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Questionnaire

1)Do you think Biotechnology

is as important as other branches of Engineering?

2)Do you agree with the fact that fueling the world using biogasses reduces most of the pollution?

3)Do you agree with the fact that Bioengineering is the new future

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Relationship of short-term blood pressure variability with carotid intima-media thickness in hypertensive patients

Yujie Chen 1†, Huahua Xiong 2†, Dan Wu 5 6 7†, Sandeep Pirbhulal 5 6 7, Xiaohong Tian 3,Ruiqin Zhang 4, Minhua Lu 4, Wanqing Wu 5 6 7* and Wenhua Huang 1*

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RNA interferences targeting the Fanconi anemia/BRCA pathway upstream genes reverse cisplatin resistance in drug-resistant lung cancer cells

Chun-Hua Dai 1, Jian Li 2*, Ping Chen 2, He-Guo Jiang 2, Ming Wu 3 and Yong-Chang Chen 3
Journal of Biomedical Science 2015, 22:77 doi:10.1186/s12929-015-0185-4

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At last, I would like to say that biomedicals is a very important field in the modern world and more effort should be made in the area so as to help to make the world a better place. The science is only 100-150 years old but actually for me its only 50 years old, after when the DNA was discovered and the field really came up. So we should give some time and make the field go further and make it as close to perfect as we could.

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Here are some FAQ's on biomedicals(gene mutations, one of important applications of biomedicals).

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Being an important undesirable application of bio technology and bio engineering, bio warfare has caused a lot of destruction. It is my personal feeling that the scientists use their immense knowledge for making life better rather than using it for creating something that destroys life.

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Methods of Defense Against a Biological Agent Attack

Pre-attack

(1)  Ensure all soldiers have updated routine immunizations and immunize them against the specific anticipated biological threat, if an immunization exists for the particular agent(s).  Medical intelligence agencies will provide warnings as needed

(2)  Maintain personal hygiene and physical fitness

(3)  Maintain field sanitation guidelines

During attack

(1)  Reduce respiratory exposure by donning the M40 series protective mask

(2)  Wear the battle dress overgarment, chemical protective boots, and gloves

(3)  Utilize a protective shelter that has a filtered air supply

Post-attack - decontamination

(1)  Personnel - decontaminate exposed skin with the M291 decontamination kit or use warm soapy water to remove the agent

(2)  Equipment - use M295 individual equipment decontamination kit or the M11, M13 portable decon apparatus

(3)  Food and water - seal or box foodstuffs and boil water for 15 minutes

Actions after a Biological Agent Attack

Continue mission only if it will not spread the contamination to non-exposed personnel

Identify the agent

(1)  To institute a specific treatment

(2)  To institute measures to control the exposure

(3)  To confirm that an attack occurred

(4)  To estimate time of exposure

(5)  To estimate number of possible casualties

(6)  To get intelligence as to the enemy's biological capability

Administer medical treatment

(1)  Monitor and support both cardiac and respiratory functions

(2)  Treat for shock

(3)  Administer appropriate therapy and/or medication if the specific agent is known and the medication is available

(4)  Protect patient from further biological agent exposure

(5)  Complete the field medical card

(6)  Evacuate the patient

(a)  Notify the evacuation personnel at the battalion aid station (BAS) of the biological casualty

(b)  Ensure that both the patient and evacuation personnel are in protective clothing

(c)  The patient will be treated and held at the BAS to prevent further spreading of the contamination

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The video gives an idea of how to survive a bio war or precisely a bio weapon.

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Modern Chemical Warfare Agents & Casualty Management

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Nuclear Biological Chemical Warfare Suit

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How to Survive- Biological or Chemical Attack

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In the case of a biological or chemical attack, quick thinking can keep you safe -- HOW TO SURVIVE advises moving cross wind out of the area, decontaminating, and minimizing contact with others in order in order to survive

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Categories and Definitions of Biological Agents

Pathogens

Are disease producing microorganisms, such as bacteria, mycoplasma, rickettsia, fungi, or viruses.  Carried by arthropods, rodents, monkeys, or man

Toxins

Are poisons naturally produced through the activities of living organisms.  Produced by plants, microorganisms and animals

Other agents of biological origin

(1)  The human body has a very small quantity of biological agents

(2)  For example: bioregulators/modulators (BRM) can be small molecules or peptides that act as neurotransmitters and/or modifiers of neural responses

(3)  If introduced in large quantities, will cause severe adverse effects or death

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the following article gives a detailed view of bio warfare and also throws light on the incidents when biological weapons were used for mass destruction.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1200679/

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Biological agents that may be used as weapons can be classified as follows:

(1)  Bacteria-are small free-living organisms

(2)  Viruses-are organisms which require living cells in which to replicate

(3)  Rickettsiae-are microorganisms which have characteristics common to both bacteria and viruses carried by parasites

(4)  Chlamydia-are obligatory intracellular parasites incapable of generating their own energy source

(5)  Fungi- are primitive plants, which do not utilize photosynthesis, are capable of anaerobic growth, and draw nutrition from decaying vegetable matter

(6)  Toxins- are poisonous substances produced and derived from living plants, animals, or microorganisms; some toxins may also be produced or altered by chemical means

Characteristics of biological agents

Intrinsic features of biological agents that influence their potential for use as weapons include-

(1)  Infectivity -Reflects the relative ease with which microorganisms establish themselves in a host species

(2)  Virulence -Reflects the relative severity of disease produced by the agent

(3)  Toxicity -Reflects the relative severity of illness or incapacitation produced by a toxin

(4)  Pathogenicity -Reflects the capability of an infectious agent to cause disease in a susceptible host

(5)  Incubation period -Reflects the time between exposure to an agent or toxin and the appearance of symptoms

(6)  Transmissibility -Reflects the relative ease in which an agent is passed from person to person

(7)  Lethality -Reflects the relative ease in which an agent causes death in a susceptible population

(8)  Stability -Reflects an agents ability to remain viable when exposed to environmental factors, including temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric pollution, and sunlight

(9)  Additional factors - Suitability of a microorganism or toxin for use as a weapon may be influenced by factors such as ease of production; stability when stored or transported; and ease of dissemination

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The international bio hazard symbol;

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the link below leads to an important article on bio warfare;

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1326439/

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http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5160e/y5160e06.htm#P1_29

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Journal on BioTechnology

http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5160e/y5160e00.HTM

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Guys, I will discuss biological warfare, a main application of biological engineering in the practical world in detail.

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Artifical leg

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X-rays of artifical body parts

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Mutations are “permanent change[s] in the sequence of DNA.”

This technique is feasible to large extent, provided proper materials are there. Due to gene mutation, we can adapt to environment, check protein functioning in our body or control diversity. Even diseases like cancer or diabetes can be checked. Though there may be side -effects like genetic disorder or diseases but the technique has been improved to much heights and many side effects have vanished.

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Summary:

Biological warfare is the intentional use of disease causing organisms and/or toxins to injure, kill, and/or weaken enemy's resistance to attack and reduce the will to wage war.  Biological agents that may be employed on the modern battlefield pose an immediate threat to personnel exposed to them.  Our survival and success in combat involving these weapons requires a thorough understanding of how they can be used and what we can do to protect ourselves.

Offensive biological warfare, including mass production, stockpiling and use of biological weapons, was outlawed by the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC). The rationale behind this treaty, which has been ratified or acceded to by 170 countries as of April 2013, is to prevent a biological attack which could conceivably result in large numbers of civilian casualties and cause severe disruption to economic and societal infrastructure. Many countries, including signatories of the BWC, currently pursue research into the defense or protection against BW, which is not prohibited by the BWC.

A nation or group that can pose a credible threat of mass casualty has the ability to alter the terms on which other nations or groups interact with it. Biological weapons allow for the potential to create a level of destruction and loss of life far in excess of nuclear, chemical or conventional weapons, relative to their mass and cost of development and storage. Therefore, biological agents may be useful as strategic deterrents in addition to their utility as offensive weapons on the battlefield.

As a tactical weapon for military use, a significant problem with a BW attack is that it would take days to be effective, and therefore might not immediately stop an opposing force. Some biological agents (smallpox, pneumonic plague) have the capability of person-to-person transmission via aerosolized respiratory droplets. This feature can be undesirable, as the agent(s) may be transmitted by this mechanism to unintended populations, including neutral or even friendly forces. While containment of BW is less of a concern for certain criminal or terrorist organizations, it remains a significant concern for the military and civilian populations of virtually all nations.

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Out of the given applications, the most widely used and researched one is gene mutation.

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http://www.scitechnol.com/biological-agents-warfare.php

https://www.asm.org/index.php/membership/71-membership/archives/8215-articles-related-to-biological-warfare

http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/7/6/01-0636_article

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The following are the most common applications of biomedical engineering:-

In field of medicines- Better and cheaper medicines have come to the surface.

2) In food processing:- With population growing at an alarming rate, especially in India, biomedicines are used to increase yield and protect the crops from weed or insects.

3)In improving the environment- Toxic and pollutants are harmful for the earth. Biomedical engineering is working on sustainable medical growth so as to reduce the effects of medicines which have poisonous substances in it.

4) Reducing the death rate and increasing the lifetime of an individual.

5) Helps in growth of crops.

6) Treatment gets better both cost wise and efficiency wise.

7) Researches are being carried out in biomedical to check the effects of biowarfare.

8) Gene mutation is being used to control various diseases and also for controlling function of protiens.

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http://www.nist.gov/pml/div683/upload/bioelectronics_report.pdf

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https://www.bio.org/articles/healing-fueling-feeding-how-biotechnology-enriching-your-life

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Bringing biotechnology into the home: Cathal Garvey at TEDxDublin

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Bringing biotechnology into the home: Cathal Garvey at TEDxDublin

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List of applications in which biotechnology can be put to use.

Biotech is helping to heal the world by harnessing nature's own toolbox and using our own genetic makeup to heal and guide lines of research by:

Reducing rates of infectious disease;

Saving millions of children's lives;

Changing the odds of serious, life-threatening conditions affecting millions around the world;

Tailoring treatments to individuals to minimize health risks and side effects;

Creating more precise tools for disease detection; and

Combating serious illnesses and everyday threats confronting the developing world.

Fuel the World

Biotech uses biological processes such as fermentation and harnesses biocatalysts such as enzymes, yeast, and other microbes to become microscopic manufacturing plants. Biotech is helping to fuel the world by:

Streamlining the steps in chemical manufacturing processes by 80% or more;

Lowering the temperature for cleaning clothes and potentially saving $4.1 billion annually;

Improving manufacturing process efficiency to save 50% or more on operating costs;

Reducing use of and reliance on petrochemicals;

Using biofuels to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 52% or more;

Decreasing water usage and waste generation; and

Tapping into the full potential of traditional biomass waste products.

Feed the World

Biotech improves crop insect resistance, enhances crop herbicide tolerance and facilitates the use of more environmentally sustainable farming practices. Biotech is helping to feed the world by:

Generating higher crop yields with fewer inputs;

Lowering volumes of agricultural chemicals required by crops-limiting the run-off of these products into the environment;

Using biotech crops that need fewer applications of pesticides and that allow farmers to reduce tilling farmland;

Developing crops with enhanced nutrition profiles that solve vitamin and nutrient deficiencies;

Producing foods free of allergens and toxins such as mycotoxin; and

Improving food and crop oil content to help improve cardiovascular health.

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References

Main Article-FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Rome, 2004

http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5160e/y5160e00.HTM

Other References

http://www.nist.gov/pml/div683/upload/bioelectronics_report.pdf

Definition of Biotechnology

https://www.bio.org/articles/what-biotechnology

Applications of Biotechnology

https://www.bio.org/articles/healing-fueling-feeding-how-biotechnology-enriching-your-life

Bio gas Technology

-by Puja Mondal

http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/biotechnology/biogas-technology-sources-alternate-sources-of-energy-and-significance/36100/

Development of Biotechnology Industry
-by Saritha Pujari
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/biotechnology/guidelines-and-regulations-for-development-of-biotechnology-industry/33952/

Video-BioByte

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wm6_BBS_KE4

The Importance of Biotechnology.
https://raunakms.wordpress.com/2010/06/04/the-importance-of-biotechnology-in-todays-time/

Bringing biotechnology into the home:

Cathal Garvey at TEDxDublin
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g_ZswrLFSdo

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BioByte 101 - What is biotechnology?

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This video provides a basic overview of biotechnology and its many applications in our daily lives.

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what is Biotechnology?

https://www.bio.org/articles/what-biotechnology

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Modern biotechnology provides breakthrough products and technologies to combat debilitating and rare diseases, reduce our environmental footprint, feed the hungry, use less and cleaner energy, and have safer, cleaner and more efficient industrial manufacturing processes.

Currently, there are more than 250 biotechnology health care products and vaccines available to patients, many for previously untreatable diseases. More than 13.3 million farmers around the world use agricultural biotechnology to increase yields, prevent damage from insects and pests and reduce farming's impact on the environment. And more than 50 biorefineries are being built across North America to test and refine technologies to produce biofuels and chemicals from renewable biomass, which can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Recent advances in biotechnology are helping us prepare for and meet society's most pressing challenges. Here's how:

Heal the World

Biotech is helping to heal the world by harnessing nature's own toolbox and using our own genetic makeup to heal and guide lines of research by:

Reducing rates of infectious disease;

Saving millions of children's lives;

Changing the odds of serious, life-threatening conditions affecting millions around the world;

Tailoring treatments to individuals to minimize health risks and side effects;

Creating more precise tools for disease detection; and

Combating serious illnesses and everyday threats confronting the developing world.

Fuel the World

Biotech uses biological processes such as fermentation and harnesses biocatalysts such as enzymes, yeast, and other microbes to become microscopic manufacturing plants. Biotech is helping to fuel the world by:

Streamlining the steps in chemical manufacturing processes by 80% or more;

Lowering the temperature for cleaning clothes and potentially saving $4.1 billion annually;

Improving manufacturing process efficiency to save 50% or more on operating costs;

Reducing use of and reliance on petrochemicals;

Using biofuels to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 52% or more;

Decreasing water usage and waste generation; and

Tapping into the full potential of traditional biomass waste products.

Feed the World

Biotech improves crop insect resistance, enhances crop herbicide tolerance and facilitates the use of more environmentally sustainable farming practices. Biotech is helping to feed the world by:

Generating higher crop yields with fewer inputs;

Lowering volumes of agricultural chemicals required by crops-limiting the run-off of these products into the environment;

Using biotech crops that need fewer applications of pesticides and that allow farmers to reduce tilling farmland;

Developing crops with enhanced nutrition profiles that solve vitamin and nutrient deficiencies;

Producing foods free of allergens and toxins such as mycotoxin; and

Improving food and crop oil content to help improve cardiovascular health.

Source: Healing, Fueling, Feeding: How Biotechnology is Enriching Your Life

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At its simplest, biotechnology is technology based on biology - biotechnology harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes to develop technologies and products that help improve our lives and the health of our planet. We have used the biological processes of microorganisms for more than 6,000 years to make useful food products, such as bread and cheese, and to preserve dairy products.

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These are the new terms I came across in this document.

rehabilitate

-restore (someone) to health or normal life by training and therapy after imprisonment, addiction, or illness.

robustness

-the ability of an algorithm to continue operating despite abnormalities in input, calculations, etc.

encompassing-surround and have or hold within.

debilitating

-(of a disease or condition) making someone very weak and infirm.

harness

-a set of straps and fittings by which a horse or other draught animal is fastened to a cart, plough, etc. and is controlled by its driver.

Replenishment

-To fill or make complete again.

slurry

a semi-liquid mixture, typically of fine particles of manure, cement, or coal and water.

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Karl Ereky-The Father Of Biotechnology

Ereky coined the word "biotechnology" in Hungary during 1919 in a book he published in Berlin called Biotechnologie der Fleisch-, Fett- und Milcherzeugung im landwirtschaftlichen Grossbetriebe (Biotechnology of Meat, Fat and Milk Production in an Agricultural Large-Scale Farm) where he described a technology based on converting raw materials into a more useful product.

http://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/

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Who is the father of biotechnology and when was the word biotechnology coined first?

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The emerging field of Bioelectronics seeks to exploit biology in conjunction with electronics in a wider context encompassing, for example, biological fuel cells, bionics and biomaterials for information processing, information storage, electronic components and actuators. A key aspect is the interface between biological materials and micro- and nano-electronics.

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what is the scope of bio technology?

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Bioelectronics are defined as the use of biological materials and biological architectures for information  systems and new devices.

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what are bio electronics?

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The following new words I came across while reading the documents:-

1)probe-Something small used to explore,investigate or measure something by penetrating or being placed in it.

2)monoclonal-genetically engineered through one clone (protein or gene).

3)strain- sort of.

4)mooted- proven.

5)mimic- take on the appearence of other, usually for protection.

6)cadaver- a dead body, especially the corpse of a human to be dissected.

7)sterile- (in this case) germless.

8)natal- of or relating to birth.

9)graft- part of living tissue used in autoplasty.

10)proliferate- spread rapidly.

11)epithelium- a membranous tissue with many layers of cells, found mainly in internal parts of body.

12) elicit-to provoke as a response or answer.

13)umbilic-penetrating to.

14)anatomic- pertaining to dissection.

15)subtle- not obvious.

16)transgenic- genome of one species changed by another.

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Here are some videos on biomedical engineering

What is biological engineering

https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CBsQtwIwAGoVChMIifPBkaWpyAIVjhmOCh0Mogl0&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DSn0bOX5Hau4&usg=AFQjCNHyj3kBaEKoQrUgUR0v4tdfvtQUAg

Biomedical engineers life and their views

https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=video&cd=10&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CFEQtwIwCWoVChMIifPBkaWpyAIVjhmOCh0Mogl0&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DGqX0rSaHxgQ&usg=AFQjCNEj2Rge_SAI40u2JKH4z2j-6XJ9mg&bvm=bv.104317490,d.c2E

A closer look at biomedicals

https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=video&cd=14&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CCwQtwIwAzgKahUKEwjl14vwp6nIAhUDTY4KHeSBCV8&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DjryhyzeZibM&usg=AFQjCNGCLMp0ZThyPUG4D_NppcTGwxGZWQ&bvm=bv.104317490,d.c2E

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Contribution of Biotechnology to Medical Science!

Biotechnology has proved a boon for medical science in several ways. Be it in enhancing immunity against diseases, or in providing genetically improved treatment for ailments, biotechnology has become an inseparable part of the medical world.

In-fact, the development of human insulin, the first genetically engineered drug, has marked the beginning of an extremely successful era of genetic applications in medicine. Let's examine these applications in detail.

Detection of Genetic Diseases:

The effective treatment of any disease depends on its correct diagnosis. Conventional medicine offers little guarantee of accurate detection, and the diagnosis always contains an element of probability. However, the new techniques of genetic engineering make accurate diagnosis possible by locating and analysing single genes in a chain of thousands of genes through 'gene probes'. These are the segments of DNA, which match and hence bind with the DNA segments of individual genes. Their binding can be detected just by labelling these DNA segments.

Such probes are used to recognise DNA sequences associated with genetic diseases. Genes can now be detected for a varied number of genetic conditions in small tissue samples collected from patients or even from embryos by amniocentesis. These DNA probes can also be used to identify disease organisms, and are used in tests where one may not be able to use antibodies.

Monoclonal Antibodies and Diagnosis:

Antibodies are proteins generated by a body to fight against a disease or an infection. These antibodies are produced by white blood cells as a response to a disease causing organism or infection, which the body recognises as foreign.

Antibodies work by binding to these foreign substances as they circulate in the blood, and thus prevent them from causing any harm to the body. These antibodies bind with the specific protein (antigen), which has triggered off their production. They can be obtained from the blood of immunized animals and eventually used for diagnostic and research purposes.

Antibodies are of two types. Polyclonal antibodies are not specific in nature, and can recognise many proteins at the same time. Monoclonal antibodies recognise only a specific type of protein. Antibodies, especially the monoclonal ones, are now being widely used for diagnostic purposes. Some of the areas where they find wider application includes pregnancy tests, cancer screening and diagnosis of viral gastro-enteritis, hepatitis B, cystic fibrosis and sexually transmitted diseases like AIDS.

Therapeutic Drugs:

Modem day vaccines have already helped in eradicating diseases like small pox, and reducing the exposure to polio, typhus, tetanus, measles, hepatitis, rotavirus and other dangerous infections. However, standard immunisation methods fare poorly when targeted against a particular illness. Genetic material, i.e. DNA and RNA can be used to develop improved vaccines.

The recombinant DNA technology facilitates designing and mass production of such models, as well as greater stability in storage. Furthermore, since these vaccines can be engineered to carry genes from different strains of pathogen, they can provide immunity against several other strains at once.

The idea that genes could be used in creating vaccines was mooted in the 1950-60s. Initial studies revealed that if genetic material was delivered into an animal's cell, it resulted in the synthesis of the encoded proteins and antibodies targeted against those proteins.

Disease causing organisms carry antigens on their surface, which trigger off the body's defence mechanism, and thus help control the damage caused to the body. Special cells found throughout the human body produce antibodies and antigens.

These cells recognise the shape of a particular determinant group of the antigen, and produce specific antibodies to combat not only the vast array of microbial invasions, but also an unlimited range of synthetic chemicals. In short, the mammalian system can bind and deactivate almost any foreign molecule that gets into the system.

Vaccines are prepared from living or dead microorganisms that can be introduced in the human or animal body to stimulate their immunity. They can mimic infectious agents and subsequently help the body develop protective immune responses.

When used on a large scale, vaccines have been a major force in the control of microbial diseases within communities. The major goal of vaccine research is to identify and characterize the individual antigens of infectious agents that can help in developing an immune response.

The polio vaccine has almost eliminated the disease from the world. The vaccines for typhoid, cholera however are still not very effective, and are being worked upon. Research is also on to develop vaccines against diseases like syphilis, serum hepatitis, malaria and many others. Research on vaccination against HIV is now being done on a worldwide scale. Vaccines for bacterial and parasitic diseases have also made extensive progress.

Biopharmaceuticals:

Many pharmaceutical products are compounds derived either from synthetic chemical processes or from natural sources like plants and microorganisms, or are combinations of both. Such compounds are used to regulate essential body functions and to combat disease-causing organisms.

Efforts are now on to harness the human body's own regulatory molecules, which are normally found in very small concentrations. Limited quantities of some of these compounds have historically been derived from the organs of cadavers or from blood banks. Genetic engineering is now being recognised as a practical means of generating some of these scarce molecules in larger quantities.

This involves inserting the necessary human derived gene construct into a suitable host microorganism that will produce therapeutic protein (biopharmaceutical) in quantities related to the scale of operation. Such products carry no risk of contamination from extraction of cadavers (like the degenerative brain disease). Creulzfelt-Jakob disease has also been associated with the administration of human hormone from early extraction.

The successful development of biopharmaceuticals requires:

1. Advanced biochemical or biomedical research to identify and characterise the native compounds.

2. Skilled molecular biology and cloning technology to identify the relevant gene sequences and insert them into a mammalian or microbiological host.

3. Bioprocess technology to grow the organisms to isolate, concentrate and purify the chosen compounds.

4. Clinical and marketing expertise.

Let's now discuss some of the important biopharmaceuticals already in use:

Insulin:

Millions of people suffer from diabetes due to insulin deficiency. These patients have to depend on external insulin intake. Conventionally, the insulin used by diabetic patients had been extracted from pigs and cattle. This has been discontinued due to its adverse side effects. We now use recombinant human insulin, which is free from any contamination and has proved extremely effective against the disease.

Somatostatin:

This growth hormone has been extremely difficult to isolate from animals. However, the cloning of the human gene for somatostatin into bacterium has enabled its large-scale production. This has proved to be a boon for the treatment of hypo pituitary dwarfism, which occurs due to the deficiency of this hormone.

Interferon's:

Interferon's are glycoproteins (proteins with attached sugar molecules), believed to be instrumental in controlling many types of viral infections including the common cold. They also inhibit the growth of cancer cells and stimulate the body's natural immune defences against them.

In 1957, two British researchers recognised these interferon's as substances produced within the body that could make the cells resistant to virus attacks. However, the scarcity of these compounds has consistently hampered the efforts to understand the extent of their effectiveness. Of late using modem techniques we have been able to produce interferon molecules, which have a role in controlling various infections.

Lymphokines:

These are proteins produced by lymphocytes (a part of the body's immune system) and are deemed important to immune reactions. They have the capability of enhancing and restoring the capacity of the immune system to fight infections, diseases and cancer. Interlukin-2 is the most commonly used lymphokine that is being produced by genetic engineering.

Each of these compounds has helped scientists achieve new levels of realistic pharmaceutical drug delivery. Recombinant DNA technology has enabled the synthesis of large quantities of these products. This molecular pharmacy is becoming quite successful in the production of human pharmaceuticals in transgenic animals as well.

Gene Therapy:

This promising technology uses genes as drugs to correct hereditary genetic disorders. Using gene therapy, a faulty or missing gene can be replaced to correct genetic cause of a disease. This is done by determining the normal gene's function in human cells, the kind of protein it instructs the cell to produce, and the level, quantity, and time of protein formation. This can further indicate whether the right protein is being formed at the right time or place, and how to counter the effects of any failure.

Gene therapy is of two types: Germ Cell Gene Therapy and Somatic Cell Gene Therapy. In Germ Cell Therapy, changes are directed towards the individual genetic makeup and can be passed on to the offspring. In the Somatic Cell Gene Therapy on the other hand, functional genes are introduced into body cells that lack them. The effects of the therapy are not passed on to the subsequent generation.

The classical case of the earliest approved gene therapy was that of a four year-old Ashanti DeSilva, who was born with a rare genetic disease called Severe Combined Immune Deficiency (SCID). Ashanti had a weak immune system that made her vulnerable to every passing germ. Children born with this illness usually develop overwhelming infections and rarely survive to see adulthood.

Ashanti too was forced to lead a cloistered existence, avoiding contact with people outside her family, confined to the sterile environment of her house, and battling frequent illnesses with massive amounts of antibiotics. Via gene therapy, doctors removed the white blood cells from her body and allowed them to grow in the lab.

These cells were then reinserted with the missing gene, and the genetically modified blood cells were infused back into the patient's bloodstream. Laboratory tests showed that the therapy remarkably strengthened Ashanti's immune system, and she now leads a normal life.

The main of gene therapy is to correct single-gene defects like cystic fibrosis and hemophilia, for which no effective cure is available yet. However, the effective application of this therapy will require deep understanding of the mechanism by which the defective (unusual) gene exerts its effect on the individual.

Another interesting application of gene therapy appears in the field of eye diseases like Diabetic Retinopathy. Initial studies suggest that gene therapy could protect diabetic patients from loss of vision due to overgrowth and leakage of blood vessels.

DNA Fingerprinting:

The development of DNA fingerprinting technique has proved to be extremely significant in identifying criminals and establishing parentage. The fundamental principle of this technique is based on the fact that no two individuals can have the same genetic composition.

The DNA fragments of the person in question can be taken from a tissue or blood sample using a restriction enzyme. This fragment can then be studied to establish the exact genetic composition of the individual. This technique offers such a high rate of polymorphism that the possibility of two persons having the same DNA characteristics is very remote.

Pre-natal Diagnosis of Inherited Diseases:

Molecular genetics holds significant application in pre-natal diagnosis of inherited disorders like haemoglobinopathies. For instance, the technique for analysing DNA to diagnose sickle cell anaemia from the amniotic fluid cells was devised in 1978.

Tissue Regeneration:

Skin Grafting:

Skin is probably one of the only organs that can be artificially synthesised from cell culture, and used for grafting when it is severely damaged. Skin cells (keratinocytes) make up ninety per cent of the epidermis of the skin. The proliferation of these cells is facilitated by fibroblasts present in the dermal layer of skin.

Fibroblasts are useful for culturing skin cells. These fibroblast cells, called 3T3 cells, are used along with the necessary chemicals and stem cells. However, only about one to ten per cent of the epidermal cells proliferate. Sub-culturing to fresh media prompts further growth of these cells.

Skin grafting enables quick recovery and normalisation of damaged skin. Regenerated keratinocytes have also been used to cure a number of other diseases. For instance, skin scars can be removed using cultured skin, and cultured oral keratinocytes can be used to regenerate the epithelium of the mouth.

Cultured urethra keratinocytes have been used to repair congenital penile defects. Chronic ulcers have also been treated with successful culmred grafts, and allographs (skin from another individual) have been successful in curing these ulcers.

Fertility Control:

Indian scientists have successfully developed drugs like Centchroman for antifertility (contraceptive), which have shown excellent results without any side effects. Immunological approaches have also been used to develop anti-fertility vaccines.

Birth control vaccines have now been developed using the HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin) hormone. The vaccine elicits antibodies against both tetanus and pregnancy hormone HCG. This has substantially reduced the impact of tetanus, which is a major cause of natal deaths in India due to unhygienic conditions especially in the rural sector.

Genetic Counseling:

This application has cropped up due to increasing awareness among people who want their children to be free from congenital diseases. A genetic counselor tells the patient about the consequences of a particular genetic defect.

Subjecting amniotic fluid to various tests can examine these congenital disorders and the results obtained could be discussed with the patient. This will allow prospective parents to think over the defect in the foetus well in advance.

Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis:

Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) came into existence, when through Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) the umbilical cord stem cells of a yet unborn (only foetus) were used to cure a six year- old suffering from fanconi anaemia. When the foetus was merely a ball of blastomere cells, researchers at the Reproductive Genetic Institute at Illinois Masonic Medical Centre separated some of these cells.

These cells were analysed and not only found to be free of the fanconi anaemia gene, but also compatible in terms of Human Leukocyte Antigens (HLA). The researchers implanted the rest of the ball of blastomere cells back into the mother's uterus. The mother gave birth to a healthy child. After a month's time, his, umbilical cord stem cells were, infused into his sister.

This process was made possible thanks to an inherent development process called 'indeterminate cleavage'. Like any other vertebrate, an eight-celled human embryo (known as pro-embryo) can continue developing even after one or two cells are removed.

In PGD, embryos obtained for in-vitro fertilisation are subjected to many tests (biopsies). Next, the genetic makeup is thoroughly examined, and only those cells are transferred back to the mother, which are free from genetic diseases. This technique is a great help in the diagnosis of genetic disorders.

Pharmacogenomics:

The intervention of molecular tools in the pharmaceutical domain has given birth to a new area of Pharmacogenomics. A merging of pharmaceutical science and genetics, pharmacogenomics combines traditional pharmaceutical sciences including biochemistry, the molecular structure of the gene, and its behaviour and function at the protein level.

It basically involves the study of how an individual's genetic makeup affects the body's response to drugs. This upcoming field holds a great promise of the day when it will be possible to tailor drugs for individual patients in keeping with their genetic architecture.

Some of the areas where pharmacogenomics can play a significant role are:

Effective Drugs:

Using molecular tools, pharmaceutical firms will be able to develop drugs based on proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules, which are associated with genes and diseases. This will help in targeted drug discovery and delivery. The delivery of such high precision drugs will not only lead to maximum therapeutic applications, but also reduce damage to adjoining healthy cells.

Effective Vaccines:

DNA and RNA-based vaccines will show greater levels of efficiency. These will not only activate the individual's immune system, but will also help avoid the risk of infection. Such recombinant vaccines will be inexpensive, easy to store, and can be engineered to harbour natural strains of a pathogen in one shot.

Targeting Drug Discovery:

Genome targets can be used to develop new therapies. These new drugs can be tried on specific genetic population groups. This will also reduce the cost and potential risk of clinical trials by targeting only those patients who are capable of responding to a drug.

Safer Drugs:

Now instead of using the conventional trial and error method of matching patients with the right kind of drugs, doctors will be able to analyse a patient's genetic make up, and prescribe a suitable possible drug therapy. These new generation drugs will also enhance speed of recovery.

Disease Screening:

Information about a patient's genetic code, his behaviour, life-style and environment can be used to warn him about the incidence of disease well in advance. This will facilitate careful monitoring, and treatment at an appropriate stage to minimise the damage.

Determining Drug Dosage:

Doctors usually prescribe drug dosage according to the patients' weight and age. This can be substituted by dosages based on the person's genetics i.e. how well his body processes the medicine and the time it takes to metabolise it. This will enhance the therapeutic value of the drug and help to prevent the risk of over-dosage.

Gene Profiling:

Modem biotechnological tools have virtually revolutionised the medical field. One such tool, the microarray, has been found to be exceptionally advantageous. This technique makes it possible to pinpoint the molecular differences among the various genes being expressed.

The detailed molecular picture obtained by this technique will help in designing molecular medicines, just like high-resolution radiographic imaging methods have assisted in treating diseases at anatomical levels. One of the recent studies using gene expression based on DNA micro-arrays was for the molecular classification of cancer.

It was reported that the profiling helped in distinguishing distinct pathological strains, such as acute myeloid leukaemia and acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, based on their distinctive gene expression pattern. DNA micro-arrays have also helped in revealing other new diseases.

Stem Cells and Their Applications:

Stem cells are the cells which are capable of dividing for indefinite periods in culture to give rise to specialised cells. We all know human development begins when a sperm fertilizes an egg and creates a single cell (embryo) which is capable of forming an entire organism.

Embryonic stem cells are the cells, which can give rise to 210 different kinds of tissues in a human body. Although a single stem cell can give rise to more specialised cells, but it cannot by itself form the entire human being. These cells are called pluripotent cells - as they are capable of giving rise to most of the tissues of an organism.

As stem cells are capable of differentiating into various types of tissues, these could be used for "cell therapy". Stem cells can be stimulated to develop into a specialized cell and can thus offer the possibility of a renewable source of replacement of diseased/ damaged cells -and tissues.

It can cure many diseases like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, strokes, burns, heart disease, diabetes, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis; malignancies, inborn errors of metabolism and many more. For instance, transplanting healthy heart muscle cells can provide new hopes for patients who are suffering from heart disease, whose hearts can no longer pump adequately.

Stem cell studies have raised the hope to develop heart muscle cells from human stem cells and transplant them into failing heart muscle in order to augment the function of the failing heart. Another important disease is Type I diabetes, where production of insulin by specialized pancreatic cells called islet cells is disrupted.

Studies suggest that transplantation of either the entire pancreas or isolated islet could replace the need for insulin injections. Islet cell lines derived from stem cells can be used for diabetes research and eventually for transplantation. Stem cell biology has a great potential in saving many lives.

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Contribution of Biotechnology to Medical Science

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ADVERTISEMENTS: Contribution of Biotechnology to Medical Science! Biotechnology has proved a boon for medical science in several ways. Be it in enhancing immunity against diseases, or in providing genetically improved treatment for ailments, biotechnology has become an inseparable part of the medical world. ADVERTISEMENTS: In-fact, the development of human insulin, the first genetically engineered drug, ...

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Biomedical got itself introduced in the world only after the British biophysicist Francis Crick and the American biochemist James Watson, in 1953, proposed the structure of DNA.

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http://www.jbiomedsci.com/content/22/1/77

http://www.biomedical-engineering-online.com/content/14/1/71

http://www.biomedical-engineering-online.com/content/14/1/75

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Summary:-

The word biotechnology is a cross between the Greek words 'bios' (everything to do with life) and 'technikos' (involving human knowledge and skills).  The OECD (the Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development) defines biotechnology as "the application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of materials by biological agents".  More simply, it is using living organisms to make useful products.

Bioelectronics is the application of electrical engineering principles to biology, medicine, behavior, or health. Bioelectronics advances our fundamental concepts, creates knowledge for molecular to organ systems levels, and develops innovative devices or processes for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of disease in order to rehabilitate patients and improve health.

Bioelectronics is defined as the use of biological materials and biological architectures for information  systems and new devices.

Biosensors are defined as analytical devices incorporating a biological material (e.g. tissue, microorganisms, organelles, cell receptors, enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, natural products etc.), a biologically derived material (e.g. recombinant antibodies, engineered proteins, aptamers etc) or a biomimic (e.g. synthetic receptors, biomimetic catalysts, combinatorial ligands, imprinted polymers etc) intimately associated with or integrated within a physicochemical transducer or transducing microsystem, which may be optical, electrochemical, thermometric, piezoelectric, magnetic or micromechanical. Biosensors usually yield a digital electronic signal which is proportional to the concentration of a specific analyte or group of analytes. While the signal may in principle be continuous, devices can be configured to yield single measurements to meet specific market requirements. Examples of Biosensors include immunosensors, enzyme-based biosensors, organism- and whole cell-based biosensors. They have been applied to a wide variety of analytical problems including uses in medicine, biomedical research, drug discovery, the environment, food, process industries, security and defence. The design and study of molecular and supramolecular structures with molecular biorecognition and biomimetic properties for use in analytical devices is also included within the scope of the topic. Here the focus is on the complementary intersection between molecular recognition, nanotechnology, molecular imprinting and supramolecular chemistry to improve the analytical performance and robustness of devices.

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What is Bioengineering?

http://bioeng.berkeley.edu/about-us/what-is-bioengineering

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Students in bioengineering are trained in fundamentals of both biology and engineering, which may include elements of electrical and mechanical engineering, computer science, materials science, chemistry, and biology. This breadth allows students and faculty to specialize in their areas of interest and collaborate widely with researchers in allied fields.

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I will discuss the Applications of Biological Engineering in the fields of Biotechnology and Bioelectronics

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Summary:--

Biological Engineering uses primarily the rapidly developing body of knowledge known as molecular biology to study and advance applications of organisms and to create biotechnology. Biotechnology is a very important and multi-discipline course in the today's world. It has proved a miracle and has revolutionized particularly the medical world.

Since ancient times, biotechnology has found its space in almost every part of world. However, the first major breakthrough in biotechnology came in 1953, when the structure of DNA ( deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule was proposed. After then the term genetic engineering came to the surface and several experiments were done in that field.

The major successes came in field of DNA fingerprinting,mapping of drugs and viruses and helping to create more effiecient medicines. The study of antibodies and the concept of DNA fingerprinting has helped the biologists gain useful insights into many fields like pregnancy tests, cancer screening and diagnosis of viral gastro-enteritis, hepatitis B, cystic fibrosis and sexually transmitted diseases like AIDS and helped in eradication of diseases and also improving the judicial system.

Stem cells are perhaps the most interesting and most researched among all the other. This has helped in treatment of Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases, strokes, burns, heart disease, diabetes, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis; malignancies, inborn errors of metabolism and many more.

Biotechnology has a promising future. In future biotechnology will be accredited for some revolutionary technology. Recent advances in bioenergy, bioremediation, synthetic biology, DNA computers, virtual cell, genomics, proteomics, bioinformatics and bio-nanotechnology have made biotechnology even more powerful.

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http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/biotechnology/contribution-of-biotechnology-to-medical-science/29361/

https://raunakms.wordpress.com/2010/06/04/the-importance-of-biotechnology-in-todays-time/

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Here are two links (article) related to the above topic.

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I will discuss the topic of advances in Biomedical Engineering.