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3rd Grade Sci Year-at-a-Glance 23-24.docx.pdf

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2nd Grade Sci Year-at-a-Glance 23-24.docx.pdf

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1st Grade Sci Year-at-a-Glance 23-24.docx.pdf

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SCCPSS Science Unit Guide - 5th Grade – 2023-2024(Final08142023).docx

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SCCPSS Science Unit Guide - _1st Grade – 2023-2024(Final08142023)..docx

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SCCPSS Science Unit Guide Kindergarten 2023-2024 (Final).docx.pdf

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Middle, high school, undergraduate and graduate students compete in Artemis Student Challenges while building foundational knowledge on topics and technologies critical to the success of Artemis.

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Middle, high school, undergraduate and graduate students compete in Artemis Student Challenges while building foundational knowledge on topics and technologies critical to the success of Artemis.

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We're going back to the Moon for scientific discovery, economic benefits, and inspiration for a new generation of explorers: the Artemis Generation. While maintaining American leadership in exploration, we will build a global alliance and explore deep space for the benefit of all.

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https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/static/artemis/Artemis is the name of NASA's program to return astronauts to the lunar surface. We are going forward to the Moon to stay.

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During Artemis I, NASA's new mega Moon rocket, the Space Launch System (SLS), roared into the night sky and sent...

Mission Overview

Around the Moon with NASA's First Launch of SLS with Orion

Artemis I was the first integrated flight test of NASA's Deep Space Exploration Systems: the Orion spacecraft, Space Launch System (SLS) rocket, with the upgraded Exploration Ground Systems at Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida.

Launch date: Nov. 16, 2022

Splashdown: Dec. 11, 2022

Discover More Topics From NASA

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Artemis I was the first in a series of increasingly complex missions that will enable human exploration at the Moon and future missions to Mars.

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NASA satellite images show how much Lake Mead has receded since 2000

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NASA satellite images show how much Lake Mead has receded since 2000

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NASA satellite images show how much Lake Mead has receded since 2000

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New satellite images by NASA show how Lake Mead’s water levels have dramatically dropped over the past two decades.

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Curious Kids is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you'd like an expert to answer, send it to curiouskidsus@theconversation.com.
Why can't we throw all our trash into a volcano and burn it up? - Georgine T.

It's true that lava is hot enough to burn up some of our trash. When Kilauea erupted on the Big island of Hawaii in 2018, the lava flows were hotter than 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit (1,100 Celsius). That's hotter than the surface of the planet Venus, and hot enough to melt many rocks. It's also as hot as waste incinerators, which usually burn garbage at 1,800 to 2,200 F (1,000-1,200 C).

[ Over 140,000 readers rely on The Conversation's newsletters to understand the world. Sign up today.]

But not all lavas are the same temperature. The eruptions in Hawaii produce a type of lava called basalt. Basalt is much hotter and more fluid than the lavas that erupt at other volcanoes, like the thicker dacite lava that erupts at Mount St. Helens in Washington state. For example, the 2004-2008 eruption at Mount St. Helens produced a lava dome with surface temperatures less than about 1,300 F (704 C).

Beyond temperature, there are other good reasons not to burn our trash in volcanoes. First, although lava at 2,000 degrees F can melt many materials in our trash - including food scraps, paper, plastics, glass and some metals - it's not hot enough to melt many other common materials, including steel, nickel and iron.

Second, there aren't many volcanoes on Earth that have lava lakes, or bowl-like craters full of lava, that we could dump trash into. Of all of the thousands of volcanoes on Earth, scientists know of only eight with active lava lakes. They include Kilauea, Mount Erebus in Antarctica and Nyiragongo in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Most active volcanoes have craters filled with rocks and cooled lava, like Mount St. Helens, or with water, like Crater Lake in Oregon.

The third problem is that dumping trash into those eight active lava lakes would be a very dangerous job. Lava lakes are covered with a crust of cooling lava, but just below that crust they are molten and intensely hot. If rocks or other materials fall onto the surface of a lava lake, they will break the crust, disrupt the underlying lava and cause an explosion.

This happened at Kilauea in 2015: Blocks of rock from the crater rim fell into the lava lake and caused a big explosion that ejected rocks and lava up and out of the crater. Anyone who threw garbage into a lava lake would have to run away and dodge flaming garbage and lava.

Suppose it was possible to dump trash safely into a lava lake: What would happen to the trash? When plastics, garbage and metals burn, they release a lot of toxic gases. Volcanoes already give off tons of toxic gases, including sulfur, chlorine and carbon dioxide.

Sulfur gases can create acidic fog, which we call "vog," for "volcanic fog." It can kill plants and cause breathing problems for people nearby. Mixing these already-dangerous volcanic gases with other gases from burning our trash would make the resulting fumes even more harmful for people and plants near the volcano.

Finally, many indigenous communities view nearby volcanoes as sacred places. For example, Halema'uma'u crater at Kilauea is considered the home of Pele, the native Hawaiian goddess of fire, and the area around the crater is sacred to native Hawaiians. Throwing trash into volcanoes would be a huge insult to those cultures.
Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you'd like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live. And since curiosity has no age limit - adults, let us know what you're wondering, too. We won't be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.

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Why can't we throw all our trash into a volcano and burn it up?

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Curious Kids is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you'd like an expert to answer, send it to curiouskidsus@theconversation.com. Why can't we throw all our trash into a volcano and burn it up? - Georgine T. It's true that lava is hot enough to burn up some of our trash.

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Updated ISS Experiments.

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Check Out the Amazing Science Experiments Riding to Space Station Aboard the 24th SpaceX Cargo Mission

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The 24thSpaceX cargo resupply services mission, targeted to launch in late December from NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida, carries scientific research and technology demonstrations to the International Space Station. The experiments aboard include studies of bioprinting, crystallization of mon

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Living vs Non living 3 by Samantha Dillon

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Sedimentary Rock Formation by Samantha Dillon

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Parts of a Plant AC.PNG by Samantha Dillon

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Pre-assessment DOK reflection Science S5P3 (1)

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How do you define electric field, voltage, and current?

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How do you define electric field, voltage, and current?

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I hope that you are never in a situation in which you are in danger from a downed, but live, power line. However, if that ever happens, the recommended safety procedure is to move away with tiny, shuffled steps. This type of movement will help prevent you from getting shocked.

Of course the best option is just to avoid this type of dangerous situation-but it's also an opportunity to talk about the important physics of why small steps are the best. We'll talk about three big ideas: electric potential difference (voltage), electric current, and electric field. Yes, they are all related, and I will show you how with some water and an LED. It's a great physics demo, but I need to go over the very basic stuff first.

Perhaps it's best to start with electric current. It might be the easiest to understand. It all starts with electric charges. For just about every electrical interaction in real life, there are only two charges. These two charges are the positively charged proton and the negatively charged electron. Although these particles have different masses, they have exactly opposite charge. Both particles have a charge magnitude of 1.6 x 10 ¹⁹ Coulombs (the unit for charge). This value comes up in other situations, so we call this the fundamental charge and represent it as "e" (short for electron charge). So say you have a long cylinder made of a metal like copper (a w). Each atom in this metal has 29 protons and 29 electrons such that the entire wire has zero net charge. All of these copper atoms in the material interact with the nearby atoms in a way that allows one electron to easily move from one copper atom to the next (we call these free electrons). When a material does this, we call it an electric conductor. Essentially all metals are conductors.

A nice model is to think of this metal wire as a bunch of positive charges (protons) that are stuck in place along with an equal number of negative charges (electrons) that can move. But still, the overall wire is neutral. Now imagine that all of these free electrons are moving in the same direction-that is an electric current. It's the flow of electric charges.

If you could watch one a single point on the wire and count the number of moving electrons (with speed ve) that move past it every second, this would be the electric current ( I). As an equation, it looks like this:

The current is represented by I and ΔQ is the charge that moves during a time interval Δt. If the charge is measured in Coulombs and the time in seconds, then the current would be in units of Amperes (but we just say Amps).

Oh, notice that the direction of the electric current is in the opposite direction as the motion of the free electrons? That's because current is defined as the change in positive charges. However, it's the negative electrons that move. In most (but not all) cases, negative charges moving to the right looks just like positive charges moving to the left so that it doesn't really matter.

But what makes the charges move? That leads us to the next physics concept.

Perhaps the best way to understand the electric field is to look at another field-the gravitational field. Suppose you have two objects, an apple and similarly sized (but much heavier) rock. There is a gravitational force pulling down on both objects-with a greater force on the heavier rock.

But what if you find the gravitational force on each object and divide by that object's mass? Remember that mass is a measure of how much stuff an object is made of, but weight is the gravitational force- don't get those two confused. It turns out to be that this force per mass is constant for both objects. We call this constant the gravitational field, g.

On the surface of the Earth, the gravitational field has a magnitude of 9.8 Newtons per kilogram. So, a 1 kilogram rock would have a gravitational force of 9.8 Newtons. A 70 kg person would have a gravitational force of (70 kg)*(9.8 N/kg) = 686 Newtons.

The great thing about the gravitational field (and all fields) is that it allows us to sort of map out both the magnitude and direction of a force on a particular object. You don't even need to have the object there. For instance, these arrows represent the gravitational field around the Earth.

This shows that if you put a mass in near the Earth, the force would be in the same direction as the arrow and proportional to the length of the arrow.

Just as the gravitational field is a way to represent the gravitational interaction, the electric field is a useful tool to represent the electric interaction. That means that all electric charges have an electric field (we use the symbol E). Since the electric force depends on the value of the charge ( Q) (and not the mass), the electric field is the force per unit charge-or Newtons per Coulomb (N/C).

Here is a sketch of the electric field near a positive and a negative charge.

Maybe at this point you are thinking: "What the heck does this have to do with water and LEDs? I WANT SOME LED LIGHTS!" OK, calm down. We are getting there.

Let me go ahead and make a connection for you. There is an electric current in a wire because there is an electric field inside the wire. It's this electric field that pushes the free electrons to get them to move along. If you imagine that this wire is connected to a DC battery (like a D-cell), the battery would create the electric field inside the wire to produce the current.

A more proper term for this would be "change in electric potential"-but voltage is so much shorter. It's like physics-slang. Note: You will also often see people drop the "change" and just say "electric potential." Some physicists go full out lazy (raises hand) and just call it potential. Words are just too long sometimes.

OK, let's get to this voltage thing. Imagine that you have a constant electric field near some object. You want to move an electron from point A to B as shown below.

The electric field will create a force on the negative electron pushing to the left (since it's a negative charge). If you want to move it to point B, you will have to push with a force of equal magnitude. Since you are exerting a force over some distance, you are doing work on the particle and the work-energy principle dictates that this work changes the energy of the system. That energy change is the change in electric potential energy. With a constant electric field, it would be:

Notice that this is a positive change in energy since the charge (q) is negative. But what if I want to do the same motion with a different electric charge. Maybe I want to move a proton with a charge of +e? In that case, the change in potential energy would be negative. I could also repeat with any other charge. But something stays the same no matter what charge I move-and that's the voltage.

The voltage is the change in electric potential energy per unit charge. That means you take the change in potential energy for some charge (it doesn't matter what charge you use) and then divide by that charge. Like this:

Can you guess the units for this change in electric potential? Yup, it's in units of Joules per Coulomb which is equal to a volt. That's why people call it "voltage," but it's sort of weird if you think about. What if we called a distance measurement "meterage" since we use units of meters?

OK, but let's get back to this relationship between the electric field and the electric potential. For this example of a constant electric field, I can solve for the magnitude of the electric field in terms of the change in potential.

Although this expression is only true for a constant electric field, it's still useful. This says that the electric field doesn't depend on the electric potential but rather how that potential changes with distance.

How about an analogy? Suppose you have a ball on a hill. If you let go of the ball it will start to roll down the hill and the acceleration of the ball depends on the steepness of the hill. This ball acceleration is like the electric field. The height of the hill would be like the electric potential.

So, let's say we have two balls on a hill at different locations.

Which ball is higher? Yes, the answer is A. Which ball will have a greater acceleration? The answer is ball B-even though it's not as high as ball A, the hill is steeper there. I'm using this to address a very common electric potential problem. Consider the following two cases:

Situation 1: A location near an object where the electric potential is zero.

Situation 2: A location near an object where the electric field is zero.

You might think these two locations would be in the same place-and that is possible. However, they don't necessarily have to be the same. Let's go back to the hill example. What if there was a location where the height above sea level was zero meters. Would that mean the slope would have to be flat? Nope. It could be a beach sloping into the water and not completely flat. What if the hill was flat, does that mean the height of the hill is zero? Think about the top of a hill that's flat-that's possible. Again no. The electric field depends on the spatial rate of change (technically called a gradient) of the electric potential. It does NOT depend on the actual value of the potential.

I think we are ready for a demonstration with an LED and water.

Let's start with an LED-a Light Emitting Diode. These have a couple of very useful features.

They require a very particular voltage to turn on. For most red LEDs, this is around 1.7 volts.

They have a positive and a negative end. This means that for the LED to turn on, the current can only go one way-from the positive side through to the negative side.

We can use this to show the connection between electric field and electric potential. Here's how it starts. I'm going to take this shallow plastic tray and add water with a little bit of salt (to make it an electric conductor). On the ends of the tray I will add two strips of aluminum foil that are connected to a power supply with the positive terminal to one side and the negative on the other.

Because of the aluminum foil on the sides, there is a roughly constant electric field in the water going from one side to the other. This electric field also creates an electric current in the water. Next, I'm going build a tiny little person using the LED (and a LEGO brick). The LED is mounted on the top of the brick with the two leads connected to wires on each side to serve as the person's legs. I used a red cable for the positive terminal and black for the negative side.

When I put the LED-person in the water with the positive leg on the positive side of the aluminum tray, it lights up.

Notice that the wire "legs" are far apart in the same direction as the electric field. This would be like a person near a downed power line with two feet spread out. Don't do this because you will have current run up through one leg and out the other-probably passing through some important stuff in between. It won't make an LED on your head light up, you will get shocked.

But what happens if I bend the wire-feet so that they are closer together? This would be like shuffling your feet.

Now the light is not on and the person wouldn't get shocked. So, what's going on? If the electric field is constant, then the change in electric potential from one foot to the other is the product of the electric field and the distance between the feet. Farther apart feet means a greater change in electric potential that can lead to shock.

Yes, this still works even if it's not a constant electric field. However, in that case you would have to integrate the product of the electric field over the distance between the two feet. So, it's still better to keep your feet together near a downed power line.

Oh, here is one more cool thing to do. What if you put the LED person in the water and then rotate the feet? Like this.

Notice that the LED goes off at some point in the rotation. Since the electric field is pointing from one side of the water tray with aluminum foil to the other side, the change in electric potential only depends on the distance between the feet in that same direction. If your LED person was standing perpendicular to the field, there would be zero volts from one foot to the other and you wouldn't get shocked.

Don't worry, this isn't a safety tip. If you come across a downed power line, it doesn't usually make a constant electric field so this trick of turning your body wouldn't save you. The best trick is just to avoid downed power lines all together.

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What's the Difference Between Electric Field, Voltage, and Current?

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I hope that you are never in a situation in which you are in danger from a downed, but live, power line. However, if that ever happens, the recommended safety procedure is to move away with tiny, shuffled steps. This type of movement will help prevent you from getting shocked.

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Out of space, NASA is demolishing Apollo, shuttle launch platform

January 19, 2021

- One of the three large steel platforms that supported the launch of NASA's Apollo and space shuttle missions is now being demolished - due to a lack of space.

Fifty years ago this month, Mobile Launch Platform-2 (MLP-2, or as it was then referred to, Mobile Launcher-2 or ML-2) provided the surface from where the Apollo 14 crew left Earth to land on the moon. Fifteen years later, MLP-2 was the literal "surly bonds of Earth" from where the space shuttle Challenger's STS-51L crew tragically lifted off for the last time.

Given its role in those two missions, and the 49 other Apollo, Skylab and space shuttle launches that it supported between 1968 and 2011, it might be expected that MLP-2 would be retired as a museum artifact. Or if not that, it might continue to serve some purpose, as the two other Apollo and shuttle legacy mobile launch platforms have and are doing.

But MLP-2 is being destroyed.

"We're getting rid of MLP-2 now not because there were no customers [for its use]. We're getting rid of it because we're running out of parking places," said Scott Tenhoff, project manager for MLP-2's demolition at Kennedy Space Center. "That there's a contract out now to build Mobile Launcher-2, something had to go."

"We ran out of parking spots, so that's why we chose to get rid of MLP-2," Tenhoff said in an interview with collectSPACE.

Between 1963 and 1965, Ingalls Iron Works built three mobile launchers to transport and support the launch of NASA's Saturn V and Saturn IB rockets. When the Apollo program ended, the mobile launchers were stripped of their launch umbilical towers and became mobile launch platforms (MLPs) used by the space shuttle. (Portions of the ML-2 and ML-3 umbilical towers were used to build the fixed service structures used to launch the space shuttle.)

For the Artemis program, NASA's current effort to return astronauts to the moon and then eventually land humans on Mars, the legacy mobile launch platforms were deemed incapable of supporting the combined mass of the agency's new Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and an umbilical tower to support its launch. A new mobile launcher, ML-1 (not to be confused with the Apollo ML-1, which became the shuttle program's MLP-3) was completed in 2018.

Construction of a new Artemis ML-2 began in July 2020, and when it is complete, the available ML and MLP parking spots inside and around the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) will be taken.

"The only other place we have mounts would be at the launch pad, but it [MLP-2] would be in the way if we left it at the pad," said Tenhoff.

So the 25-foot-high, 160-foot-long and 135-foot-wide (8 by 50 by 40-m) platform from where the Apollo 9 and Apollo 12 crews left the planet, where the first U.S. space station, Skylab, departed for Earth orbit and from where every space shuttle orbiter but the first (Columbia) began its first mission will soon be no more. Frank-Lin Services of Brevard was contracted by NASA to demolish MLP-2.

"They are going to use excavators with hydraulic shears," Tenhoff described. "What they're basically going to do is to cut it down in size, top to bottom from the outside, and just keep trimming it down."

The whole process is expected to take about a month.

According to a statement provided by NASA, an opportunity was extended to outside sources like the Smithsonian to gage interest in keeping any part of MLP-2 for historic preservation purposes. "The agency did not get any responses to the query to preserve any part of the MLP-2, therefore the decision was ultimately made to move on with the demolition," a NASA spokesperson said.

"To my knowledge there is nothing small enough or significant enough," said Tenhoff. "If you've never been inside one of the MLPs, it's all equipment for the job that it does. So to me, there's not much really to salvage unless you're going to have a couple of thousand pound piece of plate that might have a significant MLP '2' number on it," he said.

At present, there are no plans for MLP-2's twin siblings to meet the same fate.

MLP-1 (ML-3) is presently being loaded with concrete blocks to simulate the mass of the SLS rocket and its launch umbilical tower. Once it is heavy enough, MLP-1 will be picked up by one of NASA's two crawler-transporters and driven along the river rock-covered crawlerway that extends from the VAB to the launch pad. This "conditioning" will ensure the crawlerway is ready for the weight of the SLS.

"So far we have done our first phase of rolling and when we are all done, MLP-1 will be saved," said John Giles, project manager for the crawler transporters. "We will store it in High Bay 1 in the VAB and it will be used again for crawlerway conditioning. At some point down the road, we'll have to condition the crawlerway again."

MLP-3 (ML-1), which supported the launches of the first humans to walk on the moon (Apollo 11) and the final space shuttle mission (STS-135), is currently being reverted to its shuttle-era configuration after being briefly leased to and modified by Northrop Grumman for use with the company's proposed, but now canceled, OmegA rocket.

"Probably by the end of this year, it [MLP-3] is going to be moved back into High Bay 2 inside the VAB and it will be kept there," said Tenhoff.

An excavator tears into the side of Mobile Launch Platform-2 (MLP-2), one of three Apollo and space shuttle support structures. MLP-2 is being demolished to make way for a new Space Launch System (SLS) mobile launcher. (Kevin Keenan)

Mobile Launch Platform-2 (MLP-2) is seen being moved to a park site in the Launch Complex 39 area at Kennedy Space Center in Florida in May 2014. Between 1968 and 2011, MLP-2 was involved in the launch of 51 Apollo and shuttle missions. (NASA/Kim Shiflett)

Two mobile launch platforms (MLPs) are seen at the mobile service structure park site at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida on Jan. 4, 2021. MLP-2, at left, is being demolished while MLP-1 is being used to condition the rock-covered crawlerway for the Space Launch System (SLS) rocket. (NASA/Kim Shiflett)

Apollo and space shuttle-era Mobile Launch Platform-2 is seen at the mobile servicing structure park side at NASA's Kennedy Space Center, awaiting the start of its demolition. (NASA/Kim Shiflett)

Montage of photos of NASA's Apollo and space shuttle-era Mobile Launch Platform-2 (MLP-2 or ML-2) as seen in use for the 51 missions it supported. From the top, left to right by row: Apollo 6, Apollo 9, Apollo 12, Apollo 14, Skylab orbital workshop, STS-6, STS-8, STS-41B, STS-41D, STS-51A, STS-51B, STS-51F, STS-51J, STS-61B, STS-51L, STS-26, STS-29, STS-28, STS-33, STS-31, STS-41, STS-39, STS-49, STS-47, STS-54, STS-57, STS-61, STS-59, STS-64, STS-63, STS-70, STS-74, STS-76, STS-81, STS-84, STS-86, STS-90, STS-95, STS-96, STS-103, STS-106, STS-98, STS-104, STS-109, STS-113, STS-115, STS-117, STS-120, STS-123, STS-125 and STS-134. (NASA/collectSPACE)

© 2021 collectSPACE.com All rights reserved.

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Out of space, NASA is demolishing Apollo and space shuttle launch platform | collectSPACE

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One of the three large steel platforms that supported the launch of NASA's Apollo and space shuttle missions is being demolished - due to a lack of space. Mobile Launch Platform-2 (MLP-2) was front and center for 51 spaceflights from 1968 through 2011.

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Ocean's hidden heat measured with earthquake sounds

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Ocean's hidden heat measured with earthquake sounds

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In 1991, scientists lowered large subwoofers into the water at Heard Island, a snowcapped volcanic island in the Indian Ocean. The speakers emitted low-frequency sounds that, like whale song, rumbled across entire oceans. Picked up by receivers off the coasts of California and Bermuda, the signals contained a crucial piece of information about the water they had traversed: how hot it was. It was a promising way to monitor Earth's warming oceans, but concerns about how the underwater noise might affect marine life soon sidelined it, with only a few dedicated scientists keeping the technique alive. Now, it is back-only this time, Earth itself is providing the noise.

A team of seismologists and oceanographers has shown that small earthquakes repeatedly emanating from the same spot beneath the ocean floor can take the place of the subwoofers. The quakes generate reliable acoustic signals for measuring ocean temperatures, including at depths below 2000 meters, beyond the reach of other techniques. If validated, the approach, published today in Science, could open an entirely new ocean observation system for understanding past and future climate change, says Frederik Simons, a geophysicist at Princeton University unaffiliated with the study. "There's a potential treasure trove of data waiting to be analyzed."

The oceans absorb more than 90% of the energy trapped by global warming, and any change in the rate at which they soak up heat would have an outsize impact on how fast the atmosphere warms. Two decades ago, robotic floats from the international Argo array began to monitor the warming of the ocean to a depth of about 2000 meters. But the float array, now 4000 strong, could not probe the large volume of water at greater depths. "The inability to determine what is going on in the deep water is a major obstacle to understanding the ocean and climate, even today," says Carl Wunsch, a retired oceanographer from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

In 1979, Wunsch and Walter Munk, an oceanographer at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography who died last year, first proposed using sound waves to measure the ocean's heat and structure. Sound travels faster as water grows hotter or denser, making its travel time a reliable gauge of temperature and density if the sound source and receiver are at fixed locations.

The technique did not require especially loud sources. At a depth of about 1000 meters, the speed of sound hits a minimum, forming a conductive channel between warm waters above and dense water below. This waveguide enables sound waves to coast across entire ocean basins, says Bruce Cornuelle, a Scripps oceanographer who worked with Munk. "It's like a 5-year-old grabbing a wrapping paper tube and yelling in his brother's ear."

Besides probing the entire width of an ocean, the sound waves-with vertical amplitudes of thousands of meters-capture conditions from shallow waters all the way down to the abyss. As a result, they average out smaller scale natural temperature fluctuations, revealing basinwide changes of just a few thousandths of 1° per year. "That makes it much easier to extract the global warming signal," says Jörn Callies, an oceanographer at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) and co-author on the new study.

After the 1991 demonstration at Heard Island, Munk won Department of Defense funding for a follow-up experiment in the Pacific Ocean, called Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate (ATOC). But it became mired in controversy over its two human-size speakers, placed off the coasts of Hawaii and California in prime whale territory. "It became a political nightmare," says Brian Dushaw, a retired oceanographer who worked on ATOC. ATOC's signals were no louder than whale calls and ship traffic, but much of its $35 million budget went to studies of the sound's impact on marine mammals.

Military secrecy also got in the way. To hear the signals, the project relied on classified Navy hydrophones normally used to detect submarines. The scientists couldn't even publish the receivers' locations, Wunsch says. "We didn't tell the Navy that if you published the signal, which we did, then you could figure out where the receivers were," Wunsch adds. The Hawaiian source, off Kauai, ran until 2006, providing 10 years of warming data. But by then, oceanographers had left acoustic thermometry behind and were relying on Argo, Dushaw says.

That was until 1 year ago, when Wenbo Wu, a Caltech seismologist, realized that repeating earthquakes on slowly creeping faults below the sea floor could provide an alternative sound source. When earthquakes shake the ocean floor, some of the energy is transformed into acoustic waves. Wu and his co-authors just had to find the right source.

Their search went back to the Indian Ocean. In earthquake records, they identified more than 4000 earthquakes from faults in the ocean floor west of Sumatra in Indonesia from 2004 to 2016, many of them between magnitude 3.5 and 5. Triangulating on the source, the team identified patches of fault less than 100 meters apart that ruptured repeatedly, says Sidao Ni, a co-author and seismologist at the Institute of Geodesy and Geophysics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The resulting sound waves traveled through the ocean unfettered to Diego Garcia, a remote atoll south of India, where they hit land and turned back into seismic waves, picked up on the island's seismometer.

Converting those travel times to temperatures, Wu and his colleagues found that the eastern Indian Ocean warmed 0.044°C over the decade. The annual fluctuations matched up well with Argo measures from the same time, but the warming signal was nearly double what the Argo floats detected. The disparity suggests Argo is missing some heat, Callies says, at least for this basin over this short span of time. Some 40% of their heat measurement came from water below 2000 meters, suggesting some warming is working its way deeper into the ocean, out of Argo's current reach.

This work is "quite extraordinary and very promising," says Susan Wijffels, an Argo leader at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. If extended globally, it could provide an independent check on Argo measurements, especially when production of a new line of Argo floats that can descend 6000 meters, currently deployed only in the dozens, ramps up. Even more alluring for Wijffels is the possibility of extending global warming trends back in time, before Argo, by detecting repeaters in old seismic records. "What a gift to the climate community that'd be," she says.

The team thinks it can capture the earthquake-generated sounds more cleanly with hydrophones than with land-based seismometers. That will let them use lower power earthquakes, and by using the global network of hydrophones deployed as part of the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, they should be able to pick up signals from repeaters throughout the world's oceans.

Hydrophones deployed under Arctic sea ice might gauge water temperatures in a place Argo floats can't reach. It might even be possible to use the crash of collapsing ice in nearby Greenland-glacial earthquakes, as they're known-as the sound source. "It's free data," Dushaw says. "There's no question someone will implement a system to take advantage of this."

The newly bright prospects for ocean acoustic thermometry are also a validation for Munk, who was deeply saddened when his global acoustic dreams were muted, Cornuelle says. "I wish Walter had been around to see it. He'd be overjoyed."
*Correction, 17 September, 4:25 p.m.: A previous version of this story stated that 40% of the measured warming came from below 2000 meters. Although 40% of the measured temperature came from water below 2000 meters, the technique cannot yet say where in the water column the warming occurred.

doi:10.1126/science.abe8435

Paul Voosen is a staff writer who covers Earth and planetary science.

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