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Map of the Indian tribes of North America, about 1600 A.D. along the Atlantic, & about 1800 A.D. westwardly | Library of Congress

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Map of the Indian tribes of North America, about 1600 A.D. along the Atlantic, & about 1800 A.D. westwardly | Library of Congress

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Map of the Indian tribes of North America, about 1600 A.D. along the Atlantic, & about 1800 A.D. westwardly

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Relief shown pictorially. "Pendleton's Lithography." From: American Antiquarian Society. Transactions and collections. Vol. 2, 1836, fol. p. 264. Hand colored to show the location of Indian tribes and 11 linguistic families. Available also through the Library of Congress Web site as a raster image.

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The Map Of Native American Tribes You've Never Seen Before : Code Switch : NPR

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The Map Of Native American Tribes You've Never Seen Before : Code Switch : NPR

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Editor's note: This story, originally published in 2014, was updated on May 5, 2021 with links to the latest version of Aaron Carapella's mapFinding an address on a map can be taken for granted in the age of GPS and smartphones. But centuries of forced relocation, disease and genocide have made it difficult to find where many Native American tribes once lived.

Aaron Carapella, a self-taught mapmaker in Warner, Okla., has pinpointed the locations and original names of hundreds of American Indian nations before their first contact with Europeans.

As a teenager, Carapella says he could never get his hands on a U.S. map like this, depicting more than 600 tribes - many now forgotten and lost to history. Now, the 34-year-old designs and sells maps as large as 3 by 4 feet with the names of tribes hovering over land they once occupied.

"I think a lot of people get blown away by, 'Wow, there were a lot of tribes, and they covered the whole country!' You know, this is Indian land," says Carapella, who calls himself a "mixed-blood Cherokee" and lives in a ranch house within the jurisdiction of the Cherokee Nation.

For more than a decade, he consulted history books and library archives, called up tribal members and visited reservations as part of research for his map project, which began as pencil-marked poster boards on his bedroom wall. So far, he has designed maps of the continental U.S., Canada and Mexico. A map of Alaska is currently in the works.

What makes Carapella's maps distinctive is their display of both the original and commonly known names of Native American tribes, according to Doug Herman, senior geographer at the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian in Washington, D.C.

"You can look at [Carapella's] map, and you can sort of get it immediately," Herman says. "This is Indian Country, and it's not the Indian Country that I thought it was because all these names are different."

He adds that some Native American groups got stuck with names chosen arbitrarily by European settlers. They were often derogatory names other tribes used to describe their rivals. For example, "Comanche" is derived from a word in Ute meaning "anyone who wants to fight me all the time," according to the Encyclopaedia Britannica.

"It's like having a map of North America where the United States is labeled 'gringos' and Mexico is labeled 'wetbacks,' " Herman says. "Naming is an exercise in power. Whether you're naming places or naming peoples, you are therefore asserting a power of sort of establishing what is reality and what is not."

Look at a map of Native American territory today, and you'll see tiny islands of reservation and trust land engulfed by acres upon acres ceded by treaty or taken by force. Carapella's maps, which are sold on his website,serve as a reminder that the population of the American countryside stretches back long before 1776 and 1492.

Carapella describes himself as a former "radical youngster" who used to lead protests against Columbus Day observances and supported other Native American causes. He says he now sees his mapmaking as another way to change perceptions in the U.S.

"This isn't really a protest," he explains. "But it's a way to convey the truth in a different way."

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The Map Of Native American Tribes You've Never Seen Before

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Aaron Carapella couldn't find a map showing the original names and locations of Native American tribes as they existed before contact with Europeans. That's why the Oklahoma man designed his own map.

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American Indian Languages American Indian Cultures What's new on our site today!
Welcome to our Ohio State Facts section, part of an educational project designed to provide information about indigenous people in different U.S. states. Follow the links to the right of our tribal map for more information about the language, culture and history of each Ohio tribe, or scroll below the map for Ohio Indian activities including a wordsearch, fact sheets, and words from the Native American languages of Ohio. Feel free to print any of these materials out for classroom use!

Sponsored Links

American Indians in Ohio
Iroquoian Indian word? It came from the Seneca name for the Ohio River,Ohiyo, which means "it is beautiful." The Senecas were not the original inhabitants of Ohio, however. The Indian tribes of the Ohio Valley were decimated by smallpox and other European diseases before the Europeans had even met them, and Algonquian and Iroquoian tribes from neighboring regions moved into Ohio as European colonization forced them from their original homes. Only a few of the tribes who were living in Ohio before 1492 still survive today.The original inhabitants of the area that is now Ohio included: Other Indian tribes who migrated into Ohio after Europeans arrived included: The Delaware tribe
The Miami tribe
The Odawa tribe
The Ohio Seneca tribe (Mingo)
The Wyandot tribe

There are no federally recognized Indian tribes in Ohio today.
Most Native Americans were forced to leave Ohio during the Indian Removals of the 1800's. These tribes are not extinct, but except for the descendants of Ohio Indians who escaped from Removal, they do not live in Ohio anymore. They were moved to Indian reservations in Oklahoma instead. If you click on the link for each tribe above, you can find more information about them.Non-recognized Indian tribes and communities in Ohio include: Munsee Delaware Indian Nation of Ohio:
70463 Hopewell Rd
Cambridge, OH 43725

Shawnee Nation United Remnant Band:
PO Box 162
Dayton, OH 45401

Teaching and learning activities about Ohio Native Americans:
Feel free to print these out to use at school!

Ohio Tribes Word Search: Printable puzzle hiding the names of Ohio's Indian tribes.
Ohio Language Greetings: Learn to say "hello" in several Native Ohio languages.
Ohio Native Animals: Learn the Native American names of Ohio animals.
Ohio Indian Facts for Kids: Answers to frequently asked questions about the tribes of Ohio.
We currently have pages for theKickapoo,Shawnee, Miami,Seneca, Ottawa,Wyandot, andDelaware Indian tribes.Recommended books about Ohio Native Americans
(Our organization earns a commission from any book bought through these links) Ohio's First Peoples:
Good book on Ohio Indian culture and history.
Ohio Native Americans:
Simple book introducing Ohio's Indian history and culture to kids.
Ohio Native Peoples:
More in-depth book about Ohio Indian tribes for kids.
Encyclopedia of Ohio Indians:
Thorough reference book about the Native American tribes of Ohio.
A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples:
Book on the culture and history of Ohio Indian tribes in the 18th century.
Ohio Archaeology:
An illustrated book on Ohio's ancient American Indian cultures.
The First Peoples of Ohio and Indiana: Native American History Resource Book
A good book on the Native American tribes of Ohio and Indiana.
The Ohio Frontier:
History of the Ohio Indian Wars and removals of the 1700's and 1800's.
Indian Artifacts of the Midwest:
Collection of photographs of prehistoric paleo-Indian arrowheads and other artifacts.
Other resources about American Indian history, culture and society in Ohio state: Mound Builders:
A good article on the pre-Columbian Native American people of the Ohio Valley.

Sponsored Links:

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Back to our main Native American map
Back to our Native American website for kids

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Native Languages of the Americas website © 1998-2020

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Information on the Native American tribes of Ohio, with maps, reservation addresses, classroom activities and recommended history books.

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The Old Northwest Notebook: Crime and Punishment in the Northwest Army During the War of 1812

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In the early American Republic there was no ethos of professional military service like that of the modern US Armed Forces. The small professional army was a poorly paid and supplied organization. The War of 1812-1815 brought on an expansion from seven to over forty line regiments, the largest the US Regular Army would get until the 20th Century. Maintaining discipline among this diverse and inexperienced group of soldiers presented unique challenges for the young American Army. The United States Army remained a much less disciplined and professional organization than its opponent, the British Army. It's men had to be welded into fighting units in much less time than their European counterparts required (some British officers estimated it took at least three years to make a recruit into an effective soldier). The standard terms of enlistment for European soldiers could be as long as 25 years-and many men stayed in for life. By contrast the American soldier volunteered for a maximum of five years of service.
1

Tradition and the law prescribed capital punishment for deserters, but early in the war officers tended to be reluctant to shoot men. One reason was that most leaders expected to return to civilian life after the war, and the reputation of condemning fellow citizens (many from their own communities) would cast a shadow over their reputations at home. Indeed, many former officers who went into politics later in life found their opponents using wartime executions against them.William Henry Harrison was a professional soldier who was as skilled in politics as he was in tactics. He understood his army as a force of citizens who had to be persuaded and inspired to serve. His forces were always made up of a majority of volunteer and drafted militia, and unlike General Hull or General Winchester he understood that he could not treat them like professional soldiers.At this time one of the condemned slowly arose from his recumbant position to his knees and was assisted to his feet. His remark was "By G__, I thought I was dead."Despite several early cases of reprieves and non-death punishments, the desertion problem became so severe by the summer of 1813 that executions were becoming more common. From four death sentences passed down by military courts in 1812, a total of 43 were issued in 1813 (11 of which were reprieved). The total would climb to 160 in 1814 and 53 in January 1815 alone. By contrast, the Union Army only executed 112 men for desertion during the American Civil War.Lesser punishments were more common for deserters from the Northwest Army in 1813. Two men found guilty of desertion in June were to carry a 6 pound cannon-ball for 39 days, to receive only half pay for that time, and to do hard labor. Moreover they were sentenced to ride the "wooden horse"-- a wedge-shaped affair that left its rider sore and exposed to the entire camp--and to have their heads shaved. Perhaps worse of all, their whiskey rations were stopped for the period of punishment. Private Robert Berkeley of the 19th Infantry, who had fallen asleep at his sentry post was sentenced to ten days of hard labor and to have his whiskey stopped for that time. Private John T. Mosby of the 17th Infantry, who had been overheard talking about blowing up the powder magazine and deserting to the British, was severely punished: "to be confined, tied to a post or a log in a tent by himself one month, to have a handcuff on his right hand, to ride a wooden horse 30 minutes once a week for one month with a six pound (cannonball) fastened to each foot, to wear a ball and chain the whole time, to have one eye brow and one side of his head shaved and to be fed on bread and water only," before being drummed out of camp. Drunkenness was as common a discipline problem among officers as it was for enlisted men. Lieutenant John Henderson of the 2nd Regiment of Artillery (newly promoted from being a sergeant of the Petersburgh Volunteers) was court martialed for "being in an evident state of inebriety," during which time he attempted to take over the posts of other officers, "ordering the Match rope & slow match set on fire & kept so; declaring his intention to visit that Battery every hour in the night and making many threats in case his orders were not complyed with..." The American Regular Army forces in the War of 1812 would eventually swell to include 48 numbered infantry regiments, 3 artillery regiments, a light artillery regiment, two light dragoon regiments, four rifle regiments, 10 companies of rangers, 10 companies of "sea fencibles" or seacoast garrison units, and a company of "bombardiers, sappers and miners." Not until World War One would the United States Army include so many different types of soldiers.

The War of 1812 had started as a short, summertime campaign to march into Canada. President Madison and the Republican Party (traditionally anti-military) expanded the United States Army but hoped to fight the war mostly with citizen volunteers and state militia. The early, devastating defeats at Detroit and Queenston Heights turned the Second Amendment ideal of organic self-defense on its ear. The new Secretary of War, John Armstrong, firmly wanted an organized, professional regular Army to complete the invasion of Canada. The law allowing volunteer units like the Pittsburgh Blues to register for year-long service was repealed and replaced by a new law authorizing 12-month regular Infantry regiments. Armstrong hoped to increase the regular forces to 50,000 men by the end of the year. The American ideal of military service, which disdained professional soldiering, was crumbling under the reality of a sustained war.

American commanders continued to face the problem of maintaining discipline in an army of frontier citizens. The men who volunteered to fight in the ranks of the regular regiments were citizen soldiers, and they were recruited led by and large by officers who had come from their own communities. American leaders liked to contrast these men with the "hirelings" who fought in the British Army, but in both cases regular service and discipline was harsh and men deserted and misbehaved. The officers presented a different problem for commanders, since they often quarreled (this was the heyday of dueling), disobeyed orders, and there were always incompetents, drunkards and cowards to be weeded out. Commanders relied upon harsh and traditional forms of military justice to keep the army functioning. Military courts martial, made up of councils of field officers, dispensed justice to officers, enlisted men, and even civilians connected to the army.

Military justice was harsh, but had roots in both military tradition and the physical, rough culture of the frontier. Gentlemen settled issues of honor with an elaborate culture of dueling, which could but usually did not lead to death. Working-class men (and the line between the working classes and gentlemen often blurred on the edges of the great migration) settled their differences by brawling. The loser would very often suffer his eye gouged out-some toughs kept their thumbnails long for this specific purpose. There were no prisons, and jails were only built to hold prisoners before they could be tried. Whippings, beatings, and tar and feathering, and other corporal punishments were routine in the rude log settlements beyond the Appalachian Mountains. The European tradition of military service (which the small peacetime army followed) recruited from the lowest classes of society to fill out the ranks and devised cruel punishments to keep the men in line.

Desertion was the biggest problem facing the American army. By the spring and summer of 1813 the Northwest Army was hard at work recruiting seven thousand regular soldiers whom Secretary of War John Armstrong had promised General Harrison. The hardship of the winter campaign caused many men to desert from the forward posts. New recruits for both the existing regiments (the 17th and 19th United States Regiments of Infantry, soon to be joined by the 24th Regiment from Tennessee) and the new ones (the 26th, 27th, and 28th Regiments made up of 12-months volunteers) often changed their minds about enlisting and sought to escape the service. Short of murder and mutiny, desertion was the most serious crime a soldier could be charged with. Conversely, for the rank and file who had no other way to remonstrate their treatment at the hands of officers and NCOs, desertion was the only alternative to unquestioning obedience.

Throughout the war newspapers were littered with advertisements from officers seeking deserters who had absconded from their units. These shared the space of, and were akin to the notices for runaway slaves and apprentices. Private citizens were encouraged to turn in the fugitives for a reward. In one case in Chillecothe, this led to tragedy when a teenaged soldier, disheartened at the execution of a deserter from his regiment, went absent without leave to visit his mother's house nearby. He was turned in by a neighbor for the reward, and was condemned to death by an unsympathetic court martial.

2 Many of the commanders also wanted to reform rather than execute able-bodied men under their command. But their reluctance to execute deserters weakened the deterrence of capital punishment. Some men became serial deserters, repeatedly escaping from their units whenever a chance presented itself. On the front lines, where deserters from either side were a prime source of intelligence on enemy operations, desertion could have serious consequences for the army.

3 Winchester had earned the ire of his troops by shooting some men while letting other offenders go with a reprieve and a paternalistic urging to do better next time. Harrison had begun his military career with a controversy over flogging a couple of civilian contractors. By the War of 1812, however, he had developed a reputation for being soft. One later writer asserted that Harrison "could never hurt a fly."

A typical execution was carried out in public, in front of the entire regiment and whatever other soldiers or civilians happened to be nearby. The regiment formed a hollow square allowing each man a good view. The battalion square was left open on one side, where the prisoner was marched and made to stand in front or seated on his own coffin. He was then blindfolded, and usually stripped down to his shirt. A squad of soldiers marched up to five paces away from the prisoner. Although the commands to make ready, take aim, and fire were given by silent hand gestures, the distinctive click of hammers being cocked on the muskets must have been unmistakable. At five paces distance, there was little chance of having a ball miss the target. Contrary to modern practice the firing squad was not issued with a single blank charge-the recoil of the weapons would have made it irrelevant in any case.

Sometimes, though the prisoner would have little cause for hope, the commanding general would secretly issue a reprieve. In these cases the whole process was carried out until the last step, when an officer halted the proceedings and issued a reprieve. The prisoner was then sometimes ordered to step back into the ranks of his company-if he was still conscious. In some cases, multiple deserters were sentenced and shot on the same afternoon, and one of them would be reprieved-but not before listening, blindfolded, as several volleys leveled his fellow prisoners. In at least one case, a volley of blanks was fired at a condemned prisoner who then fell over, unconscious but alive. One veteran of General Winfield Scott's brigade described such a reprieve amidst a typical mass execution of deserters:

They were dressed in white robes with white caps on their heads, and a red target fastened over the heart...Five graves were dug in a row, five coffins placed near them, also in a line, with distance between coffins and graves, to enable the criminals to kneel between them. About twelve men were assigned to the execution of each offender. Their guns were loaded by officers, and they were not permitted to examine them afterwards until they had fired.

All things being in readiness, the chaplain made a prayer, the caps were pulled down over the eyes of the poor culprits, and the word of command givin: "Ready! Aim! Fire!" They all fell! Some into their graves, some over their coffins. One struggled faintly and the commanding officer ordered a sergeant to approach and end his misery. He obeyed by putting the muzzle of the piece within a yard of his head, and discharging it. This quieted him perfectly!

General Harrison tended to be lenient towards deserters, in the early days of the campaign. In April 1813 Private William Clark of the 19th US Infantry was found guilty of deserting several times. He was sentenced to death and brought out in front of the camp to be shot, before receiving a last-minute reprieve from the General. In several cases during the 1813 campaign, men from the US Army who had deserted and then joined the British before being recaptured were sentenced to death. They were not allowed the death of a firing squad, but were sentenced to hang. In the early 19th century, before the drop-fall gallows, this meant "hanging from the neck until dead" or slow suffocation. 4

5 One reason for the soaring number of executions as the war went on was that the United States Congress finally increased bounties for enlistment in the regular army, from 16 dollars to over a hundred dollars. Since the money was given in advance it created a situation where bounty jumpers risked the death sentence to enlist in several regular companies, pocketing their bounty money before deserting.

6 Public humiliation and physical pain were normal components of Army punishments.

Other infractions might be punished by "picketing", which meant that the subject was made to stand, bare footed on a thin piece of wood-which led to debilitating pain after a few minutes. A prisoner's head might be shaved and he would be marched around the camp with a sign stating his offense-a common punishment for thieves. At some posts, a small cellar called a "black hole" would be dug to confine prisoners in a lightless, airless space. Such punishments were considered neither unusual nor cruel during the early 19th century. For lesser offenses, officers and sergeants had a variety of means at their disposal. They could order men to carry cannon-balls in their knapsacks, confine them to quarters or revoke privileges. "Cobbing" or hitting and paddling men was common.
7 The "wooden horse" was a rail suspended off the ground. The offender had to sit astride it with weights on his feet, a painful and publicly humiliating punishment.

One exception was flogging. Whipping with a piece of rope with nine ends had been a common military and civil punishment before the war. Lately it had been outlawed in the Army by the Articles of War. Flogging was probably so associated with the harsh disciple of the professional European armies and the British Royal Navy that it was condemned by many patriotic Americans as a punishment for their soldiers. However, after the War of 1812 whipping was reinstated as a punishment for enlisted men and employed well into the 1860s.

Officers were considered gentlemen, and required a separate set of punishments from the lowly enlisted men. An influx of young men with newly acquired commissions from civilian life swarmed into the thin ranks of the existing officer corps. Other officers who had served in the sleepy prewar period were unequal to the challenge of active service. Alcohol, gambling, and feuds were always common. Duels were outlawed under the Articles of War and officers who were caught dueling or acting as second in a duel were liable to be dismissed from the service. In the eastern armies several duels occurred-including one in which both parties were surprised and captured by a British detachment! Despite the many Southern officers serving, no evidence supports dueling taking place in the western army. Officers were expected to lead from the front, and cowardice was not tolerated. Junior officers were sometimes punished for cowardice by having their swords broken over their heads in front of the regiment, before being dismissed from the service.

In July 1813 an officer at Fort Meigs, Lieutenant Jackson of the 19th US Infantry was charged with unofficerlike conduct-- "For calling me (the Prosecutor Jacob Smith) a damned rascal and pulling out of his pocket a Pistol and Cocking the same, and swearing he would punish me on the spot..." Jacob Smith also charged Jackson with striking him with a club, which knocked him to the ground. Then the Lieutenant kicked and beat Smith while he lay helpless. The court martial found him not guilty of the charges of unofficerlike conduct, but guilty of hitting Smith with a stick and kicking him. Nevertheless it sentenced Jackson to be "acquitted honorably." When General Clay heard of this, he replied that it was "a novelty in the proceedings of Courts Martial" because the accused had been acquitted and condemned in the same sentence. He disapproved the sentence but gave the Lieutenant back his sword and released him anyway.

Captain Cushing recorded in his diary that the Lieutenant had gotten "drunk, passed around the lines and abused several of the sentinels so much that they have entered a formal complaint." Despite the nature of the charges the Judge Advocate considered them "lacking form" and declared himself noli prosequi (unwilling to prosecute), so the charges were dropped. Lt. Henderson continued to serve in the army until 1815. There were many other cases during the 1813 campaign when officers were charged with misconduct, but were either acquitted by the court martial, or set free by the commanding general.

8 Later on he beat a corporal with his sword. On the same night Henderson found a private standing sentinel at the Grand Battery and "charging him with being a NonCommissioned Officer and on being answered in the Negative beat the said Heaton with his sword calling him a D-d liar & raskal and obliging him to assume the duties generally attached to a NonCommissioned Officer." Finally, he was also charged with "Beating Thos (Thomas) Jones a private Soldier in Capt Cushing's Company unprovokedly-with his fist."

9 The expansion of the tiny pre-war army was not permanent-most of the new regiments were disbanded or combined into new units after peace was declared. The Articles of War laid down a strict set of rules to regulate the masses of new soldiers. Enlisted men bore the brunt of these rules, which did not deter them from deserting, drinking, or otherwise disobeying the authority of their officers. However, the harsh discipline and punishments inflicted on men by the military justice system eventually served to help create an effective fighting force. By the war's end, US regular troops could face down battle-hardened British soldiers on several fronts. They owed the rapid progress in no small part to the institution of discipline.

1Which is not to say that the American Regular Army didn't have it's "lifers". One enlisted man who fought at Fort Stephenson in August 1813 continued to serve until the Civil War as an ordnance sergeant.

2Most notably Andrew Jackson, who as a Major General had condemned several militiamen in his command to death.

3He also made sure to remind the President and Secretary of War of his special affinity with citizen soldiers from the western states when lobbying for his appointment as Major General.

4D.E. Graves, ed. Soldiers of 1814: American Enlisted Men's Memoirs of the Niagara Campaign. (Youngstown, NY: Old Fort Niagara Association, 1995), 31.

5Clifton D. Bryant, Handbook of Death & Dying 1 The Presence of Death. (Thousand Oaks, Calif. [u.a.]: Sage Publications, 2003), 382. The real number may have been much greater because records were incomplete, but compared to the larger scale of the Union forces executions were much more common during the War of 1812. 7Harlow Lindley, ed. Fort Meigs and the War of 1812, 109. 8Harlow Lindley, Fort Meigs and the War of 1812, (Columbus,Ohio: Ohio Historical Society, 1944: 2nd Ed. 1975), 58-59. 9 The large forces raised to fight in the American Civil War for the Union were mostly composed of state volunteer and militia regiments enrolled into Federal service.

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Crime and Punishment in the Northwest Army During the War of 1812

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In the early American Republic there was no ethos of professional military service like that of the modern US Armed Forces. The small professional army was a poorly paid and supplied organization. The War of 1812-1815 brought on an expansion from seven to over forty line regiments, the largest the US Regular Army would get until the 20th Century.

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We welcome your suggestions, questions, and other feedback at ohc@ohiohistory.org. To learn more about the Ohio History Connection, please visit www.ohiohistory.org.

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As legend has it, singing the national anthem at sporting events began during the 1918 World Series, when the nation was at war. As recounted by the New York Times of Sept. 6, 1918, it was the seventh-inning stretch of the first game between the Chicago Cubs and the Boston Red Sox.

"As the crowd of 10,274 spectators - the smallest that has witnessed the diamond classic in many years - stood up to take their afternoon yawn, that has been the privilege and custom of baseball fans for many generations, the band broke forth to the strains of 'The Star-Spangled Banner.'

"The yawn was checked and heads were bared as the ball players turned quickly about and faced the music. Jackie Fred Thomas of the U.S. Navy was at attention, as he stood erect, with his eyes set on the flag fluttering at the top of the lofty pole in right field. First the song was taken up by a few, then others joined, and when the final notes came, a great volume of melody rolled across the field. It was at the very end that the onlookers exploded into thunderous applause and rent the air with a cheer that marked the highest point of the day's enthusiasm."

The event had a public relations bonus for ballplayers in 1918, as there were people wondering why they were on the ballfield rather than the battlefield.

The idea caught on.

"Not to be outdone," writes Marc Ferris in his cultural history of the anthem, "Red Sox owner Harry Frazee opened each game in Boston with it."

Making this even more interesting is the fact that "The Star-Spangled Banner" - which borrowed its difficult melody from a "To Anacreon in Heaven," a British song about boozing and womanizing - wasn't adopted as the official national anthem of the U.S. until 1931.

As time passed, playing and singing "The Star-Spangled Banner" became as routine as cracker jacks at ballgames. And for many the patriotic awe faded.

By the mid-1950s, with the nation at peace and increasingly fat and happy, crowds were less erect, less attentive and less respectful as the anthem was played.

In 1954, Ferris reports, the general manager of the Baltimore Orioles, Arthur Ellers, a World War I veteran complained that about the fact that fans went on talking, laughing and moving around as the anthem was played.

"'To me,'" Ellers said, "'it's very distasteful."

So disrespectful did he find it that he decided it wouldn't be played anymore, relenting about a month later under pressure from the Baltimore City Council, which counts among the city's main tourist attractions Fort McHenry, the actual broad stripes, bright stars and rockets red glare had inspired Francis Scott Key to write the words in 1814.

Of course, while many fans do stop what they're doing when the anthem is played, remove their hats and shush their children, others still laugh and talk and move about while the anthem is being played.

"The next time you're at sporting event," Kyle Koster, wrote in the The Big Lead in May, "take a look around notice how many people are locked into their phones, sipping their beer or worse during the playing of the anthem. It's impossible to know someone's inner thoughts, but the outward actions suggest someone counting the seconds until they can yell, 'play ball' instead of basking in freedoms of the First Amendment."

And up in Baltimore they can't wait to yell "Oh" when they reach the verse, "O say does that Star Spangled Banner yet wave."

"Orioles fans are not alone in their desecration of 'The Star-Spangled Banner,' of course," wrote The Washington Post's Mike Wise in a moment of disgust in 2012. "Many of their tainted gene pool have migrated to Verizon Center for Capitals games. Some of these louts actually yell "OH!" and "RED!" at different intervals - twice ruining the anthem. Their spawn can be found in Houston, too, where a small group called "The Red Rowdies" holler "ROCK-ETS RED GLARE!" during Rockets NBA games."

Let's face it. Playing the national anthem before a sports event is a grand old tradition. But for many fans, so is dissing the song.

And most people - at least those who don't write sports columns for a living - don't seem to care how other fans react to the tune.

Until, that is, someone famous is perceived to denigrate it. Then, to some, not honoring the song becomes an affront.

That can be seen in the latest controversy over Colin Kaepernick, the San Francisco 49ers quarterback, who refuses to stand for the song in protest.

As The Post's Cindy Boren reported, he has his reasons. "I am not going to stand up to show pride in a flag for a country that oppresses black people and people of color," Kaepernick told NFL Media's Steve Wyche. "To me, this is bigger than football, and it would be selfish on my part to look the other way. There are bodies in the street and people getting paid leave and getting away with murder."

And he is still being taken to task for doing it, primarily from the right.

"He can speak out about a very important issue. But there's plenty of other ways that you can do that in a peaceful manner that doesn't involve being disrespectful to the American flag, said New Orleans Saints quarterback Drew Brees.

"I think it's a terrible thing," said Donald Trump. "And maybe he should find a country that works better for him, let him try. It won't happen."

"Why the hell do people come here in from anywhere? Even more, why do people stay here with all this oppression that's taking place?" said conservative talk show host Mark Levin.

"Because a dimwit with a 12 IQ, like this guy, can make $126 million in six years, based on one or two seasons, and he still sucks!

"When he doesn't stand during the national anthem, it's not because of social injustice or anything else. He's spitting on the men and women who are in one hell hole or another all over this country, fighting for that flag and fighting for this nation - and every one of them that came before them! Every one of them!"

But see also what Kareem Abdul-Jabbar says in Kaepernick's defense in The Post: "What should horrify Americans is not Kaepernick's choice to remain seated during the national anthem, but that nearly 50 years after [Muhammad] Ali was banned from boxing for his stance and Tommie Smith and John Carlos' raised fists caused public ostracization and numerous death threats, we still need to call attention to the same racial inequities. Failure to fix this problem is what's really un-American here."

[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar: Insulting Colin Kaepernick says more about our patriotism than his]

Kaepernick is far from the only public figure to be attacked for being perceived as disrespecting "The Star-Spangled Banner."

At the recent Rio Olympics, American gymnast Gabby Douglas was forced by the court of public opinion to apologize for not placing her hand over her heart for the song. "There is NO excuse as to why you could not salute the flag of the country that gave you the opportunity to complete," one user tweeted at her. Another called her "UN-olympic" [sic].

Twenty years before either Douglas or Kaepernick were attacked on social media, there was Mahmoud Abdul-Rauf. Before converting to Islam, while still playing for LSU, he was known as Chris Jackson.

His name might not ring a bell, because he's all but disappeared from any conversation about the NBA (even though he shot free throws with a 90.5 percent accuracy, making him one of, if not the, most statistically skilled free throw shooter of all time). The reason might be the national anthem.

At the outset of the 1995-96 season, while playing for the Denver Nuggets, he decided that he wouldn't salute the flag during the national anthem that year. Instead, he'd generally sit down while the song was sung. Sound familiar?

He said the flag was a "symbol of oppression, of tyranny," the New York Times reported.

No one noticed until March of that year, when the a local reporter published a small blurb about it. Media requests to visit practice the next day doubled.

Commissioner David Stern suspended Abdul-Rauf for one game, but two days later, the NBA decided to allow him to simply force him to stand during the song while allowing him to close his eyes and look away from the flag, SBNation reported.

Many outlets, such as SBNation and Yardbarker, claim this controversy ended up costing Abdul-Rauf his career.

So does he.

"After the national anthem fiasco, nobody really wanted to touch me," he told HoopsHype, a basketball blog, in 2010.

Finally, it's difficult to forget the reaction to the revelation that Beyoncé lip-synced the "Star-Spangled Banner" at President Obama's 2013 inauguration. Twitter was afire with outrage. "How can you do this humanity?" asked one user, while another said, "Apparently Beyoncé's inauguration performance was as dope as Lance Armstrong biking through the French Alps," according to the New York Daily News.

While many more people of color seem to be attacked when perceived to be insulting the national anthem, the ire and score sees no color lines.

In 1990, Rosanne Barr proved that at a San Diego Padres game in which she infamously wore a untucked, baggy white shirt and shrieked her way through the song, at one point grabbing her crotch and spitting on the pitcher's mound.

The outrage was so palpable and widespread that President George H.W. Bush, from Air Force One, called the performance "disgraceful." George Will called her a "Slob."

Her son, Jake Pentland, told The Post, "I went to school the next day. I got to hear that my mother hates America and 'I hope she dies.' She was really distraught. She wouldn't leave the house."

Let's face another fact: Ordinary people really can't sing "The Star-Spangled Banner," at least not well. And professionals struggle with it.

Asked once for advice on singing the anthem by the Indianapolis Monthly, singer Sandi Patty, said, among other things: "Try to push out of your mind the wish that you were singing God Bless America."

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A brief history of 'The Star-Spangled Banner' being played at games and getting no respect

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As legend has it, singing the national anthem at sporting events began during the 1918 World Series, when the nation was at war. As recounted by the New York Times of Sept. 6, 1918, it was the seventh-inning stretch of the first game between the Chicago Cubs and the Boston Red Sox.

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battle of fallen timbers

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The Campaign for the National Museum of the United States Army

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In the days of the early Republic, the U.S. Army suffered some of its most devastating defeats in its history. While the Continental Army of the War for Independence fared well against the European style of tactics employed by the British redcoats, particularly later in the war, the Indian warriors along the American frontier confounded many of the early Republic's senior officers. Two separate expeditions into the Northwest Territory, led by BG Josiah Harmer and MG Arthur St. Clair, were ambushed and nearly destroyed by Indians, primarily from the Miami tribe, with covert British support. This period represented some of the darkest days in the history of the U.S. Army.

Eventually, one senior American officer emerged to lead the Army to victory and end much of the threat posed to American settlers northwest of the Ohio River. MG Anthony Wayne, who had already established himself as one of the premier American officers in the Continental Army, was given command of the Army and led it once again into Indian Territory. Under Wayne's leadership, however, the results were much different. At the Battle of Fallen Timbers in August 1794, near present day Toledo, Ohio, Wayne and his combined force of regulars and mounted Kentucky militia, routed the Indians and largely eliminated the Indian threat in the Northwest Territory.

Anthony Wayne was born 1 January 1745 in Chester County, Pennsylvania. The only son of Isaac and Elizabeth Wayne, Anthony, at the age of sixteen, was sent to a private academy in Philadelphia run by his uncle. While at the academy, young Anthony never seemed to approach his classroom studies with the same enthusiasm as the mock battles he fought with his classmates. At that time, much of the American frontier was under constant threat of Indian attack as the French and Indian War raged over much of northeastern North America, and Wayne, like many boys his age, found the stories of Indian warfare much more exciting than academics.

After leaving school, Wayne was briefly employed as a surveyor before returning to his family's estate to take charge of the tannery. He took over the family business after the death of his father in 1774 and made it profitable.

Before hostilities broke out between the colonies and England, Wayne was active in local protests against the coercive acts of the British government. In 1774, he represented Chester County in the Pennsylvania legislature and later served on the Committee of Public Safety.

After war broke out, Wayne resigned his seat to raise a regiment of volunteers. In January 1776, he was appointed by Congress to command the 4th Pennsylvania Battalion and given the rank of colonel. Despite a lack of formal military training, Wayne became one of the finest officers in the Continental Army.

Wayne's first combat experience came when he and the Pennsylvania Brigade were sent to bolster the faltering American expedition in Canada. When the Pennsylvanians met the remnants of MG Richard Montgomery's army, they were sent down the St. Lawrence to attack what was thought to be the advance guard of the British forces marching against the American army. Making contact with the enemy at Trois Rivieres (Three Rivers) on 8 June 1776, the Americans soon discovered they were facing the main British force. During the engagement, in which Wayne was wounded, Wayne's battalion covered the retreat of the rest of the American force. After the Americans withdrew from Canada, Wayne was given command of the garrison at Fort Ticonderoga.

On 21 February 1777 Wayne was promoted to brigadier general and given command of the Pennsylvania Line, which he commanded at Brandywine Creek on 11 September 1777. Two weeks later, however, Wayne's troops were surprised by the British in their encampment at Paoli. In a night attack, the British bayoneted hundreds of Continentals in one of the most devastating defeats of the war. Wayne was accused of negligence in this action. He demanded a trial by court-martial and was eventually acquitted.

In October of 1777, Wayne fought with distinction at Germantown and suffered a slight wound. He then endured the harsh winter of 1777-78 at Valley Forge.

At the battle of Monmouth in late June 1778, Wayne's Pennsylvanians led the initial attack and defended the American center against the British counterattack. On 16 July of the following year, Wayne won fame for leading a daring nighttime bayonet assault against the British position at Stony Point, New York. Upon receiving orders for the attack, Wayne replied to GEN George Washington, "General, if you give me permission, I'll storm Hell itself for you." The attack captured the surprised British garrison and helped to relieve pressure on West Point. For this daring assault, and coupled with his tremendous temper and intensity in battle, Wayne earned the nickname "Mad Anthony." Congress later awarded Wayne a gold medal for the capture of Stony Point.

When BG Benedict Arnold's treason became known in late September 1780, Wayne rushed to West Point to defend it from the British. In January 1781, he quelled the mutiny of the Pennsylvania Line.

As the focus of the war moved south, Wayne served under the command of the Marquis de Lafayette in Virginia. While serving with Lafayette's army, Wayne ran into a much larger British force at Green Spring and narrowly avoided a disastrous defeat. Wayne was also slightly wounded in the thigh in Virginia when a jittery sentry fired at him and hit him with buckshot. He later served at the decisive battle at Yorktown and was present for Cornwallis' surrender.

In 1782, Wayne was detached to MG Nathanael Greene's army and fought a successful campaign against Creek and Cherokee Indians in Georgia. On 30 September 1783, Wayne was brevetted a major general. Less than two months later, however, he retired from the Army. He took up farming and dabbled in politics, being elected to the Pennsylvania General Assembly in 1784. He later moved to Georgia and was elected the state's representative in Congress in 1790, only to have his seat declared vacant the following year due to election fraud.

While Wayne's career in politics was relatively short-lived and tumultuous, his military career would soon be reborn. Disastrous events in the Northwest Territory required the federal government to re-examine its military policies and place someone in command to rectify the situation. After scrutinizing a number of candidates for the job, the War Department eventually selected Wayne, and he answered his nation's call once again.

After the conclusion of the War for Independence with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 3 September 1783, the U.S. Army faced tough times. On 2 November 1783, Congress ordered the Army to disband, although this initial order was not carried out. In December of that same year, GEN George Washington bade farewell to his officers in New York City and resigned his commission as commander-in-chief, leaving the Army without a strong leader.

On 2 June 1784, Congress again ordered the disbanding of the Army, stating that "standing armies in time of peace are inconsistent with the principles of republican government, dangerous to the liberties of a free people, and generally converted into destructive engines for establishing despotism." While most of the Army was disbanded, Congress kept a caretaker force of eighty artillerymen. The following day, however, Congress authorized the raising of 700 men to form a regiment of eight companies of infantry and two companies of artillery, primarily to man western frontier posts. This regiment became known as the First American Regiment (the present day 3d Infantry Regiment, "The Old Guard," traces its lineage to the First American Regiment).

During the 1780s, apart from a few domestic disturbances such as Shay's rebellion in 1786, the primary threat to American security and to settlers attempting to establish new homesteads west of the Alleghenies were Indians. The Indians, including Miamis, Shawnees, and warriors from other tribes, did have assistance in the form of British agents from Canada, who encouraged the Indians to attack American settlers. Some British officials even hoped to establish an "independent" Indian state between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes, a state that would actually be a British puppet state. Furthermore, British troops still occupied several forts in the Northwest Territory they deemed essential to the fur trade, in violation of the treaty that officially ended the war with Britain.

In an attempt to crush the Indians attacking American settlers, the federal government, under the direction of President George Washington, ordered military expeditions into what is now Ohio. The first of these expeditions, led by BG Josiah Harmar, consisted of an expanded First American Regiment and 1, 500 militiamen from Kentucky and Pennsylvania. Setting off from Fort Washington, near present day Cincinnati, Harmar's force headed north towards the Miami Villages. Almost immediately, Harmar ran into problems, especially with supplies and integrating the militia into his force. Furthermore, while deep in Indian territory, Harmar divided his column, significantly weakening his army. The Indians, led by the Miami's Little Turtle, attacked Harmar's troops on 19 and 22 October at the confluence of the St. Mary and St. Joseph Rivers and inflicted heavy casualties on Harmar's militia and regulars. Harmar was forced to retreat back to Fort Washington, and the rout of Harmar's expedition only served to embolden the Indian warriors.

Another expedition was organized to march into the Northwest Territory to once again deal with the threat posed by MG Arthur St. Clair, the governor of the Northwest Territory and veteran of the Continental Army. In addition to the First American Regiment, a second regiment of infantry had been raised and would accompany the expedition. Kentucky militiamen and a few cavalrymen brought St. Clair's army up to approximately 1,400 men. St. Clair, who was ill and not really fit to command the force, began marching his army north from Fort Washington on 17 September 1791. The march progressed slowly - by November, the expedition was only ninety miles from where it started. St. Clair weakened his force by detaching the First Regiment to find his overdue supply train. On 4 November, Indians led by Little Turtle surprised and attacked the expedition along the upper Wabash River. In the ensuing battle, St. Clair's force was completely routed. The Indians slaughtered over 600 men, along with a large number of civilians accompanying the expedition. The wounded left on the battlefield were mercilessly scalped by the Indians. St. Clair ordered a full retreat and the remaining troops limped back to Fort Washington.

St. Clair's defeat demonstrated that major reforms were required if there was any hope of making the Army an effective fighting force against the Indians, or any other potential enemy of the young republic. Moreover, the Army needed a commander who could lead the Army and end the devastating string of defeats it had experienced at the hands of the Indians.

Congress agreed to a reorganization of the Army. As far back as 1784, MG Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who had done much to train the Continental Army, had advocated a legion form of organization. On 5 March 1792, Congress approved the reorganization of the Army as the Legion of the United States. The Army would be divided into four sublegions of 1,280 men, each commanded by a brigadier general and comprised of two battalions of infantry, one battalion of riflemen, one company of artillery, and one company of dragoons. It was believed that this reorganization would provide better tactical flexibility on the battlefield. Referring to the Army as the "Legion" also had a sentimental purpose, as the leaders of the young American republic often drew parallels to the Roman Republic.

To lead the reorganized Army, President Washington and Secretary of War Henry Knox examined several candidates, including Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee and Daniel Morgan, but it soon became clear there was only one obvious choice: Anthony Wayne. On the same day the Army reorganization was approved, Wayne was promoted to major general and named commanding general of the Legion of the United States.

As commander of the U.S. Army, in the form of the Legion, Wayne was provided significant time to train the soldiers under his command and put his personal stamp on the Army. For nearly two years, American delegates attempted to negotiate with the Indians, all to to no avail. Once again, American troops would have to face hostile Indians. This time, however, they would be ready for the task at hand.

Originally, Wayne began training the Legion at Fort Fayette, near the frontier town of Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh, however, like many frontier towns of the period, thrived with vice-Wayne called it "a frontier Gomorah." He therefore moved his troops twenty-two miles down the Ohio to a place he named Legionville. At this site, Wayne implemented a rigorous training program for the Legion.

At Legionville, Wayne instilled discipline in his inexperienced troops. Secretary Knox had stated that "another conflict with raw recruits is to be avoided at all means." Wayne needed little encouragement. He immediately provided all of his officers down to company-level with copies of von Steuben's Blue Book drill manual and instructed them to use it until the Legion was familiar with close-order drill, which hopefully would prevent the troops from breaking and running on the battlefield. He instructed the men on the art of field fortifications; the troops learned to build redoubts and abatis to protect their encampments. The troops of the Legion learned to handle their muskets and use bayonets. Even more important, Wayne stressed the importance of individual marksmanship, something that Army had neglected because of the high cost of powder. In an attempt to increase esprit de corps, Wayne decided to give each sublegion distinctive colors for cap ornaments and uniform facings: white for the First Sublegion, red for the Second, yellow for the Third, and green for the Fourth. With the Legion trained, Wayne loaded his forces and floated them down the Ohio to Cincinnati and Fort Washington.

Wayne then received some disheartening news. Secretary Knox informed him that recruitments lagged, forcing him to round his forces with Kentucky militia. Wayne, like many regulars, had little confidence in militia. On a personal note, he also received news that his wife had died.

With his force near full strength, he marched north and established a new encampment, Fort Greene, named for Nathanael Greene. On 25 December 1793, an advance party arrived at the scene where St. Clair's force had been massacred. They found a horrifying scene as hundreds of skeletons lay scattered about. On the site, Wayne's forces established a new post, Fort Recovery, where some troops stayed for the winter, while the rest remained encamped at Fort Greene.

By the spring of 1794, the Legion was ready to move. Reinforced by over 1,000 mounted Kentucky militia under the command of BG Charles Scott, Wayne advanced north, stopping to establish a string of forts along the way, including Fort Defiance, Fort Adams, and Fort Deposit.

By August 1794, Wayne and the Legion had reached northwestern Ohio and the Maumee River, the stronghold of Indian forces and close to Fort Miamis, a British held fort in violation of the Treaty of Paris.

Indian warriors, however, were waiting, ready to inflict another devastating defeat on invading troops. The Indians, under the overall command of Shawnee Chief Blue Jacket, hoped to ambush Wayne's force at a site near present-day Toledo. The site was a clearing formed when a tornado years before had toppled hundreds of trees. This place, known as Fallen Timbers, presented excellent defensive positions that would not offer clear fields of fire for the attackers.

Despite this, Wayne's forces were much better trained than those that had fought the Indians in years past. In addition, Wayne had excellent scouts, which would prevent any likelihood of an ambush.

On the morning of 20 August, the Legion approached Falling Timbers. Wayne divided his infantry into two wings, the right commanded by BG James Wilkinson, the other by COL John Hamtramck. A brigade of mounted Kentuckians guarded the open left flank, while the Legion's cavalry secured the right along the Maumee. Scott's remaining forces formed a reserve.

The vanguard of the Legion came under fire around 0900. After some initial confusion, Wilkinson regained control of the situation. Wayne then rode forward, his eyes flashing. He correctly determined the strength of the enemy and their positions, and quickly saw that mounted troops would be largely ineffective on the battlefield. Under fire and in intense pain from gout, he immediately ordered his infantry to charge with bayonets to flush the Indians out of their positions, where they could be cut down by musket fire. Unused to a well disciplined enemy, the Indians, who expected to be the ones charging, broke and ran towards Fort Miamis. The Indians fled so fast that mounted troops on the flanks had difficulty catching them. Nonetheless, dragoons from the Legion charged headlong at the log barriers like jockeys at a steeplechase, cutting down the Indian warriors with their sabers. The dragoons' charge completed the rout.

The battle lasted less than an hour and proved decisive. Wayne lost less than forty killed and approximately 100 wounded. The British at Fort Miamis refused to admit their allies, and the British garrison made all efforts not to provoke a war with the Americans Wayne then destroyed Indian villages and crops nearby.

Within three months, the United States signed a treaty with Britain that pledged their evacuation from the Northwest Territory forts by 1796. The following year, Wayne negotiated the Treaty of Greenville with the Indians, effectively opening Ohio to American settlers.

None of this would have been possible without Wayne's victory at Fallen Timbers. Never has such a brief battle proved as decisive in American military history. Wayne had achieved success where two other American generals had been soundly defeated. Through rigorous training, discipline, and personal leadership, Wayne led the Army of the early American republic to its first major military victory and, according to military historian Russell F. Weigley, Wayne can lay claim "to be called the Father of the Regular Army."

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The Campaign for the National Museum of the United States Army

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The Battle of Fallen Timbers, 20 August 1794 - The Campaign for the National Museum of the United States Army

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By Matthew Seelinger, Chief Historian In the days of the early Republic, the U.S. Army suffered some of its most devastating defeats in its history. While the Continental Army of the War for Independence fared well against the European style of tactics employed by the British redcoats, particularly later in the war, the Indian warriors ...

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In the United States Army, British Armed Forces, Australian Defence Force, New Zealand Defence Force, and Canadian Armed Forces, military personnel will become " AWOL" (; U.S.A. and Canada: absence without leave) or " AWL" (U.K. and Australia: absent without leave)[citation needed ] if absent from their post without a valid pass, liberty or leave.

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Isaac Wayne (1699-1774) | WikiTree FREE Family Tree

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Is this your ancestor? Compare DNA and explore genealogy for Isaac Wayne born 1699 Ireland died 1774 including parents + descendants + DNA connections + more in the free family tree community.

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The Ohio History Connection reconstructed the fort in the 1970s, and most recently in 2003. Today, Fort Meigs is the largest reconstructed, wooden-walled fort in the United States and is a National Historic Landmark. The seven blockhouses, five artillery batteries and numerous earthworks appear much as they did during the summer of 1813.

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A first edition of "The Star-Spangled Banner." Credit Credit Clements Library/University of Michigan

When the baritone Thomas Hampson sings "The Star-Spangled Banner" at the Library of Congress in Washington on Thursday, it won't sound quite like the familiar tune belted out at ball games and presidential inaugurations.

A sprightly lilt will replace the usual slow waltz. A jaunty pickup will substitute for the stately descent of "O say." The last two lines of each verse will be echoed by a septet of singers.

In short, it is how the anthem might have sounded 200 years ago, when Francis Scott Key wrote new lyrics to an old British melody aboard a ship in Baltimore's harbor.

"Key wouldn't really recognize what we sing today," said the musicologist Mark Clague in a joint Skype interview with Mr. Hampson. "It's missing a phrase of music, it's at the wrong tempo, it's much slower, it's sung by a massed group of people instead of an individual soloist," he added. A professor at the University of Michigan, Dr. Clague would know: He heads Star Spangled Music, an initiative celebrating the anthem's bicentennial. While the actual anniversary is Sept. 14, Mr. Hampson's recital allows for a Fourth of July tie-in.

"I hope that we can be part of something this year that reinvigorates a real connection to where this song came from, other than the obligatory tune that one sings before somebody throws a pitch," Mr. Hampson said.

There was nothing obligatory about the early history of "The Star-Spangled Banner." Behind Key's words lay a melody - the so-called Anacreontic Song - endlessly adaptable to the causes of its day, from the French Revolution to abolition to temperance and women's rights. Only in the last century has the anthem's tune become inextricably connected to Key's lyrics, and the lyrics to the sturdy patriotism of baseball and flag raising.

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The baritone Thomas Hampson, who will sing the anthem at the Library of Congress this week. Credit Ruby Washington/The New York Times

The early struggle over the tune's meaning will be captured in Mr. Hampson's recital. "We will really tell the story of this song becoming so emblematic and, then eventually, officially, our national anthem, through its own story - its own broadsides, its own lyrics," he said.

For those unable to attend, that tale is audible on "Poets & Patriots," a CD set that includes nearly 30 versions of the Anacreontic Song. There is also a forthcoming Star Spangled Songbook, with scores ready for performance. (New Yorkers can hear one of them, a Toscanini arrangement of the anthem, at the New York Philharmonic's Star-Spangled Celebration concerts at Avery Fisher Hall next weekend.)

Star Spangled Music mainly focuses on K-12 educational projects teaching the history of the anthem. But it also tries to correct popular misconceptions - like the widespread assumption that the tune originated as a drinking song.

"To Anacreon in Heaven," as the melody was first known, had its debut around 1776 at a meeting of the Anacreontic Society, an amateur gentlemen's music club in London. The song served as an after-dinner transition between a professional orchestral concert and participatory group singing. The society's president wrote the original lyrics, an ode to the jovial Greek poet Anacreon. A trained tenor would perform the tune as a virtuoso set piece, with the conclusion of each refrain repeated heartily by the society's members.

"It's not a drinking song in the way its reputation would lead people to believe, in the sense of a pub ditty," Dr. Clague said. "You had to have a harpsichord and four-part harmony, so it just doesn't work very well in a pub."

Its alcoholic repute was in part due to moralistic protests against the tune during the Prohibition era, when Congress was deciding whether to make it the official national anthem. Battling over the meaning of "The Star-Spangled Banner" is an essential - if overlooked - part of the song's tradition.

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A portrait of Francis Scott Key. Credit Associated Press

The Anacreontic Song was well known in the early American republic - most famously as "Adams and Liberty," an impassioned defense of the second president. In 1793, an American Francophile published a new text for the song supporting the French Revolution; another writer countered with a version that suggested hanging the French ambassador.

Key was familiar with the tune before he wrote the "Star-Spangled" verses, having already refashioned it as a paean to American naval heroics in 1805. Nine years later, stuck on a ship after negotiating the release of a prisoner, Key watched the British overnight siege of Baltimore during the War of 1812. When he saw the American flag still waving at dawn - an improbable victory - Key penned the stirring "Defense of Fort M'Henry," with a rhyme scheme matched to the Anacreontic Song.

Within a week, the lyrics were printed in Baltimore newspapers, with an indication that they be paired to the familiar British melody. Key supervised a full musical arrangement by the composer and publisher Thomas Carr - issued as "The Star-Spangled Banner" - which Mr. Hampson will sing on Thursday.

About a dozen copies of the Carr arrangement are known to exist. One is on display at the Morgan Library & Museum in Manhattan through Sept. 7. Another is held by the Library of Congress, an institution entwined with the history of the anthem, which has an exhibition about the song running through July 7. "In many ways the story of the research into 'The Star-Spangled Banner' is the story of the music division of the Library of Congress," Dr. Clague said.

In 1907, Oscar Sonneck - the music division's first chief - began a full investigation of the anthem's history. His scrupulous report raised as many questions about the song's history as it answered: Sonneck urged his readers not to "accept a single statement of fact or argument unless the evidence submitted compels him to do so."

Sonneck couldn't conclusively identify the composer of the Anacreontic Song, then a musicological riddle. A later congressional librarian believed it was a military tune of obscure origins; others attributed it to Samuel Arnold, who had published a volume of Anacreontic melodies. Only in the 1970s did the librarian William Lichtenwanger - following the chance discovery of a diary entry hidden in a 10-volume manuscript - successfully attribute the tune to the composer John Stafford Smith, a hired hand who never actually joined the Anacreontic Society.

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The soprano Renée Fleming singing it before Super Bowl XLVIII in February. Credit Barton Silverman/The New York Times

Perhaps more intriguing than the song's origin, though, is its multifaceted and contentious American development. "It's really sort of an amazing story of how the song has grown up alongside the country: You can really trace the history of the United States in the echoes of 'The Star-Spangled Banner,' " Dr. Clague said.

Not until 1931 was it officially declared the national anthem. In the 19th century, the tune was regularly refashioned with lyrics to be, alternately, a rallying cry for abolitionists ("Oh, say do you hear, at the dawn's early light, The shrieks of those bondmen, whose blood is now streaming") or a temperance-movement indictment of alcohol ("Oh! who has not seen by the dawn's early light, Some poor bloated drunkard to his home weakly reeling").

"What is fascinating is just to revisit the use of text and words - how much information about social issues is being communicated in the text that wandered with the same melody but through different mutations and given different contexts," Mr. Hampson said. "Quite frankly, the issues fall under what we would call human rights."

Despite its initial wave of popularity, for several decades "The Star-Spangled Banner" ranked third behind "Hail Columbia" and "Yankee Doodle" as the default musical expression of national fervor. In the early days of the Civil War, the North and South both claimed the anthem - Key was, after all, a Maryland slave owner. Only during Reconstruction did it emerge as the predominant American hymn, entrenched by its association with flag-raising ceremonies practiced during the war.

Complaints about the tune have remained mostly the same since that era - it's foreign, it's hard to sing, the words are not easy to remember. But even if the highest notes on "land of the free" are difficult to reach, the anthem's hot-blooded history elevates it to the level of American iconography - a reminder that partisanship is crucial to democracy. For Dr. Clague, it is a testament that "the song is a verb, and citizenship is a verb, and that these are part of a process of identity negotiation."

"When people sing it, and when they put their whole heart and passion behind the song, they give voice to their own citizenship in a way that speaks of their vision of the country," Dr. Clague said. If diva performances of the anthem by Beyoncé or Renée Fleming don't quite embrace that ethos of national introspection, perhaps resurrecting the tune's original multiplicity of meanings might.

Dr. Clague and Mr. Hampson, however, don't want to overturn today's patriotic conventions. "I actually very much like our crazy tradition of the last 25 or 30 years of various genius contemporary pop musicians taking this tune and this moment, and turning it into something uniquely theirs at different events," Mr. Hampson said. "I'm actually very amused and sometimes deeply moved."

And among other research interests, Dr. Clague has long been fascinated by Jimi Hendrix's famously unorthodox 1969 Woodstock rendition. "When you see the song as something that's in the process of always becoming," he said, "you realize that it is our country - made audible."

Correction:

An article last Sunday about the history of "The Star-Spangled Banner" misstated the opening tempo for a version of the song planned by the baritone Thomas Hampson. A jaunty one-beat pickup will substitute for the stately descent of "O say" - not a two-beat pickup.

A version of this article appears in print on , on Page AR10 of the New York edition with the headline: How the National Anthem Has Unfurled. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe

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When the baritone Thomas Hampson sings "The Star-Spangled Banner" at the Library of Congress in Washington on Thursday, it won't sound quite like the familiar tune belted out at ball games and presidential inaugurations. A sprightly lilt will replace the usual slow waltz. A jaunty pickup will substitute for the stately descent of "O say."

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Check out this site info on the Northwest Ordinance. The Origin of the Territories and the Northwest Ordinance. Congress and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787.

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For the next year, Wayne stayed at Fort Greene Ville, negotiating a treaty with Ohio's American Indians. After their disastrous defeat at Fallen Timbers, American Indians realized that they were at a serious disadvantage with the settlers because of Britain's refusal to support them and the settlers steadily encroaching on their land.

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1. Francis Scott Key intended his verses to be song lyrics, not poetry.
"The Star Spangled-Banner" was not a poem set to a melody years later. Although Key was an amateur poet and not a songwriter, when he composed his verses, he intended them to accompany a popular song of the day. "We know he had the tune in mind because the rhyme and meter exactly fit it," says Marc Leepson, author of the new Key biography "What So Proudly We Hailed." The first broadside of the verses, printed just days after the battle, noted that the words should be sung to the melody of "To Anacreon in Heaven." Key was quite familiar with the tune, having used it to accompany an 1805 poem, which included a reference to a "star-spangled flag," he had written to honor Barbary War naval heroes Stephen Decatur and Charles Stewart.

Although Key composed the patriotic lyrics amid a burst of anti-British euphoria, "To Anacreon in Heaven" was ironically an English song composed in 1775 that served as the theme song of the upper-crust Anacreontic Society of London and a popular pub staple.

2. Key was not imprisoned on a British warship when he penned his verses.
In his capacity as a Washington, D.C., lawyer, Key had been dispatched by President James Madison on a mission to Baltimore to negotiate for the release of Dr. William Beanes, a prominent surgeon captured at the Battle of Bladensburg. Accompanied by John Stuart Skinner, a fellow lawyer working for the State Department, Key set sail on an American sloop in Baltimore Harbor, and on September 7 the pair boarded the British ship Tonnant, where they dined and secured the prisoner's release under one condition-they could not go ashore until after the British attacked Baltimore. Accompanied by British guards on September 10, Key returned to the American sloop from which he witnessed the bombardment behind the 50-ship British fleet.

3. The flag Key "hailed at the twilight's last gleaming" did not fly "through the perilous fight."
In addition to a thunderstorm of bombs, a torrent of rain fell on Fort McHenry throughout the night of the Battle of Baltimore. The fort's 30-by-42-foot garrison flag was so massive that it required 11 men to hoist when dry, and if waterlogged the woolen banner could have weighed upwards of 500 pounds and snapped the flagpole. So as the rain poured down, a smaller storm flag that measured 17-by-25 feet flew in its place. "In the morning they most likely took down the rain-soaked storm flag and hoisted the bigger one," Leepson says, "and that's the flag Key saw in the morning."

4. The song was not originally entitled "The Star-Spangled Banner."
When Key scrawled his lyrics on the back of a letter he pulled from his pocket on the morning of September 14, he did not give them any title. Within a week, Key's verses were printed on broadsides and in Baltimore newspapers under the title "Defence of Fort M'Henry." In November, a Baltimore music store printed the patriotic song with sheet music for the first time under the more lyrical title "The Star-Spangled Banner."

5. It did not become the national anthem until more than a century after it was written.
Along with "Hail Columbia" and "Yankee Doodle," "The Star-Spangled Banner" was among the prevalent patriotic airs in the aftermath of the War of 1812. During the Civil War, "The Star-Spangled Banner" was an anthem for Union troops, and the song increased in popularity in the ensuing decades, which led to President Woodrow Wilson signing an executive order in 1916 designating it as "the national anthem of the United States" for all military ceremonies. On March 3, 1931, after 40 previous attempts failed, a measure passed Congress and was signed into law that formally designated "The Star-Spangled Banner" as the national anthem of the United States.

6. The national anthem has four verses.
The version of "The Star-Spangled Banner" traditionally sung on patriotic occasions and at sporting events is only the song's first verse. All four verses conclude with the same line: "O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave." (In 1861, poet Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote a fifth verse to support the Union cause in the Civil War and denounce "the traitor that dares to defile the flag of her stars.")

7. Key opposed American entry into the War of 1812.
Ironically, the man who created one of the lasting patriotic legacies of the War of 1812 adamantly opposed the conflict at its outset. Key referred to the war as "abominable" and "a lump of wickedness." However, his opposition to the war softened after the British began to raid nearby Chesapeake Bay communities in 1813 and 1814, and he briefly served in a Georgetown wartime militia.

8. Key was a consummate Washington insider.
Although Key loathed politics, he was a prominent figure in Washington, D.C. "He was an important player in the early republic," Leepson says. "He was a very successful and influential lawyer at the highest levels in Washington." Key ran a thriving law practice, served as a trusted advisor in Andrew Jackson's "Kitchen Cabinet" and was appointed a United States Attorney in 1833. He prosecuted hundreds of cases, including that of Richard Lawrence for the attempted assassination of Jackson, and argued over 100 cases before the United States Supreme Court.

9. Key was a one-hit wonder who might have been tone deaf.
Key was much more adept in his legal day job than he was as an amateur poet. Most of the odes he composed were never meant to be seen beyond family and friends, and none came remotely close to realizing the popular fame of "The Star-Spangled Banner." In addition to being a middling poet, Key also had a hard time carrying a tune. "Key's family said he was not musical," Leepson says, "which means he likely was tone deaf."

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9 Things You May Not Know About "The Star-Spangled Banner"

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1. Francis Scott Key intended his verses to be song lyrics, not poetry. "The Star Spangled-Banner" was not a poem set to a melody years later. Although Key was an amateur poet and not a songwriter, when he composed his verses, he intended them to accompany a popular song of the day.

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Fort Meigs: Ohio's War of 1812 Battlefield

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Fort Meigs, the largest reconstructed wooden-walled fort in the nation, was originally built to defend the Ohio country from British invasion during the War of 1812. Today the reconstructed fort and museum stand to tell the story of this pivotal time in America's history.

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War of 1812
Spies and Deserters

Submitted by Nancy Piper

WAR OF 1812 - SPIES The Centinel, Gettysburg, Pa , March 25, 1812
Congress - House of Representatives
Monday, March 9, 1812

The following message was received from the President of the U. States

To the Senate and House of Representatives.

I lay before Congress copies of certain documents which remain in the department of state. They prove that at a recent period, whilst the U. States, notwithstanding the wrong sustained by them, ceased not to observe the laws of peace and neutrality towards G. Britain; and in the midst of amicable professions and negotiations on the part of the British government, through her public minister here, a secret agent of that government was employed in certain states, more especially at the seat of government (Boston) in Massachusetts, in fermenting disaffection to the constituted authorities of the nation, and in intrigues with the disaffected, for the purpose of bringing about resistance to the laws; and eventually in concert with a British force, of destroying the Union and forming the Eastern part thereof into a political connection with G. Britain.

In addition to the effect which the discovery of such a procedure ought to have on the public councils, it will not fail to render more dear to the hearts of all good citizens that happy union of these states, which under Divine Providence, is the guarantee of their liberties, their safety, their tranquility and their prosperity.

James Madison

The Centinel, Gettysburg, Pa , March 25, 1812 March 9th, 1812
A great variety of letters accompanied the message, from which it appeared, if full credit be given, to a certain John Henry, on the 20th of February last to Mr. Monroe, that he was in Montreal in the winter of 1809, and was appointed by Sir James Craig, then Governor of Canada, a secret agent to reside in the Eastern States and make regular communications to the Governor of Canada, of the state of parties there, of the proceedings of the legislature, of the sentiments of the leading federalists, &c. &c. to use his endeavors to bring about, (should such a measure on account of the oppressive operation of the embargo be contemplated) a separation of the union.

Henry proceeded through Vermont and a part of New Hampshire to Boston, from which place he writes many letters to the Governor dated in March, April and May, giving a history of proceedings and stating the sentiments of the people. Though authorized by the governor to show his credentials, should a separation be expected and the assistance of the British wished, he does not show them to anyone, not finding any who were desirous of disunion, if it could possibly be prevented; and if commerce should continue to be oppressed to such a degree that a separation should ever be agitated, they would never need or would receive the assistance of the British or any other government.

In the course of the correspondence there are very many most bitter and sarcastic reflections on the government of American and on the democratic party.

Henry states that he was promised to be duly rewarded. Sir James not rendering him any satisfaction, he applied to the British Ministry for the office of Judge Advocate for Lower Canada, worth 500 pounds sterling per annum, or for a consulate. No office or reward being given him he has at length concluded on turning patriot and to expose to this government his and their turpitude and thus obtain revenge.

The reading occupied nearly an hour and a half. A motion was made to print the message and documents. Mr. Pitkin had no objection to the printing if the house chose to do so but he should not suppose they were willing to print all the lies and libels of this traitor or to have their character to go to the world with such a sanction.

Mr. Bibb moved that they be referred to the committee of foreign relations.

Mr. Gholson observed that the correspondence was highly creditable to the Eastern section of the union as Henry declared no one there would meddle with such a project; though it demonstrates the wish of the British to dismember the union.

Mr. Quincy thanked God that if there is or ever was in Great Britain a belief that we are desirous of a separation or that any part of the people would at any time took to them, the fallacy of that belief is now proved. Henry, it appears, during the time of the embargo, a period if any, auspicious to their purpose went to Boston, the spot where opposition was supposed most violent, yet he dare not even mention to any man of distinction such a project.

Mr. Rhea moved to print 5000 copies. Mr. Wright thought it would disgust the people of the northern states to give by printing, the sanction of the house to a traitor's libels. He would rather refer them to the committee of foreign relations.

Mr. Troup said an acknowledged spy and traitor has been engaged in a fruitless attempt to separate the union. The only importance is an obtainment of the disposition of the British; of this same James Craig who we were told a short time since was so friendly in preventing the Indians from quarrelling with us.

Mr. Randolph said that if worthy of communication; they were worthy being acted upon. He hoped they would be referred and that the committee might be authorized to send for persons, papers and effects. Perhaps it would be well to take Henry, on all hand acknowledged a traitor and spy, (yet from whom perhaps valuable information might be received,) before he can have a chance to run away.

Mr. Fisk said he knew the man. There was no danger of his running away. He was an Englishman by birth but had been long in this country; was an officer in the provisional army of '98.

Mr. Bacon wished the documents referred to the committee of foreign relations. For his part he never had any kind of belief that the Federalists as a party has any intention of joining or being directed by the British; nor the democrats by France. He knew of no greater crime that to send those messengers of hell to disturb our peace, our union, dear as that of man and wife.

The vote after further debate was taken on the motion to print and carried unanimously.

The motion to refer them to the committee of foreign relations was also carried unanimously.

The motion to print 5000 copies was carried almost unanimously.

The motion to authorize the committee to send for persons, papers and effects was decided by ayes and noes, ayes 102, noes 10.

The house then adjourned. The committee of foreign relations immediately met.

The Centinel, Gettysburg, Pa , March 25, 1812 John Henry, The British Spy
On the very day that Henry communicated to government his plot, Congress passed a law placing one hundred thousand dollars of secret service money in the hands of the President. From the following extract, from the Federal Republican, it appears highly probably that Mr. Henry had already handled nearly one half of this money.

"When Mr. Henry passed through Baltimore on his way to Washington, he had little or no money but received 100 dollars from his correspondent in New York. He remained upwards of a week at Washington and in the neighborhood. On his return to Baltimore he called with a friend at a Bank in this city and produced a certificate from an officer of the Bank at Washington that forty-eight thousand dollars had been deposited in said bank to his credit. On this certificate, the Cashier of the Baltimore Bank gave him drafts, &c. on a Bank in New York where Mr. Henry's business lay and whence he informed his acquaintances here he was to sail for Europe in the Wasp. - Fed. Rep.

The Centinel, Gettysburg, Pa , March 25, 1812 Washington, March 10
The committee of Foreign Relations sat last evening and had Mr. Monroe before them. They intended immediately to send for Henry but Mr. Monroe told them the administration was pledged not to molest him. He was here last week. Notwithstanding his letter of Feb. 20th is dated at Philadelphia, it is not doubted but that it was written. Mr. Madison, Mr. Monroe and Mr. Henry know how and where.

The Centinel, Gettysburg, Pa , JULY 8, 1812 Norfolk, June 24, 1812
A stranger by the name of Wilkinson, arrived in town last week and put up at the British consul's. He was understood to be a British officer, though he was habited as a private gentleman. No notice, however, was taken of the circumstance, until after the declaration of war was received on Monday last, when the mail boat was about to depart for Hampton, he was observed making his way with uncommon speed and circumspection along the back street which leads from the British consul's to the wharf where the mail boat lay, when he sprang on board, darted into the cabin and in a few seconds the boat was under way. This precipitate retreat awakened a suspicion in some of our leading citizens that Wilkinson would lose no time in communicating the news of the declaration to a British man of war, known to be hovering on our coast. A boat from the navy yard, and another from Fort Nelson were as soon as possible dispatched after the mail boat, which they overtook, when Mr. Wilkinson was taken and conducted to the navy yard, where he will be detained as a prisoner under further orders. We understand he is a captain in the royal marines.

The Centinel (Gettysburg, Pennsylvania), November 4, 1812
Plattsburgh, Oct. 16.
Yesterday William Henman, a soldier of the 15th United States' regiment, in pursuance of the sentence of a Court Martial, was shot. His crime was desertion with intent to go over to the enemy. Another soldier of that regiment, who deserted at the same time, was brought out for execution, but pardoned by Gen. Bloomfield; it having appeared that he was enticed away by Henman.

The Centinel (Gettysburg, Pennsylvania), December 23, 1812
A young man from Fort Defiance, says the Cincinnati Spy, passed through this place a few days ago, who informed us that Logan, the Indian chief, with two other Indians (when out as spies) fell in with another party of 8 Indians, about 20 miles below Defiance. Logan's party treed, fired and each killed an Indian. Logan, in attempting to take the scalps was shot through the body, and one of his companions through the hips. They all three however got into Defiance. Logan's wound is pronounced mortal. Should it prove so, we shall in him sustain a great loss. Gen. Winchester still remained at the rapids.

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War of 1812 Spies and Deserters Submitted by Nancy Piper WAR OF 1812 - SPIES The Centinel, Gettysburg, Pa , March 25, 1812 Congress - House of Representatives Monday, March 9, 1812 The following message was received from the President of the U. States To the Senate and House of Representatives.

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Little Turtle | Mishikinakwa | Miami Leader

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Little Turtle was destined to become the greatest of all the Miami Chiefs. For many years, Little Turtle fought bitterly against the encroachment of Indian lands. Yet with the increasingly high loss of life among the Native Americans, Little Turtle changed his position with the Americans.

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Since the French Revolution, conscription or the Draft has been how countries have found additional manpower for their armed forces in modern times.

Prior to this Britain practiced a cruel but effective way of combating the manpower shortage in their navy: impressment.

Impressment, or "press gang" as it was more commonly known, was recruitment by force. It was a practice that directly affected the U.S. and was even one of the causes of the War of 1812.

The British navy consistently suffered manpower shortages due to the low pay and a lack of qualified seamen. During wartime the navy forced unwilling individuals into service. Residents of seaports lived in fear of the press gangs that patrolled waterfronts and raided taverns, pouncing on deserters and idle mariners. Prints from the time show armed gangs kidnapping men in their beds, or barging into weddings and hauling the groom out much to the distress of the bride.

But generally "pressing" took place at sea where the armed gangs would board merchant ships. These ships were ransacked of their men and often left without sufficient hands to take them safely into port.

Impressment was first made lawful during Elizabethan times, though it had been a common practice of drafting soldiers dating back to the 13th century. In 1563 Queen Elizabeth passed "an Act touching politick considerations for the maintenance of the Navy" which defined more clearly the liability of sailors who may be forced to serve as mariners.

The legalization was taken further in 1597 when the Vagrancy Act was passed, which now allowed for men of disrepute to be impressed for service in the fleet.

While essential for the strength of the British Navy, the brutal nature of impressment was deeply unpopular. Many viewed it as an inhumane and unconstitutional system.

In the 18th century a raft of legislation was introduced aimed at moderating the practice. A 1740 act declared that all men under 18 and over 55 and foreigners who served on British ships were declared exempt from enforced service.

In reality, however, these laws were ignored and impressment of foreigners was commonplace. In fact, only 40-years later the exemptions from impressment were withdrawn, so desperate was the British Navy for seamen.

American merchant vessels were a common target. Between 1793 and 1812, the British impressed more than 15,000 U.S. sailors to supplement their fleet during their Napoleonic Wars with France. By 1812 the United States Government had had enough. On 18 June, the United States declared war on Great Britain, citing, in part, impressment.

After the Napoleonic Wars impressment was ended in practice, though not officially abandoned as a policy. The last law was passed in 1835, in which the power to impress was reaffirmed. It limited the length of service of a pressed man to five years, and added the provision that a man couldn't be pressed twice.

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British Navy Impressment | History Detectives | PBS

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Since the French Revolution, conscription or the Draft has been how countries have found additional manpower for their armed forces in modern times. Prior to this Britain practiced a cruel but effective way of combating the manpower shortage in their navy: impressment. Impressment, or "press gang" as it was more commonly known, was recruitment by force.

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Andrew Jackson was the seventh President of the United States from 1829 to 1837, seeking to act as the direct representative of the common man.

More nearly than any of his predecessors, Andrew Jackson was elected by popular vote; as President he sought to act as the direct representative of the common man.

Born in a backwoods settlement in the Carolinas in 1767, he received sporadic education. But in his late teens he read law for about two years, and he became an outstanding young lawyer in Tennessee. Fiercely jealous of his honor, he engaged in brawls, and in a duel killed a man who cast an unjustified slur on his wife Rachel.

Jackson prospered sufficiently to buy slaves and to build a mansion, the Hermitage, near Nashville. He was the first man elected from Tennessee to the House of Representatives, and he served briefly in the Senate. A major general in the War of 1812, Jackson became a national hero when he defeated the British at New Orleans.

In 1824 some state political factions rallied around Jackson; by 1828 enough had joined "Old Hickory" to win numerous state elections and control of the Federal administration in Washington.

In his first Annual Message to Congress, Jackson recommended eliminating the Electoral College. He also tried to democratize Federal officeholding. Already state machines were being built on patronage, and a New York Senator openly proclaimed "that to the victors belong the spoils. . . . "

Jackson took a milder view. Decrying officeholders who seemed to enjoy life tenure, he believed Government duties could be "so plain and simple" that offices should rotate among deserving applicants.

As national politics polarized around Jackson and his opposition, two parties grew out of the old Republican Party-the Democratic Republicans, or Democrats, adhering to Jackson; and the National Republicans, or Whigs, opposing him.

Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and other Whig leaders proclaimed themselves defenders of popular liberties against the usurpation of Jackson. Hostile cartoonists portrayed him as King Andrew I.

Behind their accusations lay the fact that Jackson, unlike previous Presidents, did not defer to Congress in policy-making but used his power of the veto and his party leadership to assume command.

The greatest party battle centered around the Second Bank of the United States, a private corporation but virtually a Government-sponsored monopoly. When Jackson appeared hostile toward it, the Bank threw its power against him.

Clay and Webster, who had acted as attorneys for the Bank, led the fight for its recharter in Congress. "The bank," Jackson told Martin Van Buren, "is trying to kill me, but I will kill it!" Jackson, in vetoing the recharter bill, charged the Bank with undue economic privilege.

His views won approval from the American electorate; in 1832 he polled more than 56 percent of the popular vote and almost five times as many electoral votes as Clay.

Jackson met head-on the challenge of John C. Calhoun, leader of forces trying to rid themselves of a high protective tariff.

When South Carolina undertook to nullify the tariff, Jackson ordered armed forces to Charleston and privately threatened to hang Calhoun. Violence seemed imminent until Clay negotiated a compromise: tariffs were lowered and South Carolina dropped nullification.

In January of 1832, while the President was dining with friends at the White House, someone whispered to him that the Senate had rejected the nomination of Martin Van Buren as Minister to England. Jackson jumped to his feet and exclaimed, "By the Eternal! I'll smash them!" So he did. His favorite, Van Buren, became Vice President, and succeeded to the Presidency when "Old Hickory" retired to the Hermitage, where he died in June 1845.
The Presidential biographies on WhiteHouse.gov are from "The Presidents of the United States of America," by Frank Freidel and Hugh Sidey. Copyright 2006 by the White House Historical Association.
Learn more about Andrew Jackson's spouse, Rachel Donelson Jackson.

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Andrew Jackson was the seventh President of the United States from 1829 to 1837, seeking to act as the direct representative of the common man. More nearly than any of his predecessors, Andrew Jackson was elected by popular vote; as President he sought to act as the direct representative of the common man.

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USS Constitution History - USS Constitution Museum

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USS Constitution History - USS Constitution Museum

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USS Constitution History - USS Constitution Museum

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A national icon for more than 200 years, Constitution has had a long and illustrious career. Explore her service from the beginning to the present day - and all of the adventures in between! Chronology Explore the major events and life stages of USS Constitution from her construction to present day.

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from Infohio

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a comprehensive suite of e-learning resources designed for all ages and abilities with articles

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A comprehensive suite of e-learning resources designed for all ages and abilities with articles, videos, educator tools, eBooks, research guides and more.

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from Infohio

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War of 1812 - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com

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War of 1812 - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com