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I can discuss superior autobiographical memory
-can recall any memory from any time of their life

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I can discuss and decide what repression is?

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Thinking, Concepts, and creativity
Cognition: The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating information by appreciating our human smarts
Concepts: Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas and people.
-Simplify our thinking
Prototypes: a mental image or best example of a category
Creativity: the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable
-Intelligence tests requires convergent thinking: Narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
-Creativity tests require divergent thinking: expands the number of possible problem solutions
Five Components of Creativity
1. Expertise: a well developed base of knowledge
2. Imaginative thinking skills: provide the ability to see things in  novel ways, to recognize patterns, and make connections
3. A venturesome personality: seeks new experiences, tolerates ambiguity and risk, and preserves in overcoming obstacles.
4. Intrinsic motivation: being driven more by interest, satisfaction, and challenge than by external pressures
5. A creative environment: sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas
-Sternberg has proposed that creativity has five components: Expertise, Imaginative thinking skills; a venturesome personality; intrinsic Motivation; and a creative environment that sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas.

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I can understand my process of cognitive problem solving and my errors in understanding
cognitive is the process of how an individual thinks (knowing, remember, understanding, communicating, also involves perception)
the things we think about can sometimes be wrong

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Memory Storage
-Despite the brain's vast storage capacity, we do not store information as libraries store their books, in discrete, precise locations. Instead, many parts of the brain interact as we encode, store, and retrieve the information that forms our memories.
Explicit-Memory System (the frontal lobes and hippocampus)
Hippocampus- a temporal lobe neural center located in the limbic system , the brain's equivalent of a "save" button for explicit memories
-With left hippocampus damage, people have trouble remembering verbal information, but they have no trouble recalling visual designs and locations. with right hippocampus damage, the problem is reversed
Implicit memory system (The Cerrebellum and Basal Ganglia)
-use implicit memories for skills and conditioned associations.
-The cerebellum plays a key role in forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning
-Our implicit memories helps us explain why the reactions and skills we learned during infancy reach far into our future
The Amygdala, Emotions, and Memories
-stress hormones promote the  amygdala to initiate a memory trace in the frontal lobes and basal ganglia and to boost activity in the brain's memory forming areas
Flashbulb memories: a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Synaptic Changes
-synaptic meeting places where neurons communicate one another via their neurotransmitter messengers.
Long Term Potentiation (LTP): An increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Provides a neural basis for learning and remembering associations
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
measures of retention
recall: retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time.( A fill-in- the- blank question tests your recall)
recognition: Identifying items previously learned. (A multiple choice question tests your recognition)
relearning: learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time. (when you study for a final exam)
-Tests of recognition and of time spent relearning demonstrate that we remember more than we can recall
Retrieval Cues
-Priming: Our associations are activated without our awareness
Priming is often "memoryless memory"- invisible memory, without your conscious awareness
Context-Dependent memory: Putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime your memory retrieval.
State-Dependent memory: What we learn in one state (drunk or sober) may be more easily recalled when in that state.
Mood Congruent: the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones's current good or bad mood
Serial position effect: can leave us wondering why we have large holes in our memory of a list of recent events. recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items(a primary effect) in a list

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THE SENSORY REGISTERS Look slowly around the room. Each glance – which may last for only a fraction of a second – takes in an enormous amount of visual information, including colors, shapes, textures, relative brightness, and shadows.

Visual and Auditory Registers Although the sensory registers have virtually unlimited capacity, information disappears from them quite rapidly.

George Sperling

Memory: the ability to remember things that we have experienced, imagined, and learned

Information-Processing Model: a computer-like model used to describe the way humans encode, store, and retrieve information

Sensory Registers: entry points for raw information from the senses

SHORT-TERM MEMORY Short-term memory (STM)

STM can hold as much information as can be repeated or rehearsed in 1.5 to 2 seconds.

5 to 10-item limit

Chunking: the grouping of information into meaningful units for easier handling by short-term memory

Decay Theory: a theory that argues that the passing of time causes forgetting

Interference Theory: a theory that argues that interference from other information causes forgetting

Rote Rehearsal; retaining information in STM simply by repeating it over and over

LONG-TERM MEMORY Everything that we “know” is stored in long-term memory

Semantic Memory: the portion of long-term memory that stores general facts and information

Episodic Memory: the portion of long-term memory that stores more specific information that has personal meaning

Explicit Memory: memory for information that was intentionally committed to memory or intentionally retrieved from memory

Implicit Memory: memory for information that either was unintentionally committed to memory or was unintentionally retrieved from memory

Retroactive Interference: the process by which new information interferes with old information already in memory

Proactive Interference: the process by which old material already in memory interferes with new information

Schema: (plural: schemata) a set of beliefs or expectations about something that is based on past experience

Forgetting

1. Retrieval Failure:
these memory traces begin to fade and disappear. If information is not retrieved and rehearsed, it will eventually be lost.

2. Interference:
some memories compete and interfere with other memories. When information is very similar to other information that was previously stored in memory, interference is more likely to occur.

Retroactive Interference: process by which new information interferes with old information already in memory

Proactive Interference: the process by which old material already in memory interferes with new information

3. Failure to Store: losing information has less to do with forgetting and more to do with the fact that it never made it into long-term memory in the first place. Encoding failures sometimes prevent information from entering long-term memory.

4. Motivated Forgetting:
Sometimes, we may actively work to forget memories, especially those of traumatic or disturbing events or experiences. The two basic forms of motivated forgetting are: suppression, a conscious form of forgetting, and repression, an unconscious form of forgetting.

Info-Processing Model

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Sensory memory
STM
LTM
Info-Processing model
Forgetting

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Method of Loci: picking things and putting them in familiar surroundings
PORN
P- proactive
O- old information interferes with new information
(Old boyfriends name interferes with new boyfriends name)

R- retroactive
N-new information interferes with old information
seven tips for memory improvements
1. Pay attention and reduce interference
2. Use rehearsal techniques
3.Organization
4. Counteract serial position effect
5. Time management
6. Employ self-monitoring
7. Use mnemonic devices (method of loci, peg-world, acrostics, acronyms)
LTM interferences
Reconstruction
-LTM changes over time
-Eyewitness testimony, not reliable
-Elizabeth loftus
Schema
-mental script, use the past
Cues
recognition: You can choose the answer
Recall: Have to find answer on your own
serial position effect
Mood congruent memory
Language
-refers to spoken, written or gestured words
Units of language
Phonemes
-smallest unit of language
letters and their sounds
-change phoneme. change meaning
Cat; c-a-t    b-a-t
Morphemes
-smallest unit that have meaning
A, I, pre, ed, un
Language theories

Benjamin Worf

-linguistic relatively
-language determines the way we think

BF skinner

-Language is learned through association and reinforcement

Chomsky

-Learn and speak language used in the environment

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Why do we forget?
anterograde amnesia: he could recall his past, but he could not form new memories
retrograde amnesia: cannot recall the past-the old information stored in long-term memory
(Retrograde amnesia acts backward in time, just like when you choose a "retro" look for a party and wear clothes from an earlier time )
-normal forgetting happens because we have never encoded information; because the physical trace has decayed; or because we cannot retrieve what we have encoded and stored.
proactive interference:  occurs when prior learning disrupts your recall of new information.
retroactive interference: occurs when new learning disrupts recall of old information
-retrieval problems may result from proactive (forward acting) interference,  as prior learning interferes with recall of new information, or from retroactive (backward-acting) interference, as new learning disrupts recall of old information
-some believe that motivated forgetting occurs, but researchers have found little evidence of repression
repression: painful or unacceptable memories to protect our self context and to minimize anxiety.
Memory Construction Errors
-memory is not precise
Misinformation effect: Exposed to misleading information, we tend to misremember.
source amnesia: at the heart of many false memories (we may recognize someone but have no idea where we have seen that person)
Deja Vu: "I've experienced this before" feeling, may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
-much as perceptual illusions may seem like real perceptions, unreal memories feel like real memories.
-in an experiment demonstrating the misinformation effect, people have formed false memories, by incorporating misleading details, either after receiving wrong information after an event, or after repeatedly imagining and rehearsing something that never happened.
Children's eyewitness recall
-repressed or constructed memories of abuse.
the research on source amnesia and the misinformation effect raises concerns about therapist-guided "recovered" memories.
-children are susceptible to the misinformation effect, but if questioned in neutral words they understand, they can accurately recall events and people involved in them.
-The debate (between memory researchers and some well-meaning therapists) focuses on whether most memories of early childhood abuse are repressed and can be recovered during therapy using "memory work" techniques using leading questions or hypnosis
-Psychologist's now agree that (1) sexual abuse happens; (2) injustice happens; (3) forgetting happens; (4) recovered memories are commonplace; (5) memories of things that happen before age 3 are unreliable; (6) memories "recovered" under hypnosis or the influence of drugs are especially unreliable; and (7) memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting.

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Studying memory
-Memory is learning that has persisted over time; it is information that has been acquired, stored, and can be retrieved
Information Processing Models
-get information from our brain, a process called encoding
-retain that information, a process called storage
-later get that information back out, a process called retrieval
Parallel processing- the human brain processes many things simultaneously, on dual tracks.
Ex: as you enter the lunchroom, you simultaneously- in parallel- process information about the people you see, the sounds of voices, and the smell of food
Explicit (declarative) memories: the facts and experiences we can consciously know and declare
Semantic Memory: Facts and general knowledge
Episodic Memory: Personal experience and events (example: your high school graduation, the birth of your first child)
effortful processing: encode explicit memories through conscious
automatic processing: skips the conscious encoding track and barges directly into storage
Implicit (nondeclarative)
memories: of skills and classically conditioned associations-happens without our awareness, through automatic processing.
Procedural: Motor skills and habits
Classically conditioned memory: Conditioned and responses to conditioned stimuli
Priming: Earlier exposure facilities retrieval (example: watching a scary movie and the have an instinct to turn on the light after)
working memory: link the information you're reading with your previously stored information
effort processing: encoding that requires
memory-forming process
Atkinson and Shiffrin
1. Sensory Memory Storage: stores sensory info and lasts about a 1/2 second
2. Short-term memory storage: Stores perception for analysis and lasts 30 seconds
3. Long-term memory storage: Permanent stores and lasts permanently
-Psychologists use memory models to think and communicate about memory.
-The connection information-processing model views memories as products of interconnected neural networks
-More recent research has updated this model to include two important concepts: (1) working memory, to stress the active processing occurring in the second memory stage; and (2) automatic processing, to address the processing of information outside of conscious awareness
-In addition to skills and classical conditioned associations, we automatically process incidental information about space, time, and frequency
-sensory memory feeds some information into working memory for active processing there
Iconic: sensory memory of visual stimuli (a picture or image lasting no more than 10 seconds)
Econic: a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli (sounds and words can still be recalled in 3-4 seconds)
short term memory capacity: is about seven items, plus or minus two, but this information disappears from memory quickly without rehearsal
Effective effortful processing strategies include...
chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
mnemonics: memory aids, use vivid imagery (memorizing words on a screen)
hierarchies: composed of a few broad concepts divided into narrower concepts and facts

spacing effect: distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
testing effect: is the finding that consciously retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information enhances memory and affects long-term retention
shallow processing: encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing: retention is the best way to use deep processing (encoding words based on their meaning)