation by domestic animals, accidental mortality on roads and by illegal collection of animals.

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/157246/743434

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=95&sid=92

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In the Mediterranean, this species has been recorded from salt marshes, sand dunes and maquis shrubland. Animals are found climbing in vegetation such as reeds and shrubs, or climbing in large trees. It is sometimes found on the ground in sandy areas, and in the dry season is often seen on paths and roads. It is a diurnal species that feeds on insects and other arthropods. An introduced population in Greece has adapted to coastal dune vegetation. Pylos (Peloponnese, Greece) is the only place in Europe where this species is found. It seems to have been introduced by humans a few thousand years ago, from an area of ​​Egypt. This population’s eggs are laid between mid-September and October and hatch in the following August/September, an incubation period of 10-11 months and the females produce a single clutch of between 4 and 43 eggs per year. In Greece, the main threats to the species are loss of sand dune breeding habitat to developing tourism, and illegal collection (as pets). Mortality on roads is also an important threat to the Greek subpopulation, especially during the breeding season.

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/157273/747133

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=94&sid=92

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Endemic to Greece & Albania. It is not a snake, it is a legless lizard. This means that it has eyelids and ear openings, unlike snakes. It is usually found in the morning and late in the afternoon and is usually hidden in dense vegetation, under stones and woods and in invertebrate nests. It feeds mainly on small invertebrates, as well as on small reptiles. It mates in early spring and the females give birth to newborn lizards. If caught it makes intense movements with the body and the tail, which can easily be cut. Its major threats are intentional killings by humans who falsely believe that it is a snake.

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=233&sid=86

http://www.catalogueoflife.org/col/details/species/id/1409f112bab4a64ffa7ed89748b2d6cc

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Endemic to Greece. It is not a snake, it is a legless lizard. This means that it has eyelids and ear openings, unlike snakes. It is usually found in the morning and late in the afternoon and is usually hidden in dense vegetation, under stones and woods and in invertebrate nests. It feeds mainly on small invertebrates, as well as on small reptiles. It mates in early spring and the females give birth to newborn lizards. If caught it makes intense movements with the body and the tail, which can easily be cut. It occurs in humid areas within meadows, scrubland, open forests (both deciduous and coniferous), hedgerows and wooded stream sides. It also occurs in rural gardens and traditionally farmed agricultural areas. It appears to be an adaptable species, but is generally killed when it is encountered. Human-caused fires (such as those in the Peloponnese in 2007) may be a threat. IUCN: NT

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/61467/118230809

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=88&sid=86

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This taxon ranges from near sea level to about 1,300m altitude but mostly occurs below 800m. It generally prefers dry, hot areas. Clutches consist of four to seven eggs, perhaps up to 15; females produce one to three clutches per year which hatch after about 2.5 months. Animals require about 8 to 14 years to reach maturity. It feeds on a variety of herbs, but also on invertebrates. It is threatened by habitat degradation & illegal captivity. The main threat is wildfires. Tourist infrastructure development eliminates some habitat. There is some mortality recorded from trampling of juveniles by livestock, and destruction by farmers as perceived crop pests.

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/21653/9307262

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=71&sid=67

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Endemic to Greece and Albania. Total length: 10cm. It is found in marshes, lakes, rivers and stagnant waters. It mates during spring and females give birth to more than 10,000 eggs altogether until the end of the breeding season! It is a largely aquatic species. Introduced populations of this species in Italy do not form hybridogenetic hybrids with native species.  This species is threatened in its native range by drainage of wetland habitats and aquatic pollution of many waterways caused by agrochemical and industrial (including mining) contaminants. In northern parts of its native range (e.g., Lake Skadar) it is significantly threatened by over collection for commercial purposes. The species is additionally threatened by accidental introductions of commercially transported non-native water frogs. However, it remains abundant in many places.

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/58637/11817029

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=227&sid=219

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Pelophylax epeiroticus (Schneider, Sofianidou & Kyriakopoulou-Sklavounou, 1984): 

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Pelophylax epeiroticus (Schneider, Sofianidou & Kyriakopoulou-Sklavounou, 1984): 

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This species is mostly aquatic and is commonly associated with still waters, slow-moving rivers, canals, and marshes, often with rich vegetation at their edges. It feeds on invertebrates and mates during spring. The main threats to this species are general loss of wetland habitat (through drainage for urbanization, tourism and agricultural intensification), water pollution, and large-scale commercial collection for food (it is harvested in enormous numbers in Albania).

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=226&sid=219

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/58592/11793456

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Pelophylax cretensis (Beerli, Hotz, Tunner, Heppich & Uzzell, 1994)

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Pelophylax cretensis (Beerli, Hotz, Tunner, Heppich & Uzzell, 1994)

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Endemic species, found only in the island of Crete. Total length: 8cm. Great color variety. It is found in marshes, lakes, small rivers and stagnant waters. It mates during spring. The loss of aquatic habitats is the principal threat to this species. Extraction of stream water in the uplands for agricultural irrigation (for bananas) leaves many lowland reaches dry during the summer months. Additional habitat loss may be occurring through infrastructure and tourism development. It might be impacted by the introduction of Lithobates catesbeiana. IUCN: EN

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=225&sid=219

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/58581/11788512

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Pelophylax cerigensis (Beerli, Hotz, Tunner, Heppich & Uzzell, 1994)

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Pelophylax cerigensis (Beerli, Hotz, Tunner, Heppich & Uzzell, 1994)

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Endemic species found only in the islands of Karpathos and Rhodes. Total length: 7cm. It is a mostly aquatic species, largely restricted to permanent still or slow-running waters and apparently sensitive to habitat change. Breeding and larval development presumably take place in these waterbodies. It mates during spring. The major threat is habitat loss and degradation of suitable aquatic habitats. Although the site from which the species is known is fairly remote, freshwater habitats are subject to a number of threats such as excessive water abstraction and climate change. Fires are an additional potential threat, and the species may be vulnerable to climate change. IUCN: CR

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/58567/11787309

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=224&sid=219

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Alien species. It has been introduced in Greece and other European countries and has caused an imbalance in the ecosystems that it was introduced due to its size (much larger than native species) and the fact that it has no natural enemies. It originates from the eastern part of North America. In Greece, it has been introduced to the lake of Agia, in Chania region and due to its presence the endemic Cretan frog (Pelophylax cretensis) has almost disappeared from the area.

It feeds on anything that can be swallowed, such as small mammals, small birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, etc. It is characterized by its curious roar.

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=221&sid=219

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Maximum length: 10cm. Females larger than males. It is found in a variety of habitats, even in high altitudes or in dry areas. Ground dwelling and mostly nocturnal toad, although observed on the day, especially in the spring. If caught violently, it excretes defensive toxic substances from skin glands, capable of preventing most predators because they are particularly irritating. These substances are harmless to humans when they come in contact with the skin but may cause some irritation symptoms if swallowed or come in contact with the eyes and with wounds.

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=212&sid=209

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/155333/74516784

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Greece hosts the subspecies Lyciasalamandra luschani basoglui and it is found only in Kastellorizo. Maximum length 14cm, rarely more. It prefers low temperatures and this is a reason why it is not easily observed during summer. It feeds on invertebrates. The females are larger than the males, while the males have a characteristic appendage at the end of the tail used in mating. The male leaves a spermatophore that the female receives from the cloaca. Females give birth to up to three complete youngsters. Males have much more rough skin on the back than the females. IUCN: VU

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/41241/86525768

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=198&sid=191

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Endemic species found only in the islands of Kasos, Saria, Karpathos. Maximum length: 14cm. It prefers low temperatures and this is why it is not easily observed during summer. It feeds on invertebrates. The females are larger than the males, while the males have a characteristic appendage at the end of the tail used in mating (embracing or amplexus). The male leaves a spermatophore that the female receives from the cloaca. Females give birth to up to three complete young. Males have much more rough skin on the back than the females. The population of Kasos is threatened. IUCN: VU

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/61918/12572637

http://www.herpetofauna.gr/index.php?module=cats&page=read&id=197&sid=191

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THEME 2: Diversity of the herpetofauna > Step 3- CREATE

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THEME 2: Diversity of the herpetofauna > Step 3- CREATE

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Some amphibian and reptile species of Greece have already been presented in the very beginning of this padlet. But there are many more that are worth mentioning.

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THEME 2: Diversity of the herpetofauna > Step 1- Activate your prior knowledge

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THEME 2: Diversity of the herpetofauna > Step 1- Activate your prior knowledge

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The really cold winters of the glacial periods transformed into cooler ones (interglacial periods). An interglacial period is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age (for example the current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene, about 11,700 years ago).

During a glacial period the climate gets colder and the flora consists mainly of tundra. The rest of the flora moves (recedes) to southern areas. These changes in flora lead to changes in fauna, as well.

The organisms once lived in North Europe were well adapted to cold. The climate change affected more the ones who couldn’t move: they either adapted (option 3) or died (option 1). On the other hand, those who could move, moved (e.g. towards southern areas with different ecosystems which supported more food (options 2, 4)).

Overall both fauna & flora moved to warmer areas when that was necessary (Option 2).

In South Europe, changes were not as intensive as in North Europe. The climate was warmer even during the glacial periods and this was a reason for a higher biodiversity anyways. The warmer climate could host more ectotherms and more plants leading to a higher biodiversity which was further favored by the temperature rising and the movement of other organisms southwards.

So, the high biodiversity and endemism of South Europe (Italian, Iberian, Balkan peninsulas) is directly connected to climate change.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interglacial

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T. marmorum & L. gigantea in the same tree

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T. marmorum & L. gigantea in the same tree

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Species: †Latonia gigantea (toad)

Locality: Karyidia, Greece

Date (Primary reference): 2006

Collector (Primary reference): C. Doukas and L.W. van den Hoek Ostende.

PaleoDB taxon number: 69435

Extras:
Era: Miocene
Environment/lithology: terrestrial

http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=collectionSearch&taxon_no=249806&max_interval=Miocene&country=Greece&is_real_user=1&basic=yes&type=view&match_subgenera=1

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Species: †Testudo marmorum (turtle)

Locality: Pikermi, Greece

Date: 1862

Collector: Gaudry

Type specimen: MNHN PIK 3683, a partial shell

PaleoDB taxon number: 347955

Extras:

Era: Miocene

Ecology: herbivore

Environments: fluvial, terrestrial

http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=347955

https://eol.org/pages/47044065/data

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http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=94503

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https://repository.kallipos.gr/bitstream/11419/1920/1/02_chapter_11_complete.pdf

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https://repository.kallipos.gr/bitstream/11419/1920/1/02_chapter_11_complete.pdf

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The presence of amphibians is little known among the fossilized vertebrates of Greece. According to the Tertianura database, the oldest known anurans (frogs) of Greece come from Aliveri, Evia (~ 17,5 Mya) and belong to the genus Latonia.
Findings from the Miocene and Pliocene have been found in many areas (Pikermi, Lefkonas, Ano Metochi, Trilofos, Tourkovounia, Ptolemaida, Spilia etc.) and they were classified to the genera: Rana, Pelobates, Hyla and Bufo.
Finally, Holman (1998) reports the presence of the genus Triturus (Order: Urodela (salamanders)) from the Pleistocene.

https://repository.kallipos.gr/bitstream/11419/1920/1/02_chapter_11_complete.pdf

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The fossils of reptiles in Greece have been known for more than 150 years. It is characteristic that very important fossils, such as the giant Lahophis from Laos (Laophis crotaloides), the python of Euboea (Python euboicus ), and the turtle and the varanus of Pikermius (Testudo marmorum and Varanus marathonensis) have drawn the interest of many reptilians and paleontologists of the 19th century.
Despite the interesting initial discoveries as well as the importance of the area from a biogeographical point of view, the fossilized reptiles did not take proper interest in the next decades.
Besides the ancestors of the current lizards, snakes, and turtles that live in our country, the Greek herpetofauna of the past has also revealed many other "exotic" or completely vanished reptiles. Among them, crocodiles, cobras, pythons, large lizards, amphisbaenians, and giant turtles. Some of these species have been found exclusively in Greece, such as Nostimochelone lampra from Kastoria's lower Miocene era. Others are the last representatives of "exotic" reptiles that once grew up in Europe, as the last varanus of Europe that lived in the Pleistocene era near Athens.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331021502_Apolithomena_Erpeta_tes_Elladas_Fossil_reptiles_from_Greece

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This is a lecture about the reptiles of Greece, how we identify them & what we should do if a poisonous snake bites us.
* I found this video only in Greek, so you can understand everything only if you understand Greek, but there are a lot of photos that may help you understand what it's all about.

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Lecture for Reptiles of Greek mainland @Katerini Fire service  | 2018

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B. Amphibian & Reptile Fossils of the HerpetoArea of Greece

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B. Amphibian & Reptile Fossils of the HerpetoArea of Greece

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It is a largely aquatic species, generally found in areas close to suitable open water wetland habitats. It breeds in various stagnant and slow-moving waterbodies.
This species is threatened in its native range by drainage of wetland habitats and aquatic pollution of many waterways caused by agrochemical and industrial contaminants. The species is additionally threatened by accidental introductions of commercially transported non-native water frogs. However, it remains abundant in many places.

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/58637/11817029

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The European pond turtle is a not well studied freshwater turtle species but it is considered to be "Near threatened" in the IUCN Red List.

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7717/97292665

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This is an adaptable species present in meadows, bushlands, parks, many damp habitats and rural and urban areas. The species breeds in still and slow moving shallow waters and irrigation ditches; females lay 200-300 eggs. It is often recorded from modified habitats.
Localized threats to the species include general drainage, pollution and eutrophication of breeding sites, logging of forest surrounding breeding pools and the introduction of predatory fishes.

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/59481/11932252

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Its ventral pattern is used for identification of each individual because it is unique!

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The Macedonian crested newt (Triturus macedonicus) is a newt species found in the Western Balkan peninsula.

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A defining feature of a pond is the presence of standing water, which provides habitat for wetland plants and animals. Ponds are suitable habitats for newts and frogs and it is easy for a sampling to take place because ponds are usually shallow and small.

They are usually affected by livestock (e.g cattle) drinking water or grazing the bank vegetation.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pond

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In general populations are found at the slopes of foothills and mountain covered with bush vegetation and woods, in thickets of xerophilous bushes, in juniper open woodlands, oak groves, border of forests.
This species is threatened by direct persecution in parts of its range and loss of habitat to intensive agriculture and fires. Animals are often killed on roads.

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/157277/5068046

# data[].attributes.body
This is a widespread and adaptable species present in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests, groves, bushlands, meadows, arid areas, parks and gardens. It is usually in damp areas with dense vegetation. The species spawns and larval development takes place in still waters and slow-moving parts of rivers and streams. It is present in many modified habitats.
Populations might be locally impacted through deforestation, drainage of wetlands, pollution, agricultural intensification, urbanization, desertification, mortality on roads (migrating animals), and persecution.

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/54596/11159939