# data[].attributes.body
OMER / ADEEL?

# data[].attributes.body
Mark Vick, Kieran Williams Daniel Daly

# data[].attributes.body
By Emma and Sarah

# data[].attributes.headline
BBC - Intermediate 2 Bitesize Modern Studies - Causes and Types of Crime : Revision

# data[].attributes.subject
BBC - Intermediate 2 Bitesize Modern Studies - Causes and Types of Crime : Revision

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Causes and Types of Crime

What exactly is a crime and why do people commit crimes?

The Oxford Dictionary defines a crime as 'an action or omission which constitutes an offence and is punishable by law'.

So we may do something 'wrong' that is not a crime. Lying to a friend may be wrong but it may not be a crime. On the other hand we may do something 'right' which is a crime.

So, a crime is a fact, a matter of law. It is not an opinion. As society changes, some actions which used to be criminal, for example, are no longer criminal. Likewise, some actions, such as smoking in covered public places are. Laws are made by the Government, a government we elect democratically, for the good of us all. We may not agree with the law but there are democratic opportunities to change it.

In a democratic society, someone charged with a crime has the opportunity to defend him/herself. He or she will be deemed to be innocent until proven guilty by a criminal court. Punishments traditionally reflect the seriousness of the crime; the most serious crimes to be those which involve violence and/or loss of life.

The causes of crime are complex. Most people today accept that poverty, parental neglect, low self-esteem, alcohol and drug abuse are all connected in explaining why people commit crimes. Some people are simply at greater risk of becoming offenders because of the circumstances into which they are born.

Individualists tend to focus on individual weakness or lack of 'values' as the reason why people commit crimes. Ultimately if someone chooses to commit a crime, that is their responsibility. If caught, the individual should pay the consequences. Individualists feel that society needs clearer rules and strong punishments to minimise criminal behaviour. If punishments were stronger and the police and the courts had more powers, there would be less crime.

Collectivists feel that in order to tackle crime, the social conditions which create the conditions for crime need to be addressed. So, better housing, better employment opportunities and a more equal society will make crime less of an attraction. If people are in work and are content with life, they will be less motivated to break the law.

Most recent governments accept that there are underlying causes of crime. But individuals need to accept responsibility for their actions. It is the government's job to tackle crime; both its causes and the offenders. As former Prime Minister Tony Blair said: 'being tough on crime and tough on the causes of crime'.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Causes and Types of Crime What exactly is a crime and why do people commit crimes? The Oxford Dictionary defines a crime as 'an action or omission which constitutes an offence and is punishable by law'. So we may do something 'wrong' that is not a crime.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Criminology: Criminology, scientific study of the nonlegal aspects of crime and delinquency, including its causes, correction, and prevention, from the viewpoints of such diverse disciplines as anthropology, biology, psychology and psychiatry, economics, sociology, and statistics. Viewed from a legal

# data[].attributes.headline
Crime and violence: The biological behind murder - YouTube

# data[].attributes.subject
Crime and violence: The biological behind murder - YouTube

# data[].attributes.headline
Biological Theories of Crime (Criminology Theories) IResearchNet

# data[].attributes.subject
Biological Theories of Crime (Criminology Theories) IResearchNet

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Biological theories of crime attempt to explain behaviors contrary to societal expectations through examination of individual characteristics. These theories are categorized within a paradigm called positivism (also known as determinism), which asserts that behaviors, including law-violating behaviors, are determined by factors largely beyond individual control.

Outline

I. Introduction

II. Classical and Positivist Views of Behavior

III. The Scientific Method

IV. Physical Trait Theories

V. The Origins of Humanity and the Mechanisms of Inheritance

VI. Post-World War II Research on Biology and Behavior

I. Introduction

Biological theories within the field of criminology attempt to explain behaviors contrary to societal expectations through examination of individual characteristics. These theories are categorized within a paradigm called positivism (also known as determinism), which asserts that behaviors, including law-violating behaviors, are determined by factors largely beyond individual control. Positivist theories contrast with classical theories, which argue that people generally choose their behaviors in rational processes of logical decision making, and with critical theories, which critique lawmaking, social stratification, and the unequal distribution of power and wealth.

Positivist theories are further classified on the basis of the types of external influences they identify as potentially determinative of individual behavior. For example, psychological and psychiatric theories look at an individual's mental development and functioning; sociological theories evaluate the impact of social structure on individuals (e.g., social disorganization, anomie, subcultural theories, opportunity, strain) and the impact of social function and processes on individuals (e.g., differential association, social learning, social bonds, labeling). Biological theories can be classified into three types: (1) those that attempt to differentiate among individuals on the basis of certain innate (i.e., those with which you are born) outward physical traits or characteristics; (2) those that attempt to trace the source of differences to genetic or hereditary characteristics; and (3) those that attempt to distinguish among individuals on the basis of structural, functional, or chemical differences in the brain or body.

This research paper is organized in rough chronological order and by historical figures associated with an important development. It is difficult to provide an exact chronology, because several important developments and movements happened simultaneously in various parts of the world. For example, although biological theories are considered positivist, the concept of positivism did not evolve until after the evolution of some early biological perspectives. In addition, biological theories of behavior that involve some aspect of evolution, genetics, or heredity are discussed in terms of those scientific developments, although physical trait theories still continued to be popular.

The following sections discuss some of the more important and relevant considerations in scientific developments that impacted biological theories of behavior. A brief history of positivism also is provided, tracing the development and use of the biological theories from early (largely discredited) beliefs, to the most current theories on the relationship of biology to behavior. This section also provides a conclusion that discusses the role of biological theories in the future of criminological thought.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Biological Theories of Crime (Criminology Theories) IResearchNet

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Biological theories of crime attempt to explain behaviors contrary to societal expectations through examination of individual characteristics. These theories are categorized within a paradigm called positivism (also known as determinism), which asserts that behaviors, including law-violating behaviors, are determined by factors largely beyond individual control. I. Introduction II.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Boundless - Marriage Green Cards Made Easy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Boundless is for people who want the expertise of an immigration lawyer, not the price tag. We make marriage-based immigration to the U.S. affordable and less stressful with innovative software. Immigrate with clarity and confidence for only $750!

# data[].attributes.headline
BBC NEWS | Programmes | If | 'Biological key' to unlocking crime

# data[].attributes.subject
BBC NEWS | Programmes | If | 'Biological key' to unlocking crime

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
By Professor Adrian Raine
Professor of Psychology, University of Southern California

Connections between crime and biological make-up are increasingly becoming a hot topic for discussion. Two personal and opposing accounts argue the case for and against.

Professor Adrian Raine sets out his views below.

Professor Raine: "The evidence is too strong to ignore"

Until recently it was thought that the causes of crime lay just in social factors like poverty and unemployment.
Yet repeat offending criminal behaviour is a clinical disorder, with brain impairments playing a key role.

New research is now showing that genetic and biological factors play an equal, if not greater, role than social factors in crime causation.

Within this new field of biocriminology, brain imaging findings are revealing dramatic new insights into the criminal mind.

IF... WE COULD STOP THE VIOLENCE

Wednesday, 22 December, 2004

There are now 71 brain imaging studies showing that murderers, psychopaths, and individuals with aggressive, antisocial personalities have poorer functioning in the prefrontal cortex - that part of the brain involved in regulating and controlling emotion and behaviour.
More dramatically, we now know that the brains of criminals are physically different from non-criminals, showing an 11% reduction in the volume of grey matter (neurons) in the prefrontal cortex.

'Bad brains'

Violent offenders just do not have the emergency brakes to stop their runaway aggressive behaviour.

Literally speaking, bad brains lead to bad behaviour.

Dramatic advances are also being made in the areas of molecular and behaviour genetics.

Neuroscience can say little about the causes or the treatment of violence in our society

Over 100 twin and adoption studies have convincingly shown that genetic processes account for 50% of antisocial and criminal behaviour.
Of the remaining half that is environmental, biology accounts for part of this. For example, physical child abuse can cause brain damage that in turn results in antisocial, aggressive behaviour.

Genetic processes are also at play in shaping aggressive behaviour in children.

There is exciting new evidence that an abnormality in one specific gene (monoamine oxidase A), when combined with child abuse, predisposes to violent offending in adulthood.

In a similar fashion, birth complications, when combined with maternal rejection in the first year of life, results in higher violence at age 34.

Breakthroughs

The biological and genetic findings are now incontrovertible; the evidence is too strong to ignore.

These new breakthroughs have important implications for crime prevention.

One of the reasons why we have repeatedly failed to stop crime is because we have systematically ignored the biological and genetic contributions to crime causation.

We instead need to focus efforts on new interventions that will improve brain structure and function.
New research has just shown that childhood malnutrition is linked to poor brain functioning (low IQ) and conduct disorder in early adulthood.
Giving three-year-olds better nutrition (and more physical exercise) for just two years results in better brain functioning (EEG) at age 11, and a 35% reduction in crime 20 years later at age 23.

Prisoners given fish oil (rich in omega-3, a long-chain fatty acid that is critical for brain structure and function) show reduced aggressive and antisocial behaviour.

Low physiological arousal (e.g. low sweat and heart rates) is a well-replicated risk factor for crime and violence, but stimulants (drugs which increase arousal) are effective in reducing aggressive and antisocial behaviour in children.

Future

Where will this new biological approach take us?

If we really want to stop crime, the best investment society can make is to intervene very early on.

Better prenatal and perinatal health care, better nutrition early in life, and medication for severely aggressive children can be implemented right now.

The next decade will reveal new discoveries regarding specific genes that cause violent behaviour, and these findings could result in new drugs to correct the neurotransmitter brain abnormalities that cause violence.

In 50 years time, will we be conducting reparative brain surgery on prisoners to correct the faulty neural circuits that give rise to violence?

Rocket science perhaps - but there is an uncanny habit for today's science fiction to become tomorrow's reality.

Professor Adrian Raine was a contributor to BBC Two's If... We Could Stop The Violence, broadcast on Wednesday, 22 December 2004, at 2100 GMT.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
BBC NEWS | Programmes | If | 'Biological key' to unlocking crime

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
By Professor Adrian Raine Professor of Psychology, University of Southern California Connections between crime and biological make-up are increasingly becoming a hot topic for discussion. Two personal and opposing accounts argue the case for and against. Professor Adrian Raine sets out his views below.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Justice sector & policy | New Zealand Ministry of Justice

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
We're the lead organisation for government agencies involved in the justice sector. We produce policy advice to the Government on justice legislation and New Zealand's constitution. We also provide advice to the Minister of Justice, the Associate Minister of Justice, the Minister for Courts, the Attorney General and the Minister for Treaty of Waitangi Negotiations.