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The history and culture of New Mexico is arguably the most diverse and fascinating in the United States. While the Founding Fathers were busy wresting America from the British on the east coast, New Mexico was already a well-established colony populated by Hispanic and Native American settlers. This hardy mix of Indian, Spanish and Anglo culture hasn't changed much since Santa Fe was founded in 1608. Beautifully rugged and endlessly engaging, New Mexico is like stepping into another land.

History

Some of North America's most ancient native cultures made their home in New Mexico, including the Clovis, Anasazi and Pueblo people. Evidence of their settlement is the state's top cultural attractions like Bandelier National Monument and the Gila Cliff Dwellings. In fact, the Native American culture is still alive and well with 11 active pueblos scattered around the state.

Spanish explorer Francisco Vazquez de Coronado was searching for the Seven Golden Cities of Cibola in 1540 when he made his way to the region. The Province of New Mexico was established in 1598, connecting the Spanish New World colonies of Central America with North America via the Royal Road of the Interior.

Santa Fe was founded in 1608, essentially making it the oldest town in America even though New Mexico would not become an official state until 1912. Santa Fe was developed by the Spanish as a trade center, with the Native American tribes eventually connecting with Anglo traders from the east coast. Santa Fe remains one of America's most fascinating destinations, with a downtown packed with beautiful historic sites.

Albuquerque was the next big town to be established in 1706 as an alternative settlement to Santa Fe. The territory was passed to Mexico in 1821 after the War of Independence. The Mexican-American War of 1846-1848 ended with Mexico ceding most of the American Southwest and California to the US, including New Mexico.

In the 20th century, New Mexico was used by the US government for weapons testing at White Sands, Los Alamos and Alamogordo. The world's first atomic bombs were developed during WWII at Los Alamos, just outside of Santa Fe, and then detonated at White Sands Proving Grounds. Major federal research labs and three Air Force bases have contributed greatly to the modern economy although tourism also has a large impact.

Culture

In many ways, New Mexico feels like a completely separate country from America. Its population is heavily made up of Hispanic and Native American people who can trace their ancestry back centuries. Anglos are actually a minority here, but there is little overt animosity between the ethnic groups as many have intermarried over the years. New Mexico is certainly one of America's most rugged and most underdeveloped states, but its nature beauty and fascinating culture make up for any deficiency in modern amenities.

Most travelers only take the time to see the tourist hubs of Santa Fe, Taos and Albuquerque, all of which are excellent representations of the state's culture and landscape. But don't expect warm, friendly welcomes from everyone. New Mexico is a poor and often troubled place, and its residents generally have larger issues to deal with than entertaining tourists. This will be particularly evident if you drive into the rural hamlets where poverty is prevalent. But don't let this deter you from exploring, as New Mexico is one of the country's most fascinating places chock-full of things to see and do.

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The history and culture of New Mexico is arguably the most diverse and fascinating in the United States. While the Founding Fathers were busy wresting America from the British on the east coast, New Mexico was already a well-established colony populated by Hispanic and Native American settlers. T...

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Genes are the blueprints of life. Genes control everything from hair color to blood sugar by telling cells which proteins to make, how much, when, and where. Genes exist in most cells. Inside a cell is a long strand of the chemical DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). A DNA sequence is a specific lineup of chemical base pairs along its strand. The part of DNA that determines what protein to produce and when, is called a gene.

First established in 1985 by Sir Alec Jeffreys, DNA testing has become an increasingly popular method of identification and research. The applications of DNA testing, or DNA fingerprinting within forensic science is often what most people think of when they hear the phrase. Popularized by television and cinema, using DNA to match blood, hair or saliva to criminals is one purpose of testing DNA. It is also frequently used for other benefits, like wildlife studies, paternity testing, body identification, and in studies pertaining to human dispersion. While most aspects of DNA are identical in samples from all human beings, concentrating on identifying patterns called microsatellites reveals qualities specific and unique to the individual. During the early stages of this science, a DNA test was performed using an analysis called restriction fragment length polymorphism. Because this process was extremely time consuming and required a great deal of DNA, new methods like polymerase chain reaction and amplified fragment length polymorphism have been employed. The benefits of DNA testing are ample. In 1987, Colin Pitchfork became the first criminal to be caught as a result of DNA testing. The information provided with DNA tests has also helped wrongfully incarcerated people like Gary Dotson and Dennis Halstead reclaim their freedom.

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Genes are the blueprints of life. Genes control everything from hair color to blood sugar by telling cells which proteins to make, how much, when, and where. Genes exist in most cells. Inside a cell is a long strand of the chemical DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

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Mitosis is a method of cell division in which a cell divides and produces identical copies of itself.

Credit: Giovanni Cancemi | Shutterstock

The primary mechanism by which organisms generate new cells is through cell division. During this process, a single "parent" cell will divide and produce identical "daughter" cells. In this way, the parent cell passes on its genetic material to each of its daughter cells. First, however, the cells must duplicate their DNA. Mitosis is the process by which a cell segregates its duplicated DNA, ultimately dividing its nucleus into two.

Cell division is a universal process among living organisms. In 1855, Rudolf Virchow, a German researcher, made a fundamental observation about all living creatures: every cell originates from another cell, or " omnis cellula e cellula," in the original Latin, as author Myron Shultz recounts in a 2008 article in the journal Emerging Infectious Diseases.

The mechanisms of cell division vary between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, such as bacteria and archaea. They have a simple internal structure with free-floating DNA. They use cell division as a method of asexual reproduction, in which the genetic makeup of the parent and resulting offspring are the same. One common mechanism of asexual reproduction in prokaryotes is binary fission. During this process, the parent cell duplicates its DNA and increases the volume of its cell contents. Eventually, a fissure emerges in the center of the cell, leading to the formation of two identical daughter cells.

The cells of eukaryotes, on the other hand, have an organized central compartment, called the nucleus, and other structures, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. Most eukaryotic cells divide and produce identical copies of themselves by increasing their cell volume and duplicating their DNA through a series of defined phases known as the cell cycle. Since their DNA is contained within the nucleus, they undergo nuclear division as well. "Mitosis is defined as the division of a eukaryotic nucleus," said M. Andrew Hoyt, a professor of biology at Johns Hopkins University, "[though] many people use it to reflect the whole cell cycle that is used for cell duplication."

Like prokaryotes, single-celled eukaryotes, such as amoeba and yeast, also use cell division as a method of asexual reproduction. For complex multicellular eukaryotes like plants and animals, cell division is necessary for growth and the repair of damaged tissues. Eukaryotic cells can also undergo a specialized form of cell division called meiosis, which is necessary to produce reproductive cells like sperm cells, egg cells and spores.

The eukaryotic cell cycle is a series of well-defined and carefully timed events that allow a cell to grow and divide. According to Geoffery Cooper, author of " The Cell: A Molecular Approach, 2nd Ed." (Sinauer Associates, 2000) most eukaryotic cell cycles have four phases:

G1 phase (first gap phase): During this phase cells that are intended for mitosis, grow and carry out various metabolic activities.

S phase (synthesis phase): During this phase, the cell duplicates its DNA. Eukaryotic DNA is coiled around spherical histone proteins to create a rod-shaped structure called the chromosome. During the S phase, each chromosome generates its copy, or sister chromatid. The two sister chromatids fuse together at a point called the centromere, and the complex resembles the shape of the letter "X."

G2 phase (second gap phase): During this phase the cell continues to grow and generate proteins necessary for mitosis.

(G1, S and G2 phases are collectively referred to as "interphase.")

M phase (mitosis): Mitosis involves the segregation of the sister chromatids. A structure of protein filaments called the mitotic spindle hooks on to the centromere and begins to contract. This pulls the sister chromatids apart, slowly moving them to opposite poles of the cell. By the end of mitosis each pole of the cell has a complete set of chromosomes. The nuclear membrane reforms, and the cell divides in half, creating two identical daughter cells.

Chromosomes, become highly compacted during mitosis, and can be clearly seen as dense structures under the microscope.

The resulting daughter cells can re-enter G1 phase only if they are destined to divide. Not all cells need to divide continuously. For example, human nerve cells stop dividing in adults. The cells of internal organs like the liver and kidney divide only when needed: to replace dead or injured cells. Such types of cells enter the G0 phase (quiescent phase). They remain metabolically active and only move into the G1 phase of the cell cycle when they receive the necessary molecular signals, according to Cooper.

Mitosis is divided into four stages, according to course materials from the University of Illinois at Chicago. The characteristic stages are also seen in the second half of meiosis.

Prophase: The duplicated chromosomes are compacted and can be easily visualized as sister chromatids. The mitotic spindle, a network of protein filaments, emerges from structures called centrioles, positioned at either end of the cell. The mitotic spindle is flexible and is made of microtubules, which are in turn made of the protein subunit, tubulin.

Metaphase: The nuclear membrane dissolves and the mitotic spindle latches on to the sister chromatids at the centromere. The mitotic spindle can now move the chromosomes around in the cell. "You can make an analogy to a girder that's holding up a skyscraper," said Hoyt. "Except the girder can assemble and disassemble very rapidly. They are structural elements that are extremely dynamic." By the end of metaphase, all the chromosomes are aligned in the middle of the cell.

Anaphase: The mitotic spindle contracts and pulls the sister chromatids apart. They begin to move to opposite ends of the cell.

Telophase: The chromosomes reach either end of the cell. The nuclear membrane forms again and the cell body splits into two (cytokinesis).

At the end of mitosis, one cell produces two genetically identical daughter cells.

A powerful light microscope captures this scene from the process of mitosis.

Credit: Jane Stout, research associate in the laboratory of Claire Walczak, Indiana University.

The various events of the cell cycle are tightly regulated. If errors occur at any one stage, the cell can stop cell division from progressing. Such regulatory mechanisms are known as cell cycle checkpoints, according to Cooper. There are three checkpoints within the G1, G2 and M phases. Damaged DNA stops cell cycle progression in the G1 phase, ensuring that an aberrant cell will not be replicated. The G2 checkpoint responds to incorrectly duplicated, or damaged DNA. It prevents cells from moving into the M phase until the DNA is replicated correctly, or until the damage is repaired. The M phase checkpoint can halt the cell cycle in metaphase. It ensures that all the sister chromatids are properly hooked up to the mitotic spindle and that sister chromatids move towards opposite ends of the cell.

"If things go wrong and are not corrected, you end up with some cells that get extra chromosomes and some that are deficient," Hoyt said. "Often those cells have a genotype[DNA sequence] that won't support the life of the cell, and the will cell die. That's usually a good thing."

Sometimes, abnormal cells manage not only to survive, but also to proliferate. Most often, these cells are implicated in cancer. "It [the cell] may have an extra copy of a chromosome that has an oncogene on it. And that's going to start pushing the cell cycle forward when it shouldn't be going forward," Hoyt said. "That's a first step toward cancer progression." Cancerous cells are known to go through rampant and unregulated cell divisions.

The relationship between the cell cycle and cancer has led to the development of a class of cancer drugs that specifically target cancer cells during mitosis. According to anarticle published in 2012 in the journal Cell Death & Disease, "this strategy encompasses a prolonged arrest of cells in mitosis, culminating in mitotic cell death."

For example, microtubule poisons stop mitosis by targeting microtubules, the main component of the mitotic spindle. Damaging these thin, hollow, microscopic protein filaments ultimately prevents sister chromatids from being pulled apart. Examples of microtubule poisons are the medications paclitaxel (Taxol) and vinca alkaloids, which are used to treat a range of cancers, including certain ovarian and breast cancers.

However, microtubule poisons are not without their limitations. According to a 2018 review article published in the journal EMBO Reports, these drugs can sometimes be toxic to brain cells, or cancer cells can become drug-resistant and avoid being killed. In an effort to find alternate solutions, researchers are looking to develop drugs that target other aspects of mitosis. In 2016, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of the new drug Palbociclib in combination with existing anti-cancer drugs to treat certain breast cancers. Palbociclib works by keeping cancer cells frozen in the G1 phase, according to a 2017 review article published in the journal Nature Reviews Cancer.

The compounds tested in clinical trials so far have had some success but have not been as effective as microtubule poisons, according to EMBO Reports. Nevertheless, targeting mitosis in the treatment of cancer remains an active area of research.

Additional resources

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The primary mechanism by which organisms generate new cells is through cell division. During this process, a single "parent" cell will divide and produce identical "daughter" cells. In this way, the parent cell passes on its genetic material to each of its daughter cells. First, however, the cells must duplicate their DNA.

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Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions for the development and function of living things.

All known cellular life and some viruses contain DNA.

The main role of DNA in the cell is the long-term storage of information.

It is often compared to a blueprint, since it contains the instructions to construct other components of the cell, such as proteins and RNA molecules.

The DNA segments that carry genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the expression of genetic information.

In eukaryotes such as animals and plants, DNA is stored inside the cell nucleus, while in prokaryotes such as bacteria and archaea, the DNA is in the cell's cytoplasm.

Unlike enzymes, DNA does not act directly on other molecules; rather, various enzymes act on DNA and copy its information into either more DNA, in DNA replication, or transcribe it into protein.

Other proteins such as histones are involved in the packaging of DNA or repairing the damage to DNA that causes mutations.

DNA is a long polymer of simple units called nucleotides, which are held together by a backbone made of sugars and phosphate groups.

This backbone carries four types of molecules called bases and it is the sequence of these four bases that encodes information.

The major function of DNA is to encode the sequence of amino acid residues in proteins, using the genetic code.

To read the genetic code, cells make a copy of a stretch of DNA in the nucleic acid RNA.

These RNA copies can then used to direct protein synthesis, but they can also be used directly as parts of ribosomes or spliceosomes.

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genes; human biology; forensics; biochemistry research; cell biology; biotechnology

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Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions for the development and function of living things. All known cellular life and some viruses contain DNA. The main role of DNA in the cell is the long-term storage of information.

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Colonized by Spain, the land that is now New Mexico became U.S. territory as part of the Gadsen Purchase in 1853, though New Mexico did not become a U.S. state until 1912. During World War II, New Mexico was the site of the top-secret Manhattan Project, in which top U.S. scientists raced to create the first atomic bomb, which was tested at the Trinity Bombsite, near Alamagordo, on July 16, 1945. In 1947, Roswell, New Mexico, became a topic of speculation about extraterrestrial life when a local farmer discovered unidentified debris on his property, which some believed was the remains of a crashed alien spacecraft. Visitors to New Mexico frequent attractions like the Very Large Array telescope in Socorro and the historic city of Santa Fe, which artist Georgia O'Keeffe famously called home.

Date of Statehood: January 6, 1912

Capital: Santa Fe

Population: 2,059,179 (2010)

Size: 121,590 square miles

Nickname(s): Land of Enchantment

Motto: Crescit Eundo ("It Grows as it Goes")

Tree: Piñon Pine

Flower: Yucca

Bird: Greater Roadrunner

Interesting Facts

Constructed in 1610, the Palace of the Governors in Santa Fe is the oldest seat of government in the United States.

On July 16, 1945, the world's first atomic bomb was tested at the Trinity Site in central New Mexico. The bomb was the creation of the Manhattan Project, which had been commissioned to build a nuclear weapon in 1942 after receiving intelligence that Germany was developing an atomic bomb of its own. Residents felt the 19-kiloton explosion as far as 160 miles away.

When a rancher discovered unusual debris in a sheep pasture outside of Roswell in July 1947, Air Force officials claimed it was the remains of a crashed weather balloon. Years later, a series of test dummy experiments designed to improve pilots' chance for survival when falling from high altitudes reinforced the view of many that aliens and UFOs were the source of the mysterious occurrences. The town has become a tourist destination for those interested in extraterrestrials ever since. Originating in 1972, the Albuquerque International Balloon Fiesta attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors each October who come to witness the more than 600 colorful hot air balloons ascend into the air.

White Sands National Park contains the largest gypsum dune field in the world. The result of water evaporating from transitory lakes with high mineral content, gypsum deposits are windswept into picturesque white sand dunes spanning 275 square miles.

The Spanish language spoken by close to a quarter of a million people throughout New Mexico and southern Colorado is an ancient dialect that is largely Castilian in origin.

The first atomic bombs were developed and tested in New Mexico during World War II. Los Alamos National Laboratory, which was established for that purpose in 1943, continues to serve as one of the country&rsquo;s foremost research institutions.

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Colonized by Spain, the land that is now New Mexico became U.S. territory as part of the Gadsen Purchase in 1853, though New Mexico did not become a U.S. state until 1912. During World War II, New Mexico was the site of the top-secret Manhattan Project, in which top U.S.

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Kids learn about the history and timeline of the state of New Mexico including early explorers, Native Americans, Spanish settlers, the Santa Fe Trail, and the Wild West.

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Welcome to the 2018-19 school year. Please review this website for all 7th Grade Math information. We will be starting the year working Positive and Negative Numbers, Percents/Ratios, Expressions and Equations, Statistics and Probability, and wrap up with Geometry. Please use the parent/student information link to access Google classroom and the calendar of current and upcoming assignments or homework.

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Learn seventh grade math-proportions, algebra basics, arithmetic with negative numbers, probability, circles, and more. (aligned with Common Core standards)

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Students entering the 7th grade continue to expand on concepts from their previous years. On-demand videos with teachers who explain the concepts and show students how to understand the problem-solving process. Teachers go over rules, tips, and multiple problems helping students to be able to solve the problems themselves.

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7th Grade Math - Apply proportional relationships, operations with rational numbers, linear equations, scale drawings, area, volume, surface area, and understanding samples.