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Thanaloshiny - 231711

Puvanna - 231684

Sumeetrra - 231704

Latifa - 226570

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1. Form a group of four (4).
2. Pick a group name from the given column
3. Make a tik tok of your group members and post in your group column, AND write your team members full name and metric card
4. Follow the instruction below:

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Draw TWO section from roof to foundation to show the differences between timber structure and steel structure?

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To further understand  the timber structural system, the accessments are using these 5 Stages .

STAGE  1: LEARN
Read and collect key information form the lecture notes and INTERNET.

STAGE 2: DISCUSS
Find appropriate images and discuss with your team members the best way to answer STAGE 3 QUIZ

STAGE 3: QUIZ
answer quiz's question from column 2. Write your answers in your group column.
Show references and link in your group column when answering the questions

STAGE 4: MAKE A TIKTOK
Make a 30 seconds of your group's vlog/ TIKTOK/ reel to show that you have complete your tasks. Its good to say creatively!

STAGE 5: KAHOOT! time
Answer the Kahoot quiz question to measure individual understanding about the subject.

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list the timber structural elements when considering sizing in building structural system?

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1. Depth of understanding about the topic given (Cognitive)
2. Team collaboration spirit in creative postage in group column (Affective)
3. Individual who wins in Kahoot will get extra points for his/her group (Psychomotor)

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1.  Timber structural system
2. element for timber structure framing
3. Terminologies

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Sample of timber structure system drawings

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Sample of timber structure system drawings

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Extra references.

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Timber structure characteristics

The article explains about timber structure characteristics

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NAINIKA 231635

YOGEETHA 228522

SHUMITTHA 231685

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Terminologies to timber structure framing

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Terminologies to timber structure framing

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Intro to Timber Framing elements in a simple residential building

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Uploaded by OTENBuildingCourses on 2015-01-23.

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A video about differences of timber heavy frame vs platform frame (stick frame)

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Timber Frame vs Conventional Stick Frame

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How many types of of timber structural systems in building construction?

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Sizing the structural timber elements require balancing span lengths, applying loads, and the materials natural strength to weight ratio.

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1. Muhammad Najib Al Khuljan bin Hasan 228879

2. Firdaus Yahya Ayyash 226698

3. Cheng Hooi Ching 230957

4. Zheng Jiayi 227216

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THASHANIYA 231368

KHOUJA NOUR 226783

VEISHINAVI

SORNAH

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1. NABIL SYUQRI

2. AISYAH ZARIFAH

3. SYAHMI DANISH

4. NADRAH AZZAHRA

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Nur Huda 229650

Nor Aliya Safiya 227629

Zyva Naveda 231719

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NAYYARASINTA DEITRA ALISHYA 231180

IMRAN ADAM ALI 227262

MUHAMMAD DANISH AIMAN BIN KAMARUL SHAM 228417

NUR LIYANA SHAHIRAH BINTI YAAFAR 229073

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Theres is 6 main types of timber structural system in building construction.

1. Light Frame

Uses closely spaced standard dimension lumber (2x4 or 2x6) for low-rise residential houses.

2. Post and Beam:

Creates a structural skeleton using heavy timber posts and beams for large, open-concept spaces.

3. Mass Timber:

Utilizes large, solid engineered wood panels (like CLT) to construct sustainable mid-to-high-rise buildings.

4. Log Construction:

Stacks interlocking whole logs horizontally to create both the structure and finished walls simultaneously.

5. Panelized and SIPs:

Assembles factory-made wall components or insulated sandwich panels for high energy efficiency and rapid construction.

6. Hybrid Systems:

Combines wood components with steel frames or concrete cores to build extra-tall structures.

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Timber members are generally larger because wood has lower strength than steel.

Steel structures appear much lighter because the members can be much smaller.

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To consider the structural timber sizing, it requires to size the structural elements in the order that loads are transferred from the roof down to the foundation. For example, for a two storey house:

1.Roof decking

18–25 mm plywood (around 0.4 to 0.6 between purlins)

2. Purlins

50 × 150 mm with the span around 2 to 3 m

3. Rafters

50 × 200 mm from 3 m minimum to 5 maximum.

4. Roof Trusses

50 × 150 mm members for 8 m minimum span length and 15 m maximum span length.

5. Floor joists

50 × 250 mm for around 3 to 5 m span length.

6. Secondary beams

100 × 250 mm for a 4 m to 6 m span length.

7. Primary beams

150 × 450 mm has a span of 6 m to 9 m.

8. Columns

For a storey height of approximately 3 m to 4 m, 200 × 200 mm.

9. Load-bearing walls

For a storey height of approximately 3 m to 4 m, 50 × 150 mm.

10. Bracing or shear

50 × 100 mm as required by wall and the roof bay.

11. Connections: bolts, plates, brackets

12. Foundation interface (base plates, anchor bolts)

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NISA NURDINI BINTI MOHD HUSZAINI 228222

NYR ATHIRAH SYAFIQAH BINTI MOHAMAD SHUKOR 229935

KHAIRUL AZMAN BIN SULTAN GHANI 230519

ZAKRIEMAN BIN HAZIZI

230525

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Timber structural elements considered for sizing include : Columns, Beams, Joists, Rafters, Trusses, Purlins, Studs, Lintels, Bracing, Bearers or Girders.

For the sizing, it depends on : span, load, timber strength, spacing, deflection limits, and connection details.

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Types of Timber Structural Systems

1. Post and Beam: Vertical posts and horizontal beams supporting the structure.

2. Timber Frame: Timber studs, joists, and rafters, commonly used in residential houses.

3. Mass Timber: Large engineered timber panels and beams. For example: Cross-laminated timger (CLT) and Glulam.

4. Truss System: Triangular timber frames used for roofs and long spans.

5. Log Construction: Stacked logs that act as load-bearing walls.

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There are 2 main types of timber structural systems used in building construction:

1.Platform (Light Timber) Frame Construction

Uses small, closely spaced timber members (studs, joists, and rafters).

Commonly used for houses and low-rise buildings.

Economical, flexible, and easy to construct.

2.Heavy Timber Construction (Post-and-Beam)

Uses large timber columns and beams.

Suitable for commercial, industrial, and larger buildings.

Offers high load capacity, good fire resistance, and an attractive exposed timber appearance.

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1) Beams – Support floor and roof load

2) Columns – Carry vertical loads from beams

3) Joists – Support floors and ceiling

4) Rafters – Support roof coverings

5) Purlins – Horizontal roof members

6) Trusses – Triangulated timber members

7) Studs – Vertical members in timber walls

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- Wood Stud Walls / Wall Studs

- Wood Floor Joists / Wood I-Joists

- Beams & Girders

- Wood Roof Rafters

- Wood Floor and Roof Trusses

- Wood Columns

- Wood Decking

- Glue-Laminated Wood Arches / Radial Arches

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Question 1: Timber and Steel Steucture Comparison Sketch

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Question 1: Timber and Steel Steucture Comparison Sketch

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Types of timber structural system

Three primary categories

Frame

Solid/Mass Timber

Skeleton.

1. Timber Frame Construction

Lightweight Wood Frame:

The most common residential system.

Prefabricated Frame-Panel:

Pre-made timber frame wall or floor panels are manufactured off-site and quickly assembled.

2. Solid & Mass Timber Construction

Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT):

Solid wood panels made of lumber layers stacked crosswise and glued together.

Solid Log/Timber Construction:

Traditional horizontal log stacking.

3. Skeleton / Post & Beam Construction

Post and Beam:

Use larger, spaced-out wooden columns and beams to transfer loads.

Mass Timber Post & Beam: Utilises engineered timber elements like Glulam.

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Question 2: Timber Structural Elements

1. Roof Rafters – Support the roof covering and transfer roof loads to beams or walls.

2. Purlins – Horizontal members that support the rafters and distribute roof loads.

3. Trusses – Main roof framework that spans long distances and transfers loads to columns or walls.

4. Beams (Girders) – Horizontal members that carry floor or roof loads to columns.

5. Joists – Smaller horizontal members that support floor or ceiling loads.

6. Columns / Posts – Vertical members that transfer loads from beams to the foundation.

7. Studs – Vertical framing members in timber walls that support roof and floor loads.

8. Bracing Members – Diagonal members that provide lateral stability against wind and seismic forces.

9. Wall Plates / Sill Plates – Horizontal timber members at the top and bottom of walls to distribute vertical loads and anchor framing.

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Structural timber elements are sized based on how far they need to span, the loads they need to carry, and the natural strength of the timber. As the span or load increases, larger or stronger timber sections are needed to keep the structure safe and prevent bending. Because timber has a high strength-to-weight ratio, it provides strong support while keeping the overall structure lightweight and efficient.

For example: Timber beam sizing

- Span, L = 6.0 m

- Uniform load, w = 5 kN/m (dead load + live load)

Span: 6.0 m

Load: 5 kN/m

Maximum bending moment: 22.5 kN·m

Required section modulus: 1.25 \times 10^6 mm^3

Selected timber size: 140 × 240 mm

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There are 5 main types of wood structural systems, divided into two categories:

1. Lightweight Wood Framing

Platform & Balloon Framing: Built using small, closely spaced wood studs (like 2x4s) to create walls. This is the standard system for most regular houses.

2. Heavy & Engineered Wood Framing

Post and Beam: Uses large wood posts and beams spaced far apart to carry weight, leaving the floor plan very open.

Timber Framing: Uses traditional, interlocking wood joints and wooden pegs instead of metal nails or screws.

Mass Timber (CLT): Uses huge, solid, factory-made panels stacked together like LEGO blocks. It is strong enough for high-rise buildings.

Heavy Timber (Mill): Uses thick, massive wood that naturally resists fire because the outside chars slowly, protecting the inside.

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1. Timber Frame System

- Timber studs, beams, and columns for houses and low-rise buildings.

2. Post-and-Beam System

– Large timber posts and beams creating open interior spaces.

3. Heavy Timber (Mass Timber) System

– Large timber members for strong, fire-resistant structures.

4. Glulam System

– Engineered laminated timber for long spans and curved designs.

5. Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) System

– Engineered timber panels used for walls, floors, and roofs.

6. Timber Truss System

– Triangular timber members supporting long-span roofs.

7. Timber Portal Frame System

– Rigid timber frames providing large column-free spaces.

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High strength-to-weight ratio – Supports heavy loads with less material.

Long-span capability – Creates large, column-free spaces.

Fast construction – Prefabricated components reduce construction time.

Design flexibility – Easily accommodates complex and modern architectural forms.

Durability – Resistant to cracking, shrinking, and pests.

Lightweight – Reduces foundation size and overall structural load.

Easy modification – Can be extended, altered, or dismantled with relative ease.

Recyclable – Steel is 100% recyclable, making it environmentally sustainable.

Consistent quality – Factory fabrication ensures high precision and quality control.

Good seismic performance – Ductility allows steel to absorb energy during earthquakes, reducing structural damage.

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The Span (The Length): The longer a piece of wood has to stretch without a support post underneath it, the more it will sag in the middle. To fix this, you don't necessarily need wider wood; you need deeper (taller) wood to keep it stiff.

The Load (The Weight): This is the weight of the building itself plus the people, snow, or wind hitting it. Wood has a unique superpower: it can handle heavy loads for a short time (like a quick wind gust) much better than it can handle weight sitting on it forever.

The Material (The Wood's Strength): Wood is incredibly lightweight yet remarkably strong—but only along the grain(the direction the tree grew). It is very easy to crush if you push against the side of the grain.

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Chong Ruin Hentz (228293)

Muhammad Shah bin Paijan (230377)

Nabil bin Hazian (229660)

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Timber has a high strength-to-weight ratio, meaning it can support significant loads while remaining lightweight. With a typical density of 350–700 kg/m³ (depends on the type), timber reduces the building's dead load, allowing for more efficient structural members and smaller foundations.

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1) Light Timber Frame

- most common in residential system

-small-dimension lumber (2x4s or 2x6s)

-build walls, floors, and roofs

2)Mass Timber

- family of engineered, heavy structural systems made by:

bonding, nailing, and gluing

3) Post and Beam

- traditional and heavy-timber system

-consist of widely spaced, large horizontal beams and vertical columns

4)Timber-Concrete Composite

- hybrid system that structurally bonds timber with a concrete topping using mechanical shear connectors.

5)SIPS (Structural Insulated Panels)

- Highly prefabricated panel systems

- consist of a thick, insulating foam core between two structural facings

6) Log Construction

- One of the oldest timber systems

-utilizing stacked and interlocking

-form structure and the interior/ exterior walls.

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When sizing a timber structural system, the elements are grouped based on how they carry loads in the building. Their sizes depend on span, load, spacing, and timber type.

Vertical & Load-Bearing Elements

Columns & Posts – Carry loads from floors and roofs down to the foundation.

Studs – Vertical wall members supporting gravity and wind loads.

Shear Walls – Walls that resist lateral forces like wind or earthquakes.

Horizontal Spanning Elements

Beams & Girders – Main horizontal supports carrying heavy loads.

Joists – Support floors and flat roofs between beams.

Purlins – Roof members supporting rafters or roof decking.

Roof & Bracing Elements

Rafters – Sloped roof members supporting roof loads.

Trusses – Triangular roof frameworks for longer spans.

Braces – Diagonal members that improve structural stability.

Solid Panel Systems

CLT Panels – Engineered timber panels used for floors, walls, and roofs in modern timber construction.

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The strength-to-weight ratio of timber is determined by comparing the material’s structural strength with its weight also known as density. It is calculated by dividing the timber’s strength, such as its bending or compressive strength (measured in MPa), by its density (measured in kg/m³).

The calculation means the timber provides 0.08 MPa of strength for every kg/m³ of its density, indicating that it can support relatively high loads while remaining lightweight. A higher strength-to-weight ratio means the timber is more efficient as a structural material, allowing it to achieve the required structural performance with less self-weight, making it suitable for beams, columns, and other load-bearing elements.

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Sizing structural timber elements requires balancing span lengths, applied loads, and material strength through three main engineering actions:

1.Matching Strength and Size to the Span: Selecting specific combinations of structural dimensions and material stress grades (such as 175 x 50 mm of hardwood) to safely bridge a designated span length without failing.

2.​Increasing Dimensions for Concentrated Loads: Scaling up individual structural members, such as making a wall lintel significantly larger than a standard top plate when they must bear and transfer heavy roof loads across an open span.

3. ​Adjusting Member Spacing Based on Weight, Decreasing the spacing intervals between framing members (e.g., placing floor joists at 450mm or 600mm instead of wider gaps) when supporting heavy dead loads like compressed fiber cement to offset the material's lower natural spanning capacity.

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Question 3: Types of Timber Structural Systems

1. Timber Frame / Light-Frame Construction

-Relies on closely spaced, small-dimension timber (studs, joists, and rafters) to form walls, floors, and roofs. Commonly used for residential and low-rise buildings.

2. Post-and-Beam Construction

-Uses a framework of large timber posts and beams spaced relatively far apart, creating wide open interior spaces and leaving walls non-structural.

3. Mass Timber / Engineered Timber Construction

-Utilizes large, solid engineered wood components (like CLT and Glulam panels) to act as structural walls and heavy floor slabs in multi-story or commercial buildings.

4. Timber Truss / Component Systems

-Employs prefabricated triangular networks of timber members to span massive open distances without intermediate vertical supports.

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When sizing a timber structural system, the elements must be designed based on the building span, applied loads (dead and live loads), timber strength grade, deflection limits, and connection requirements to ensure structural safety and stability.

Timber Structural Elements:

1. Roof rafters

2. Purlins

3. Roof trusses

4. Beams (girders)

5. Floor joists

6. Columns (posts)

7. Wall studs

8. Bracing members

9. Wall plates / Sill plates

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Inas Sofea binti Salleh 230840

Nurul Nazira binti Mohamad 230966

Nurin Aliya Batrisyia binti Ahmad Ramzi 227765

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* The Span: How far the timber has to reach longer gaps require deeper, thicker pieces to prevent sagging.

* The Load: The actual weight (roof, floors, furniture, wind) pushing down or against the structure.

* The Material Ratio: Timber's high strength to weight ratio allows it to carry heavy loads without adding massive dead weight to the building.

* The Balance: Sizing means finding the exact dimensions where the wood is thick enough to span the distance and hold the load safely without being over designed and wasteful.

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Nurul Anis Sofea 227780

Nur Ain Qistina 231457

Nadia Umairah 231631

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1. Vertical Load-Bearing Timber Elements (Compression Members)

1. Timber Columns / beams

2. Studs (Wall Framing Studs)

- Load-bearing wall timber studs (support upper floors / roof)

- Partition non-load-bearing studs (still sized for lateral wind load)

- Cripple studs (swindow/door openings)

3. Pile Posts / Timber Foundation Piles

- Timber ground piles for light timber frame buildings

- Subfloor stumps / sleeper posts supporting ground floor framing

2. Horizontal Spanning Timber Elements (Bending Members)

1. Floor Joists

2. Beams / Girders

3. Roof spanning members

4. Timber Truss Components

- Truss top chords (compression rafter members)

- Truss bottom chords (tension ceiling members)

- Truss vertical webs, diagonal webs (tension/compression bracing struts)

3. Lateral Stabilisation & Bracing Timber Elements

Sized for lateral wind/seismic loads, tension/compression and shear wall racking:

1. Diagonal Braces

- Timber cross bracing for wall frames, floor diaphragms, roof planes

- K-braces for portal frame timber structures

2. Shear Wall Framing Components

- Full height timber stud shear walls (lateral load resistance)

- Top & bottom wall plates (tie all studs together, distribute lateral loads)

3. Diaphragm Framing Timbers

- Floor/roof perimeter binding plates, rim joists (form diaphragm edge ties)

4. Secondary Framing & Sub-Structure Timber Elements

1. Wall plate

2. Subfloor & Ground Support Timbers

3. Noggins / Blocking

4. Eaves & Edge Support Timbers

- Fascia boards, soffit support timbers, valley rafters, hip rafters

5. Timber Connection Hardware & Assembly Components

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1. Timber beam

Width to depth ratio should not be less that 1/3 of its depth

Span to depth ratio is 1/15 or 1/20 of its span

2. Timber column

Length of timber column = Effective buckling length / radius of gyration

3. Mass timber panels

range = 60mm to 500mm and can span up to 16 meters

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Types of Timber Structural Systems

1. Timber Frame System – Uses timber studs, beams, and joists to support the building. Commonly used in residential construction.

2. Post-and-Beam System – Consists of large timber posts and horizontal beams, allowing for open interior spaces with fewer load-bearing walls.

3. Heavy Timber (Mass Timber) System – Uses large engineered timber elements such as CLT and glulam to support heavier loads in mid- and high-rise buildings.

4. Timber Truss System – Comprises triangular timber members that efficiently distribute loads, mainly used for long-span roofs.

5. Timber Portal Frame System – Features rigid connections between timber columns and beams, creating wide, column-free spaces for industrial and commercial buildings.

6. Timber Shell/Space Frame System – Uses curved or three-dimensional timber members to form lightweight structures capable of spanning large areas.

References

American Wood Council. (2021). Design of timber structures. https://awc.org

WoodWorks. (n.d.). Mass timber technical reference guide. https://www.woodworks.org/mass-timber-technical-reference-guide/

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The sizing of structural timber elements requires balancing span lengths, applied loads, and the material’s natural strength-to-weight ratio. Timber members must be large enough to safely support structural loads while remaining economical and efficient. Proper sizing ensures adequate strength, stiffness, and stability, helping the structure resist bending, deflection, and other structural stresses throughout its service life.

Factors affecting the size of timber structural elements:

Span length – Longer spans require larger or deeper timber sections.

Applied loads – Dead loads, live loads, wind loads, and roof loads determine the required member size.

Strength-to-weight ratio – Timber provides high strength while remaining relatively lightweight.

Timber species and strength grade – Different timber types have different load-carrying capacities.

Deflection limits – Members must be stiff enough to prevent excessive bending.

Connection details – Joints and fasteners influence the overall structural performance.

Building codes and standards – Timber sizing must comply with relevant structural design requirements to ensure safety and durability.

Sizing the Structural Timber Elements Calculation

Beam span = 4.0m

Rule of thumb for timber beam depth:

Beam depth = 4000/20

= 200mm

Assume the beam width is approximately half of the depth:

Beam width = 200/2

= 100mm

Recommended Timber Beam Size

Width = 100 mm

Depth = 200 mm

A 100 mm × 200 mm timber beam is an appropriate preliminary size for a 4 m span based on the span-to-depth rule. Actual beam dimensions should always be verified by a structural engineer according to the applied loads and the relevant design standards.

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Timber sizing mainly depends on three things: span length, loads, and strength-to-weight ratio.

Longer spans need deeper or stronger members because they bend more and must stay stiff. Short spans can use smaller sections.

Loads include dead loads like self-weight and live loads such as people, furniture and wind. Higher loads mean bigger or stronger timber is needed to prevent failure or excessive deflection.

Timber’s strength-to-weight ratio is its advantage as it is light but still strong, so it can carry loads efficiently without adding too much structural weight.

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There are five main types of timber structural systems.

1. Light Timber Frame System

Most common residential system

Uses timber studs, joists, and rafters

Suitable for houses and low-rise buildings

2. Post-and-Beam System

Heavy timber columns and beams

Creates large open interior spaces

Often used in halls and commercial buildings

3. Timber Truss System

Uses triangulated members

Efficient for long roof spans

Common in warehouses, schools, and sports halls

4. Mass Timber System

Includes:

Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT)

Glue-Laminated Timber (Glulam)

Nail-Laminated Timber (NLT)

Dowel-Laminated Timber (DLT)

Suitable for mid-rise and high-rise timber buildings.

5. Hybrid Timber System

Combines timber with steel or reinforced concrete

Used for taller buildings and longer spans

Improves structural efficiency

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timber structural elements

-beams

-joists

-rafters

-trusses

-purkins

-studs

-bracing members

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Q2

sizing a timber structural system, the main structural elements that need to be considered are:

1. Timber Columns (Posts)

* Support vertical loads from beams and floors.

* Typical sizes:

* 150 × 150 mm

* 200 × 200 mm

* Larger depending on building height and load.

2. Timber Beams

* Transfer loads from floors or roofs to columns.

* Typical sizes:

* 150 × 300 mm

* 200 × 400 mm

* Size depends on span and loading.

3. Floor Joists

* Support floor decking.

* Typical sizes:

* 50 × 200 mm

* 75 × 225 mm

* Spacing usually 400–600 mm c/c.

4. Roof Rafters

* Support roof covering and transfer roof loads.

* Typical sizes:

* 50 × 150 mm

* 75 × 200 mm

5. Purlins

* Support rafters or roof sheeting.

* Typical sizes:

* 75 × 150 mm

* 100 × 200 mm

6. Trusses (if used)

* Used for long roof spans.

* Members are sized according to span, roof load, and truss type.

7. Bracing Members

* Provide lateral stability against wind and seismic loads.

* Includes diagonal braces in walls and roofs.

8. Timber Floor/Roof Decking or Panels

* Such as plywood, OSB, or CLT panels.

* Thickness commonly:

* Plywood/OSB: 18–25 mm

* CLT: 60–200 mm depending on span.

9. Connections

* Bolts, screws, nails, steel plates, brackets, and timber connectors.

* Proper connection design is essential because it affects the overall structural capacity.

Q3

1. Light Frame Timber Construction – Includes platform framing and balloon framing, commonly used for houses.

2. Post-and-Beam Construction – Uses large timber posts and beams to support loads.

3. Timber Truss System – Triangulated members used for roofs and long spans.

4. Mass Timber Construction – Uses engineered timber products such as CLT (Cross-Laminated Timber), Glulam, and LVL for multi-storey buildings.

Q4

Sizing timber structural elements requires balancing:

1. Span Length – Longer spans require larger or deeper timber members.

2. Applied Loads – Consider dead load, live load, wind load, and roof load.

3. Strength-to-Weight Ratio – Timber is strong yet lightweight, so the member size must provide enough strength without unnecessary weight.

4. Timber Species & Grade – Stronger timber allows smaller member sizes.

5. Deflection Limits – Members should not bend or sag excessively.

6. Safety & Stability – The structure must safely support all loads.

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Timber and steel construction -Roof to Foundation

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Timber Structural Elements (Considering Sizing)

Columns (Posts): Vertical structural members that transfer loads from beams and floors to the foundation. Their size depends on the magnitude of the axial load and the building height.

Beams: Horizontal members that support floors, roofs, and walls by transferring loads to columns or load-bearing walls. Beam dimensions are determined by span length and applied loads.

Joists: Closely spaced horizontal members that support floor or roof decking. Their size is selected based on span, spacing, and expected live and dead loads.

Studs: Vertical framing members used in timber walls to support roof and floor loads. Stud dimensions depend on wall height, spacing, and structural loading.

Rafters: Sloping members that support roof coverings and transfer roof loads to walls or beams. Their sizing is influenced by roof span, pitch, and imposed loads.

Trusses: Triangular structural assemblies designed to span long distances while efficiently supporting roof loads. The size of truss members depends on the span, loading conditions, and truss configuration.

Bracing: Diagonal members that provide lateral stability against wind and seismic forces. Bracing dimensions are determined by the required lateral resistance.

Lintels: Horizontal members placed above doors and windows to support the load of the wall above the opening. Their size depends on the width of the opening and the imposed load.

Purlins: Horizontal roof members that support roof sheeting and transfer loads to rafters or trusses. Purlin dimensions are selected based on roof span, spacing, and roof loading.

References

American Wood Council. (2021). National design specification (NDS) for wood construction. https://awc.org

WoodWorks. (2021). Mass timber technical reference guide (2nd ed.). https://www.woodworks.org/mass-timber-technical-reference-guide/

TRADA. (n.d.). Timber construction and structural design. https://www.trada.co.uk

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Question 1

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S