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-fossils hold homologies with current organisms
-recent common ancestors for tetrapods

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-similar structures of different species based on a similar structure in a common evolutionary ancestor surface in embryos
-forelimbs with similar patterns(humerus,radius,ulna)

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-similar structures of different species based on a similar structure in a common evolutionary ancestor surface in embryos
-forelimbs with similar patterns(humerus,radius,ulna)

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-changes allele frequencies, not the result of natural or sexual selection

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-DNA breaks off one chromosome, but reattaches with an inverted or flipped orientation

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-alleles immigrate in
increases genetic diversity of the population gaining alleles

-alleles emigrate out
reduces genetic diversity of the population being departed from
-counters genetic drift

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-all organisms are made of cells and are fundamentally alike
-cells share similar components made of molecules called DNA and RNA(all species come from a common ancestor)
-RNA can store information and replicate itself
-Humans : Chimps  98%
-Humans : Bacteria 7%
-Humans : Zebrafish 85%
-Humans: Mustard Seed 15%

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-how populations change over generations
-caused by humans
-selective breeding of domesticated animals and plants
-evolution of farms and crops

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-how populations change over generations
-more advantageous traits predominate in populations
-brings evolutionary adaptations
-responsible for biological diversity

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-DNA breaks off and never reattaches

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-species proliferate and occupy unoccupied niches
-occur quickly , driven by natural selection, and result in new phenotypes/new species
-darwins finches
-competing species and predators offset this

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-point mutation swapping a nucleotide for its complement disrupting nucleotide
-polyploidy

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-trisomy during nondisjunction don't separate during meiosis
aneuploidy

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-DNA is replicated and attached to the original piece of DNA in sequence

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-transduction
bacteriophages infect hosts
-transformation
cell obtains genetic information from its environment
-conjugation
bacteria or single celled organisms are in direct contact

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-random changes in DNA
-introduce new genetic information
POINT MUTATIONS
-substitution(whole codon) addition,deletion
-one or a few nucleotides in sequence
CHROMOSOMAL
-translocations
-deletions
-inversions
-duplications

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-DNA breaks off and joins another chromosome
-

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-changes in DNA on the chromosomal level
-often result in miscarriages

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-mitochondria have 37 genes in a circle
-offspring gain mitochondria from oocytes
-sperm only have mitochondria in tails

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-genes influence seemingly unrelated traits
-from normal and mutated genes
diabetes
cystic fibrosis
sickle cell
color blindness
albinism
-genes affect multiple phenotypic traits

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-genes at a loci interfere with genes at other loci
-genes for black hair color in mice won't be expressed if a -gene for pigment expression isn't there
-BBCC  BBCc will express
BBcc will not express because cc does not cause expression there

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Sometimes Polygenic inheritance happens 

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Sometimes Polygenic inheritance happens 

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-trait determined by interaction of various genes
-human skin color, height, eye color, intelligence
4 genes 4 genes

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-genes aren't dominant or recessive and express   at a loci the genotype blends
-snapdragons will express both genes for fibers, not each fiber having a different gene as in horses

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-some genes are not dominant nor recessive but have their own loci, the phenotype blends
-both genes are expressed in heterozygous individuals
-horses have individual follicles expressing white or red hair, giving a gold blend to our eyes

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-two alleles for one gene exist
-null if more than two exist
-there may be a variety, but humans can only carry two
-human blood type

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Sometimes Sex-linked inheritance happens 

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Sometimes Sex-linked inheritance happens 

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-exception to independent assortment
-traits carried upon X chromosomes express in double recessive females, or single recessive males
*see pedigree
-color blindness
-hemophilia
-anemia
-muscular dystrophy

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-exception to independent assortment
-genes are inherited together& don't separate independently of the alleles of another trait during meiosis, existing on the same gamete
-genes on the same chromosome form "linkage groups"
-genes of different traits are inherited more than predicted beyond the laws of probability
-Parkinson, narcolepsy, and huntington's

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horizontal lines show mating full shades express
vertical lines represent children half shades are carriers

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-inherited traits are studied and traces through several generations to determine how traits are inherited

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-two homozygous parents with alleles for each trait cross

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-F1 generation is 100% heterozygous
-F2 generation is
50% heterozygous
25% homozygous tall
25% homozygous short

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-alleles for traits separate when gametes are formed
-gametes will have one trait from the initial cell
-proven by monohybrid crosses

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homozygous dominant x homozygous recessive
-F1 generation is 100% heterozygous
-F2 generations will give 9:3:3:1

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proved by dihybrid crosses -two parents with two traits for two alleles cross

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Traits transmit independently of each other

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Alleles of one characteristic separate independently of the alleles of another characteristic