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Land Use
Mostly Abiotic and in some cases Biotic like farmland
-Makes species divide and find new land
-Makes food harder to find (cuts down supply and carrying capacity)
-Pollution from Urbanization can ruin habitats
-Farming pesticides can hurt species
-An example is a Florida panther, who’s species is forced to live in a small part of Florida because of human expansion.

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Major land-use changes have occurred in the United States during the past 25 years. The total area of cropland, pastureland and rangeland decreased by 76 million acres in the lower 48 states from 1982 to 2003, while the total area of developed land increased by 36 million acres or 48%.

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Deforestation (Biotic)
- The Hawaiian Crow used to be abundant on the islands of Hawaii
- Was important for spreading seeds of native plants
-The Hawaiian Crow is now extinct because of deforestation

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Deforestation affected an estimated 13 million

hectares per year between 2000 and 2010, with most happening in tropical countries¹. The loss of forests is regrettable not only due to the fact that trees provide a carbon sink which can help mitigate the impacts of climate change; but also because forests provide food and shelter to many species of fauna and flora that are losing their natural habitats. This is even more concerning when we take into account that about 80% of the world's documented species can be found in tropical rainforests which are more vulnerable to deforestation ².

In fact, over the decades deforestation has already led to the loss of several species. In fact, species began falling in numbers and going extinct already in the 19 th century. Despite recorded species extinctions and attempts to recover particularly plants through remaining seeds, rates of biodiversity loss are not falling. Today, new research indicates that species that we may come across in our forests today, are likely not to survive the destruction of further deforestation³.

Below follow ten examples of species already lost due to deforestation or which are likely not to survive in the wild for another decade. Many more will follow suit if current practices for protecting forest habitats are not reversed.

The last wild St Helena Redwood tree died in the 1950s and its extinction in the wild was a result of deforestation. Following the establishment of a permanent colony on St Helena in the 17 th century, the woodlands were cleared to make way for pasture, timber and fuel⁴. This tree was endemic to St Helena, an island located in the South Atlantic Ocean which was also where the routes of environmentalism were established⁵.

While fossil remains indicate that it used to be relatively abundant on all the main islands of Hawaii, this species of crow is now extinct. It was vulnerable to population fluctuations, but destruction of its habitat was a key contributor. The Hawaiian Crow was important for the local environment for the dispersal and germination of seeds of native plants⁶.

Endemic to Bolivia, this was a kind of moss that would grow on another plant without and deriving its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain and sometimes the debris surrounding it. The extinction of Flabellidium spinosum, otherwise known as the Santa Cruz bryophyte, is owed to the fact that its forest habitat and its immediate vicinity has been logged and cultivated over the years⁷.

Also from the island St. Helena, this was a small tree otherwise known as the She Cabbage. Its disappearance was due to deforestation and fragmentation of its habitat ⁸.

This is an extinct species of harvestmen from the Mahe Island in the Seychelles. It would have been found in woodland where it occurred in leaf litter but its decline has been recorded throughout the 20 th century and it can be attributed to the extensive habitat degradation on Mahe during the 20 th century⁹.

While not extinct, the pygmy racoon is critically endangered which means its future survival is seriously at risk and it go in fact go extinct very soon. Its population is confined to a single island, Cozumel Island, with fewer than 250 individuals and further population decreases being estimated. Up until recently, Cozumel Island was relatively well-conserved, but the situation is deteriorating rapidly putting further strains on the pygmy raccoon's habitat¹ ⁰.

With only 40 trees left in the wild, the Carpoxylon Palm is also listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List. It is endemic to three islands in the south of Vanuatu in the South Pacific and its uncertain future is exacerbated by extensive deforestation for agriculture¹ ¹.

This species originally found in southern temperate rainforests is considered to have the highest extinction risk of any Chilean mammal. Although protected by law, habitat loss due to farming and logging means the species is being pushed into less desirable habitat where there is an increased risk for their diminished numbers¹ ².

Due to an almost complete destruction of its forest habitat across East Africa, the species has come under increased pressure to the extent that the total populations is thought to be around 250 mature individuals. There is only one remaining viable population around a stream within a forest reserve; it is estimated that any changes to this stream could result in the extinction of this species. ¹ ³.

This species can be found in sub-montane to montane dry forest in Mexico but it has become threatened due to the serious destruction and reduction in size of its habitat. It is currently listed as critically endangered by the IUCN ¹ ⁴.
References
¹ http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/am859e/am859e08.pdf
² http://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/deforestation
³ http://goo.gl/KDq5AI
⁴ http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/30560/0
⁵ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Helena
⁶ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_crow
⁷ http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/39158/0
⁸ http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/37595/0
⁹ http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/196768/0
¹ ⁰ http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/18267/0
¹ ¹ http://support.iucnredlist.org/species/carpoxylon-palm
¹ ² http://support.iucnredlist.org/species/darwins-fox
¹ ³ http://support.iucnredlist.org/species/amani-flatwing
¹ ⁴ http://support.iucnredlist.org/species/hintons-oak

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10 Species Lost to Deforestation | Greentumble

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hectares per year between 2000 and 2010, with most happening in tropical countries¹. The loss of forests is regrettable not only due to the fact that trees provide a carbon sink which can help mitigate the impacts of climate change; but also because forests provide food and shelter to many species of fauna and flora that are losing their natural habitats.

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Deforestation
-Deforestation is a biotic limiting factor.
-Cutting down trees which is what deforestation is will take away certain species homes.
-An example would be the monarch butterfly’s.
-We cut down the trees so their population has dropped by 15% in the Mexican forest in the last year.
-They have lost 86% of their population since 1996%.

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Invasive species (Biotic)

-Snakehead fish were brought here from Asia and Africa around 2002
-Disrupts native fishes and recreational fishing
-Southern states were hit harder by the snakehead species
-If someone caught a snakehead, they were to kill it and throw it back into the water.

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Selective Breeding( Biotic)
- Selective Breeding is done on many farm animals
- Two species ( The Belgian White and Blue and Dutch Red and White cattle) from farms were impacted by Selective Breeding
- The species that were born due to Selective Breeding had trouble reproducing and needed more assistance during births.
- Because they require more assistance during births and the births are more complicated this throws off natural selection
- The species may not be able to reproduce and they require assistance from farmers this isn’t the process of natural selection.

Article: https://wiki.groenkennisnet.nl/display/TAB/Chapter+1.13+Negative+effects+of+animal+breeding

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Pollution (Abiotic)

-Pollution effected peppered moths by changing the color of the trees
-This caused some moths of the light color to die cause they were easier to see
-This also caused a drop in the moth population
-This forced the moths to have to adapt to the new environment

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Selective Breeding (biotic)

-Selective breeding is very common in dogs.
-Two of the same breeds of dogs are bred together to create pure bred dogs
-Two parents of the same breed are bred together to produce pure bred children (biotic)

-This effects natural selection because it makes the two pure parents bred, and the offspring will have pure genes.

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/although-purebred-dogs-can-be-best-in-show-are-they-worst-in-health/#

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Vaccinations save lives and prevents harmful diseases every year. Injections can consist of 3 different formulas. It can have dead cells so the body quickly sends cells to analyze the dead disease (kind of like a autopsy) and creates DNA “blueprint” for an antibody (basically a defender) to terminate the invaders (next time they arrive) and stores it in the nucleus. Another method is to send the antibody itself so that the cells produce it- I don’t know if this method works, most of the time the cells just kill it. The last method is to send weak versions of the disease so that the antibodies are quickly produced-in which there is a problem called antibiotic resistance. The bacteria have a very very very low chance (well, in vaccinations) to have a mutation that prevents it from the antibody. But, logically, there are thousands of not-so-smart people using Tylenol when they have a headache or something like that.

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-natural disasters (abiotic)

-forest fires force animals out of their natural habitat

-once animals get to their new habitat and they are not adapted to their new environment and they get hunted until they adapt

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Natural Disater (Abiotic)

A few examples of natural disasters are avalanches, tsunamis, earthquakes etc.

A specific example of a natural disaster is a flood. Floods are limiting factors since they create loss of livestock, damage to property, and loss of many species lives.

An example of a specific flood is the China flood of 1931. This is considered the wosrt flood in history.

When species with desired traits die off due to their habitat or food supply being destroyed it will mess with natural selection. Those traits will begin to be lost if they cannot be spread through reproduction.

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Land use (abiotic)
-sea ice forms later in the fall and melts sooner in the spring
-because of this change polar bears are starting to eat more land animals to fight for the land
-less land will make the carrying capacity smaller
-eventually there will be a little ice left and the strongest on the land will live and the weakest will die

https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/03/140331-global-warming-climate-change-ipcc-animals-science-environment/

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Hibernation (abiotic)
-Marmots that hibernate are waking up earlier due to global warming.
-Because they’re waking up earlier, they wake up before the environment is consistently able to support them.
-They become out of sync with the environment and use up all of their energy before they are able to replace it.
-Natural Selection has a field day.
https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/02/070202-groundhog.html

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Pest Controls: Despite their benefits, pesticides can be hazardous to both humans and the environment. Countless chemicals are environmentally stable, prone to bioaccumulation, and toxic. Less than 1% of the total amount of pesticides applied for weed and pest control reach the target pests.

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Selective Breeding(Biotic)
-An issue in selective breeding is that Farm Animals (for example cows)depend more on humans for survival
-Humans influence on how they want cows to be has changed them drastically
-Cows have evolved larger utters because it is more convenient for humans due to the fact that larger utters produce more milk
-This effects natural selection because now there is too much milk for the calves which isn't necessary (May have an impact on future populations)

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- Pollution can affect the genetics of animals
- Chemical pollutants that make their way into animals' systems have been shown to cause direct changes to genetic diversity
- Genetic pollution occurs when wild populations mix with or are affected by genetically modified organisms
- It also affects crops wild populations become extinct when outcompeted by those that have been modified

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Hibernation (biotic)

• Global warming is disrupting hibernation patterns
• After a very warm summer in England, hedgehog pups were born late
• They were unable to put on enough weight to prepare for hibernation in the smaller time window
• With less strored energy to burn, the hedgehog pups starved

https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/02/070202-groundhog.html

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Selective chicken breeding (biotic)
-Humans have impacted the natural selection process of chickens.
-They do this by selectively breeding the chickens to produce more eggs
-They take the hens that produce the most eggs and breed them to increase the chance of their offspring being good layers as well.
-This way they can have more eggs to sell.
-This is affecting natural selection because they aren’t allowing the hens and roosters to reproduce in their natural way.

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Migration (abiotic)

-by people migrating to open areas they will start to build on the land not giving the animals their land.

-the people will also build highways and roads along that land decreasing the animals land.

-also by building it will ruin the animals habitat and won’t give the animals anywhere to lay their eggs or nest and they will have to move and might die in the pr

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Selective Breeding (biotic) in cats.

- Some female cats are bred too early

- If bred too early, the female cat will put her energy into feeding the newborn kittens rather than finishing her growth.

- If she doesn’t finish her growth than this could cause the population to decrease because this can cause the female’s baby to become sick.

- This affects natural selection because many offspring can become ill/sick, when they could be perfectly healthy if they weren’t selectively bred.

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Pest Control (abiotic)

Swiss chemist Paul Wüller discovered the insecticidal properties of DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) in 1934.

It seem like a good thing because it was cheep,  stable, easily applied, and highly toxic to insects while being only mildly harmful to mammals.

It was not as good as it seemed because it quickly killed many benificial organisms, and the insects it was used against became immune and rebounded in surplus.

Although not very bad in it’s dry form, if disolved in water it can seep through skin and cause harm.

DDT can easily travel through the food chain and effect the whole ecosystem. It had a large effect on many fish eating birds, most notably the bald eagle.

DDT was banned in the United States in 1972.

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Over predation: biotic

-Animals over hunt/eat too much. They want to compete to eat more food then others. Some animals also hibernate, so they will gather food before hibernation. That can cause limited food supply.

-Eating too much brings down the food supply for other animals, that would mean they would eventually be extinct in that area because of the low amount of food available.

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Migration
- biotic
- Human expansion can result in destroying or changing animals migration paths, feeding grounds, and breeding grounds. Due to this, animals have to change them, which could be fatal, for they could be prevented from reaching vital food and water sources. Animals could also be prevented from finding appropriate land for reproduction, which can lead to the population shrinking.
- Wildebeast are a perfect example. Wildebeasts have one migration pattern that circles from South Kenya to North Tanzania. The Serengeti highway was planted in the wildebeasts migration path, leaving the Wildebeast population to shrink due to the species not finding land to reproduce.

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Anyways, when people use Tylenol for a small headache, it increases the chance for a bacteria/virus to gain a mutation immunity to the medicine. While other cells are dying inside the body, the immune cells will reproduce (

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Disease biotic

If a species of bird has a disease that makes individuals fly slower than individuals without the disease.  In the population of birds, 50/100 birds have this disease.

if this bird has a predator, like a hawk or an eagle, the bird relies on its flight to escape. So if a predator comes around, and our population of birds takes off in flight to escape, the slower individuals are more at risk for being killed. The disease-free, faster birds will escape more often than the diseased slow birds. When breeding season comes, there will be less diseased birds to breed than healthy birds.

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Invasive Species: Biotic
Cane beetles became a huge pest for farmers in Australia in the 1930’s, so the solution that farmers thought of was toads that had apparently had an appetite for cane beeteles.
But when the toads arrived, they began to move out across the continent instead of staying and controlling the beetles.
People in Australia became very annoyed with the toads and mayors encourage the townspeople to squash the frog whenever they spot one.

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Land use for mine should be climate