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Herbivores

Herbivores are those animals which eat only plants like grass, leaves, fruits
Carnivores

Those animals which eat only other animals
Omnivores
Those animals which eat both plants and flesh of other animals

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Animals reproduce by sexual reproduction

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-large producers, scavengers, predators of prey
-filter feeding mouthparts has caused changes in early oceans, increase in water clarity
-Human actions caused evolution by natural selection and have potential to cause mass extinction

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-Metazoa
-Eumetazoa
-Deuterostomia
-Bilateria
-Lophotrochozoa
-Ecdysozoa

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Animals have body plans: A body plan is a group of structural and developmental characteristics that can be used to identify a group of animals, such as a phylum. All members of a particular group share the same body plan at some point during their development—in the embryonic, larval, or adult stage.
-Radial symmetry: Body can be divided into mirror imaged halves
-Bilateral symmetry: two equal but opposite halves
-dorsal side
-ventral side
-anterior end
-posterior end
-animals body plan varies based on tissue organization
-body cavities: Any space in the body of a multicellular organism, containing the viscera or fluid.
- Vertebrates: Animals with a backbone

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-Sponges
-Cnidarians
-Echinoderms
-Chordates
-Brachiopods
-Annelids
-Molluscs
-Arthropods

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-Plants and fungi have physical and chemical cycling effects on the environment
-physical: formation of soil
-Chemical: plants absorb nutrients from physical environment, pass to organism that eats plants

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-The male reproductive part of a flower is referred to as the stamen and consists of the filament and the anther. The filament is a stalk-like structure that attaches to the base of the flower and supports the anther, which is the structure that produces pollen.
-The carpels are female reproductive structures that produce egg cells and protect a developing baby plant, or embryo. The three main parts of a carpel are the stigma, style, and ovary. The stigma is where pollination occurs.
- Ovary matures into fruit

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If a sperm fertilizes an egg of a seed plant the zygote grows into a sporophyte embry

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-Bryophytes (nonvascular)
-Seedless vascular plants
-seed plants

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-Cell wall strengthened by chitin
- The most common fungal body structures are multicellular filaments and single cells (yeasts)
- The bodies of fungi typically form a network if tiny filaments called hyphae
-densely packed network of hyphae
-haustoria- extract nutrients from

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SInce they are heterotrophs they cannot make their own food like plants and algae can

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Chytrids:
aquatic fungi, one classed as protists but have chitin in cell wall
-flagellated gametes, some show alternation of generations, no dikaryon phase
-multicellular diploid phase can withstand harsh conditions
-parasitic of saprobic
-Chytridiomycosis: infection disease of amphibians
Zygospore:
terrestrial fungi, saprobes on soil, parasites of insects and spiders, mutualistic with other fungi and invertebrates
-Zygote only diploid cell
-coenocytic
-stalked sporangiophores contain sporangia
Basidiomycetes:
club fungi
-fruiting structures called basidiomata
-30,000 species including edible mushrooms
-septa with pores
-basidia are the characteristic sexual reproductive structure with spores, site of nuclear fusion
-dikaryon stage for years
-other plant pathogens like rust, or ecotomycorrhizae
Glomerocytes:
-symbiotic with plants; arbuscular mycorrhizae(hyphae that penetrate plant root cells); 90% of plants have this; not saprophobic

Microsporidia:
unicellular fungi, obligate intracellular parasites of animals
-15,000 species
-among smallest unicellular species known
-host cell penetrated by polar tube, contents injected into host
-replicates in host cell, cell wall of chitin

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Asexual or sexually produce spores
-Plasmogamy is a stage in the sexual reproduction of fungi, in which the cytoplasm of two parent cells (usually from the mycelia) fuses together without the fusion of nuclei, effectively bringing two haploid nuclei close together in the same cell.
-Karyogamy is the final step in the process of fusing together two haploid eukaryotic cells, and refers specifically to the fusion of the two nuclei. Before karyogamy, each haploid cell has one complete copy of the organism's genome.

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-Heterotrophs
-absorb food
-hydrolyzing enzymes

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charophytes (green algae) are the closest relatives of land plants.

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Protists are important producers(use energy from light to convert carbon dioxide
-photosynthetic protists lower nitrogen, phosphorus and iron
-photosynthesis happens by 30% of protists
-wood digesting protists inhabit termites who cannot digest wood (effects people of the environment by infectious disease)

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The life of eukaryotic cells is characterized by a cell cycle with two major phases: the interphase and cell division.
- During the interphase, the cell takes in nutrients, grows, and duplicates its chromosomes. During the cell division phase, the nucleus divides in a process called mitosis and then the divided nuclei are established in separate cells in a process called cytokinesis.

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The root of the tree is located between the unikonts and all other eukaryotes suggesting that the unikonts were the first group of eukaryotes to diverge

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1. Excavata
characteristics: cytoskeleton, feeding groove
- diplomonads
- parabasalids
- euglenozoa
2. SAR clade
- originated from red algae endosymbiont
characteristics:
- contains three clades
-1) Stramenopiles
-2) Alveolata
-3) Rhizaria
3.Archaeplastida
red and green algae
- Red Algae characteristics:
- multicellular
- have phycoerythrin making it have a reddish pigment
- largest are seaweeds
- abundant in tropics
-Green algae characteristics:
- green chloroplasts
- two groups:
-1) chlorophytes: freshwater
marine forms, sexual and
asexual reproduction
-2) charophytes: damp soils
and snows, symbionts in
lichens
4.Unikonta
characteristics :
- 2 clades:
- amoebozoans
characteristics:
- produce lobed or tubed-shaped pseudopodia
- representatives:
- slime molds
characteristics:
- once thought to be fungi due to feeding habits
- no cells walls
- and example is "Plasmodial" (malaria causing parasite)
- cellular

- opisthokonts (animals, fungi, and some protists)

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endosymbiosis: symbiotic relationship in which one organism lives inside the body or cell of another organism.
- The origin of eukaryotes started due to an archeal cell engulfing a bacterium that became an organelle found in all eukaryotes (mitochondria)

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Cells of all eukaryotes has:
- nucleus
-other membrane enclosed organelles (for particular cellular functions)
-well developed cytoskeleton that provides structural support that allows them to:  be asymmetrical and change shape as the feed, move, or grow
-endoplasmic reticulum
-golgi apparatus
-lysosomes

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The main clades for prokaryotes are Bacteria and Archaea

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-Allow for survival of other species
-play a major role in recycling chemical elements between living and nonliving components of the environment
- certain prokaryotes are decomposers: breaking down dead organisms/ waste products, unlocking carbon, nitrogen, and other important elements
-prokaryotes convert molecules to forms that can be taken up by organisms
-Prokaryotes form symbiotic relationships with larger organisms
-essential roles in agriculture and industry, positive human effects not just negative illnesses caused by bacteria

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-Reproduce quickly in favorable environment
-Binary fission allows a cell prokaryotes to divide into 2 cells, then into 4,8,16 and so on
-have short generation times
-do not reproduce sexually
-new (rare) mutations increase genetic diversity
-additional diversity arises from genetic recombination: combining of DNA from two sources
-transformation,transduction, and conjugation occur rather than fertilization and meiosis. These mechanisms bring together prokaryotic DNA from different individuals

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-Phototrophs- obtain energyfrom light
-Chemotrophs-obtain energy from chemicals
-Autotrophs- organisms that only need CO2 or related compounds as a carbon source
-Heterotrophs- require at least one organic nutrient (glucose) to make other organic compounds

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simpler physical and internal structure than eukaryotes
-Prokaryotic cells lack the complex compartmentalization associated with the membrane enclosed organelles in eukaryotic cells
-Prokaryotic cells have specialized membranes that perform metabolic functions
-Genome of a prokaryote is  structurally different and has less DNA
-circular chromosomes
-lack a nucleus; chromosome is located in nucleiod
-Has unique DNA replicating molecules: Plasmids

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-Gram-positive: have simpler walls with large amount of peptidoglycan
-Gram-negative: less peptidoglycan and structurally more complex- outer membrane contains carbohydrates bonded to lipids which allows for protection from the body's defenses

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-Unicellular
-variety of shapes
-well organized achieving all of an organisms life functions within a single cell
-Key feature: Cell Wall (maintains shape, protects cell and prevents it from bursting in a hypotonic environment)
-Bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, a polymer made of modified sugars cross linked by short polypeptides
-Archeal cell walls have a variety of proteins and polysaccharides but lack peptidoglycan
-The cell wall is surrounded by a capsule (sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein that allow prokaryotes to adhere to substrate or other individuals in the colony)
-Bacteria develop resistant cells: Endospores- when lacking an essential nutrient
-Fimbriae: protein containing appendages allow some prokaryotes to attach to surfaces or other cells
-Pili: pull two cells together prior to DNA transfer
-Flagellum enables the prokaryote to move

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Early cyanobacteria began greatest impact of organisms: the release of oxygen to Earths atmosphere during water splitting step of photosynthesis
-oxygen attacks chemical bonds and can inhibit enzymes and damage cells
-resulted in diverse adaptations to changing atmosphere such as cellular respiration (uses oxygen in the process of harvesting energy from organic molecules)

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Prokaryotes were Earths first organism

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fossils of stromatolites which are layered rocks that form from the activities of certain prokaryotes

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If a vesicle is able to split , grow and pass on its RNA to its daughters, the daughters would be protocells and haven't properties of the parent.
- inherited characteristics acted on my natural selection
- RNA provided template on which DNA  nucleotides were assembled : DNA is more chemically stable for genetic information. DNA can be replicated more accurately
Appearance of DNA impacted formation of life

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Early life used to be an "RNA world" where small RNA molecules could replicate and store genetic information about the vesicles that carried them.

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First genetic material- RNA
-plays main role in protein synthesis
-performs enzyme like catalytic funtions

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Common clay on early Earth: montmorillonite, soft mineral clay produced by weathering of volcanic ash, increases rate of vesicle assembly. It provides surfaces where organic molecules become concentrated, increasing likelihood that organic molecules will react with each other and form vesicles

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Life cannot continue without the ability to carry out reproduction and energy processing (metabolism).
- Self replicating molecules and metabolism (source of building blocks) appeared in early protocells
- abiotically produced vesicles can exhibit certain properties of life such as reproduction of metabolism and maintain internal chemical environment different than surroundings

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By dripping amino acid solution or RNA nucleotides onto hot sand/rock it was found to spontaneously produce polymers
-polymers may have acted as a weak catalyst in chemical reaction on early Earth

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amino acids formed under conditions of volcanic eruption

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Early oceans were a solution of organic molecules from which life arose

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First atmosphere had little oxygen and thick with water vapor. Contained compounds from volcanic eruptions (nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen
- reducing environment where organic compounds could have formed simpler molecules

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stages to the origin of cells on Earth:
- The abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules (amino acids and nitrogenous bases)
- Small molecules joining into macromolecules (proteins and nucleic acids)
- Molecules packaging into Protocells, droplets with membranes containing different internal vs external chemistry
- Self replicating molecules developed leading to inheritence

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Prokaryotes ability to live in broad range of habitats explains why prokaryotes are the most abundant organisms on earth (The diversity includes species surviving 3 million rads of radiation or environments that are too hot, or cold, or salty