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https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fendo.2019.00826/full

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Name the two thyroid hormones affected by the above disease and identify the cells that produce them.

The two thyroid hormones affected are T₃ and T₄ and the cells that are responsible for producing the hormones are called follicular cells (Tortora, et al. 2019). (23 words)

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Describe the mechanism of action of thyroid hormones from release into the blood stream through to the response of the target cell.

If free, the lipid-soluble hormone molecule (T3 and T₄) diffuses from the blood, through the interstitial fluid, through the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane and into the target cell. The hormone will then bind to and activate the receptors located within the cytosol or nucleus. The activated receptor-hormone complex will then alter the gene expression by switching specific genes of the DNA on or off—transcribing the DNA. In effect a new messenger forms called mRNA and it travels from the nucleus to the cytosol in which it directs synthesis of a new protein (often an enzyme) on the ribosomes. The newly formed protein then alters the cells activity based on the role of the hormone (Tortora, et al. 2019).  (117 words)

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The synthetic thyroid hormone replaces the deficient production of the endogenous thyroid hormone. Discuss two (2) actions of thyroid hormone within the body.

Thyroid hormones conduct various actions within the body they’re known as T3 (Triiodothyronine) and T4 (Tetraiodothyronine). Two actions include energy production and regulating different functions as they govern the metabolism. The pituitary gland sends a message to the thyroid gland to make more or less of these hormones depending on the needs of the person (NCBI, 2018). (55 words)

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Hormonal axes are pathways that direct neuroendocrine function. Identify the relevant axis, in this case, and describe the associated control and regulation of thyroid hormones. Include the relevant organs, hormones and cells from which they are released/produced

The hormonal axis in this case is the hypothalamus pituitary thyroid (HPT) axis. The HPT axis controls and regulates thyroid hormones through its secretion of the thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) which in itself is regulated by the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). It is only through the release of the thyroid stimulating hormone that the necessary amounts of T3 and T4 are produced for the required energy production and metabolic needs of the individual. The pituitary gland can sense when thyroid hormones are too low or high and is responsible for sending signals which allow TSH to produce more or less of the hormones when needed. The organs directly involved in the release of thyroid hormones are the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and thyroid gland and it is the follicular cells responsible for the production of both T3 and T4 (Mariotti, S & Beck-Peccoz, P. 2016). (137 words)

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https://bmcmusculoskeletdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12891-017-1816-6

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Name the collective structure where Botox exerts its action and identify specific components (minimum of four) within the structure.

The collective structure where Botox exerts its action is within the neuromuscular junction. Some of the specific components which make up its structure include, but are not limited to, the muscle belly, epimysium, myosin, muscle fascicle, sarcomere, perimysium, myofilament as well as the actin (Perry, C. 2020).  (44 words)

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Outline the role that calcium plays in the initiation of a muscle action potential.

Calcium plays a significant role in the initiation of a muscle action potential as it is one of two ions, the other being sodium, that are shuttled through various channels after acetylcholine has attached to receptors on the respective muscle surface. As a direct result of this, calcium drives the resting membrane to become positive in value and voltage gated channels are then switched on alongside the action potential of the muscle (Kuo, I. Y., Ehrlich, B. E. 2015).  (72 words)

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How does Botulinum Neurotoxin A prevent the initiation of a muscle action potential at the structure identified in Q. 1?

Botulinum Neurotoxin A prevents the initiation of a muscle action potential within the neuromuscular junction through inhibiting the required neural transmission by obstructing acetylcholine from being released. Botulinum Neurotoxin A is administered into the muscle and interferes by causing paralysis within the neuromuscular junction. It successfully does this as the presynaptic motor neurons are subsequently unable to release any acetylcholine and as a result, initiation of any muscle action is prevented (Nigam, P. K., Nigam, A. 2010).  (71 words)

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Outline the role that sodium plays in the production of a muscle action potential.

Sodium plays a key role in producing an action potential, as its fluctuation (specifically re-entering the cell and elevating the charge) influences the cell charge from negative to positive within a cell, allowing the threshold to be reached and action potential to be produced. This process arises at the axon hillock as a consequence of depolarisation where voltage-gated sodium ion channels are forced to open due to an electrical stimulus (Aarushi, K. 2020). (71 words)

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Botulinum Neurotoxin A can also be used for dystonic conditions. Define muscle tone and outline the mechanism by which muscles maintain it. Identify which tonic disorder can be treated by Botox.

Muscle tone is the continuous and partial contraction of a muscle, which allows it to maintain balance, posture, and reflex when needed, as well as providing support to other organ systems. The muscle spindle regulates and maintains muscle tone and it is within these spindles that nuclear bag fibers and nuclear chain fibers are located; containing myosin and actin which enables the spindles to stretch with the muscle. Spasticity is one tonic disorder that can be treated by Botox (Camargo, C, et al. 2019). (79 words)

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Bijelic, R., Milicevic, S., & Balaban, J. (2017). Risk Factors for Osteoporosis in Postmenopausal Women. Medical archives (Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina), 71(1), 25–28. https://doi.org/10.5455/medarh.2017.71.25-28

Brooks, A. (2019) Rasmussen College. Retrieved from https://www.rasmussen.edu/student-experience/college-life/netiquette-guidelines-every-online-student-needs-to-know/

Camargo, C., & Teive, H. (2019). Use of botulinum toxin for movement disorders. Drugs in context, 8, 212586. https://doi.org/10.7573/dic.212586

Cogné, M., Petit, H., Creuzé, A. (2017) Are paraspinous intramuscular injections of botulinum toxin a (BoNT-A) efficient in the treatment of chronic low-back pain? A randomised, double-blinded crossover trial. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders 18, 454

Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (2018), How does the thyroid gland work? National Center for Biotechnology Information, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279388/

Jonathon R. Sheen; Vishnu V. Garla. (2020), Fracture Healing Overview, Stat Pearls, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551678/

Karpouzos, A., Diamantis, E., & Farmaki, P. (2017). Nutritional Aspects of Bone Health and Fracture Healing. Journal of Osteoporosis. doi: 10.1155/2017/4218472

Khanna, A., (2020) Action Potential, Teach Me Physiology, https://teachmephysiology.com/nervous-system/synapses/action-potential/

Kuo, I. Y., & Ehrlich, B. E. (2015). Signaling in muscle contraction. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in biology, 7(2), a006023. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a006023

Mariotti, S & Beck-Peccoz, P. (2016), Physiology of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis, National Center for Biotechnology Information, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK278958/

Medicine LibreTexts (2020), 9.3D: Muscle Tone, Anatomy and Physiology, https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Book%3A_Anatomy_and_Physiology_(Boundless)/9%3A_Muscular_System/9.3%3A_Control_of_Muscle_Tension/9.3D%3A_Muscle_Tone

Nigam, P. K., Nigam, A. (2010). Botulinum toxin. Indian journal of dermatology, 55(1), 8–14. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5154.60343

Perry, Carolyn. (2020). The neuromuscular junction: Structure and function, Ken Hub, https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/the-neuromuscular-junction-structure-and-function

Tortora, et al. (2019) Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 2nd Asia-Pacific edition: The Skeletal System: Bone Tissue. Australia. John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd

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https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211034815000061

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Name the specific neuronal component that is affected in the disease and describe its associated structure (including the neuroglia involved)

MS is an autoimmune disease that causes progressive destruction of the myelin sheath (formed by Oligodendrocytes); which is a multilayered lipid and protein covering which insulates the long, cylindrical part of the neuron called the axon. The gaps in between the myelin sheath are called the nodes of Ranvier (Tortora, et al. 2019). (49 words)

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Outline how damage to the above component affects functioning of the neuron and why axons in the CNS display minimal regeneration after injury

Within the PNS, when an axon is injured the neurolemma (sheath of Schwann cell) covering the axons aids regeneration by forming a tube that guides and stimulates regrowth; whereas in the CNS, the neuroglia does not contain the same neurolemma. Consequently, when myelin sheath is destroyed the axon cannot be repaired or regenerated (Tortora, et al. 2019). (53 words)

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Compare and contrast continuous and saltatory conduction of the nerve impulse. Answer must include at least one similarity

Saltatory conduction occurs along myelinated axons. Action potential propagates in the myelin sheath and leaps from one node to the next needing the minimum number of voltage channels and taking far less time to travel the neuron. Continuous conduction occurs in unmyelinated axons. The action potential is generated along the entire length of the axon; delaying nerve impulses since it uses a higher number of ion channels to generate propagation. Similarly, both forms of conduction produce an action potential, one is less efficient (propagation, at each segment of the membrane) and the most efficient nerve impulse transmission (propagation at nodes of Ranvier) (Tortora, et al. 2019).
(102 words)

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Many individuals with MS experience impairment of proprioception and vibrational sensation. Name and describe the function of each of the components of the somatosensory pathways.

The Somatic sensory pathways consist of thousands of sets of three neurons. The first-order neuron conducts impulses from somatic receptors to the CNS (brainstem or spinal cord); the second-order neuron will then conduct impulses from the brain stem or spinal cord to the thalamus also involving a decussation of axons in the medulla; lastly the third-order neuron will conduct impulses from thalamus to the primary somatosensory area—which is located in the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum (Tortora, et al. 2019). (77 words)

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Which specific somatosensory pathway is affected when an individual with MS experiences the loss of the sensation identified in Q. 4? Name two specific areas in the cerebral cortex that may be affected when experiencing loss of vibrational sensation and proprioception and provide rationale for answer.

The loss of vibrational and proprioception sensation affects the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway as it’s where the sensations are conducted. The cerebral cortex areas that may be affected are the primary somatosensory (postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobes) and the somatosensory association area (parietal lobes). The primary somatosensory area creates a ‘map’ of the entire body and the somatosensory association area is responsible for storing past memories of somatic sensory experiences (Tortora, et al. 2019). (71 words)

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https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00198-014-3014-9

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Describe the process of calcification.

Osteoblasts initiate this process (calcification) as they’re the bone building cells; their function is to synthesis and secrete collagen fibres and other organic components needed to build the extracellular matrix (ECM) of bone tissue. The ECM is made up of about 15% water, 30% collagen fibres and 55% crystalised mineral salts; as these mineral salts are deposited in the framework formed by the collagen fibres of ECM, they then crystalise and the tissue hardens (Tortora, et al. 2019). (75 Words)

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Choose one principal effect of ageing on Francine’s bone tissue which may have contributed to her fracture. Describe the effect and identify a possible consequence /disease that may occur as a result.

One effect of ageing bone tissue is brittleness—resulting from a decreased rate or protein synthesis. The collagen fibres (made up of amino acids) within the extracellular matrix are mainly responsible for giving the bone its malleable strength. When the collagen synthesis begins to slow it increases susceptibility to fractures (Tortora, et al. 2019). (50 Words)

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Healing a fracture can sometimes take months. Provide a detailed rationale as to why this occurs.

Fracture repair can take months. Firstly, a hematoma forms over the fracture, which lasts around five days. Afterwards, for five to six days, a fibrocartilaginous callus is formed followed by a bony callus which lasts around two weeks. Lastly, remodelling takes place which can take months or years depending on the patient’s recovery and health status. Cells such as macrophages, monocytes, and lymphocytes work to remove damaged tissue and release cytokines which allow for bone healing and repair to begin. (Jonathon R. S. et al. 2020). (80 words)

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Francine underwent a BMD test. She was diagnosed with osteoporosis.Outline three factors that may contribute to porous bones.

Elderly women pose a greater risk for developing osteoporosis for a few reasons, including the decline in estrogen levels which naturally occurs as a woman ages, as well as lifestyle factors surrounding alcohol consumption, whether or not they smoke, if they consume a nutritious diet, and whether or not they remain physically active and healthy. Out of these factors, smoking has been shown to increase the risks of developing osteoporosis whereas physical activity can protect bone mass as we age. (Bijelic, R., et al.  2017). (80 words)

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Choose three (3) nutrients that impact the skeletal system and describe how they contribute to bone metabolism and repair.

In order to increase bone metabolism and support the repair process nutrients such as vitamin D, calcium and protein are all crucial contributors.

Bone metabolism is highly dependent on the intake of protein, having an adequate amount of protein for example; collagen will help increase BMD.
Vitamin D and calcium work together to help repair and maintain bone health. Vitamin D increases the absorption of calcium, this can help re-build bones and assist in the prevention of further bone thinning (Karpouzos, et al. 2017). (80 Words)

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1.     Communicate with kindness and in a professional manner

2.     Type politely and please refrain from using ALL CAPS when not necessary, it can be perceived as shouting which isn’t conducive to an enjoyable team environment

3.     Sarcasm is never a helpful way to contribute and can cause more trouble than it is worth, please avoid it

4.     Use this back channel for assignment purposes only

5.     Take initiative to find your own answer before you ask someone for help

6.     Make time for grammar, but if you do already just don’t become the grammar police!

7.     Be respectful and set the tone by showing appreciation, inclusive of everyday manners like ‘please’ and ‘thank you’

8.     Think first and type later – being an online setting it becomes a digital record of our work, if you don’t feel comfortable with your contribution being permanently available, perhaps don’t share it (Brooks, 2019).