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Circuits can be designed in two ways:

1. Series Circuit (goes in a loop)

2. Parallel Circuit (the current has a choice to go to different paths)

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All circuits have four basic parts:

1. A source: provides energy and a supply of electrons for the circuit

2. A conductor: provides a path for current

3. A switching mechanism: to control current flow, turning it on and off, or directing it into different parts of the circuit

4. A load: converts electrical energy into some other form of energy

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The easiest way to increase efficiency in many devices is to reduce friction, as much as possible.

eg. bearings, lubricants

Adding more insulation around an oven reduces the amount of heat escaping through the walls of the oven, so you will need less energy to keep the oven hot.

Improving the insulation in the sides of the refrigerator reduces the amount of heat that transfers into the fridge. You need less energy to keep the fridge cold.

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Consider the many moving parts and points of friction in a combustion engine.

This friction is one cause of energy loss in these engines.

The largest energy losses result from hot exhaust and heat transferred to the cooling system.

ex. Electric motors have few moving parts, creating less friction than a combustion engine.

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Devices that convert electricity to other forms of energy can never be 100% efficient.

Any sort of movement generates a certain amount of thermal energy that is not useful output. Moving parts create friction.

Some energy is lost, or dissipated in a form that is not useful output.

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Devices that have an energy-efficient design are an important consideration for the consumer, because these devices use less electricity.

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Fluorescent lights are about 4x more efficient than incandescent lights.

Hybrid gasoline-electric vehicles are more efficient than gas-powered vehicles.

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How efficient a device is does affect their energy cost and the environment.

For example:

LEDs (light-emitting diode) uses 75% less energy than incandescent.

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The efficiency of a device is the ratio of the useful energy that comes out of a device to the total energy that went.

Calculated as a percentage

Percent efficiency = useful output energy/ input energy x 100

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Law of Conservation of Energy

Fundamental principle that energy cannot be created or destroyed

A lot of the devices we use has a lower output of energy than what is needed to use it.

Usually missing energy is “lost” or dissipated as heat.

Output energy is always less than their input energy

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Kilowatt hours is often used as a unit for energy

Energy calculation is the same but using different units

1 kW = 1000 W

E is now kW

t is counted in hours when using kW

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Energy is the ability to do work

You can use the power rating of a device to determine the amount of energy the device uses (energy consumption)

E = P x t

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Power is the rate at which a device converts energy.

Unit: watt (W)

Named after James Watt

1 W = 1 J/s ( 1 watt = 1 joule/second)

The faster a device converts energy, the greater its power rating.

P = I xV

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1831: Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction.

Alternating current can be generated by moving a conducting wire through a magnetic field.

He connected it to a meter that could detect small electric currents.

Magnetic fields pull and push electrons, creating a current. Metals such as copper and aluminum have electrons that are loosely held.

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Transformers: a current-carrying wire is wrapped around one side of an iron ring called a core. This is the primary coil.

- A secondary coil of wire is wrapped around the other side of the core.

- Current flowing through the primary coil generates an electromagnetic field which induces a current in the secondary coil.

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Some devices are especially built to run on AC and won’t work on DC.

Transformers is a device that changes electricity at one voltage into electricity at a different voltage

Benefit: hardly any energy loss.

Voltage change is necessary because the more efficient way to transmit current over long distances is at a high voltage.

Voltage must be reduced before entering your home.

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The difference between DC and AC electricity is the way the electrons travel in the wire.

Many electrical devices (like light bulbs) only require electrons to move. They don’t care if the electrons flow through the wire in one direction or simply move back and forth

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AC = Alternating current

The direction of electron flow alternates going “forward” and backward” in a circuit about 60x per second.

I.e. household circuits used 120 V AC. The plug-in devices that require DC will have a converter built in to change the AC from the plug in to DC for the device.

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DC = Direct current

Charges flow directly from one terminal (-) to the other terminal (+) in a circuit.

I.e. batteries and cells produce DC

Flash lights, hybrid cards, electric vehicles, and battery operated toys.

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The commutator is a metal ring connector that has a split in it to reverse the current flow.

As the N pole of the armature is attracted to the S pole of the permanent magnet, the commutator reverses the polarity of the armature and changes the N pole to an S pole.

Because two like poles repel, the armature continues to spin.

The commutator reconnects with brushes.

The brushes conduct electricity to the individual segments and they rotate from brush to brush.

This allows the motor to turn in one direction at a determined speed

Without the split ring commutator, the armature would only turn ½ way and lock into place because of the magnetic attraction.

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A strong electromagnet called an armature is made by winding a coil of wire around an iron core.

The armature is positioned between two permanent magnets and turns to line up with the magnetic field produced by the permanent magnets.

The N pole of the armature (electromagnet) spins towards the S pole of the permanent magnet (opposites attract).

The trick is to change the polarity of the armature.

The N pole needs to become an S pole, then an N pole again, and so on.

This is made possible by a split ring commutator and brushes.

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11 years later, Michael Faraday, was credited with discovering the basic principle of electromagnetism.

He created a magnet using electricity.

By wrapping wire around an iron nail, and attaching it to a battery, Faraday made a special magnet.

Because this device changes electricity into magnetism, it is called an electromagnet.

Electric Motor:

Faraday’s devices led to the development of electric motors also known as St. Louis Motor.

An electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy (energy in motion).

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In the early 1800’s, Hans Christian Oersted, a Danish physicist, noticed a relationship between electricity and magnetism.

He noted that a compass needle deflected when placed near an electric current.

When the current was interrupted, the magnetic field was no longer there.

Oersted concluded that current flowing through a wire creates a magnetic field around the wire.

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Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be transformed.

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A thermocouple is a sensor that can convert thermal energy to electrical energy (measure temp)

Consists of two different metals that conduct at different rates.

The difference in conduction creates electricity flowing from one metal to the other

Temperature affects the amount of electricity produced.

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Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy of all the particles in a substance.

The faster a particle moves, the more kinetic energy it has

I.e. two cups of equal amounts of water but one is hotter. This one has more thermal energy.

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Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by an object because of its motion or its potential to move

I.e. a thrown baseball has mechanical energy because of its movement and its potential fall

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Electrical energy is charged particles.

Electrons are negatively charged

Electrical energy is transferred when electrons travel from place to place.

Examples of Electrical Energy

Electricity can be transformed into any form of energy you require:

Heat

Light

Sound

Movement (mechanical)

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Chemical energy is the energy that is found in chemicals.

This is a form of potential energy or stored energy.

This energy is released when chemicals react

(examples)

Food gets converted into energy (glucose) to help fuel our bodies.

explosives

Battery Operative CD Player

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Four common energy forms:

1. Chemical energy

2. Electrical

3. Mechanical

4. Thermal

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Energy is defined as the ability to do work.

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Potentially hazardous chemicals can enter surface water systems from many different sources.

These include:

The air

Groundwater

Runoff from agricultural fields and industrial sites

Outflow from storm sewers and sewage treatment plants

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Many chemical pollutants leach into the groundwater.

Some of the more common pollutants are:

Natural elements: iron, calcium

Organic pollutants: pesticides and solvents (produced by humans)

Heavy metals: lead, mercury,

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Groundwater can move sideways, up and down.

Because of the groundwater’s slow movement, contaminants such as lead cannot be quickly dispersed.

May become concentrated over time.

Creates problems because groundwater is needed for drinking, agriculture, and industrial use

The number and connection of pores in the soil affect movement of groundwater.

Pores are the tiny spaces between soil grains.

If soil is tightly packed water will not be able to move through easily

If soil is loose, the pores will connect, allowing water to flow easier

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The direction and distance that airborne chemicals travel are determined by various factors:

The pollutants properties (what it is made of)

The wind speed

The direction of the prevailing winds

Factors that affect the distribution of airborne pollutants:

May be limited by lack of wind

Precipitation (rain or snow)

An airborne pollutant will be deposited closer to its source if it is carried to the ground by rain or snow.

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Chemicals do not remain isolated into one area.

The transport of chemical pollutants by air is a three stage process

1. Release of the chemical from a specific area

2. Dispersal of the chemical in the atmosphere by wind currents

3. Deposition of the chemical in soil or water in a different place

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At one time, chlorofluorocarbons (CCl₂F₂) were commonly used in aerosol spray cans, air conditioners, and refrigerators.

CFCs contribute to the thinning of the ozone

UV radiation breaks them down in substances such as chlorine

CFCs combine with the ozone molecule (O₃) to produce O (reducing the thickness of the layer)

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Atmospheric ozone is beneficial.

Located 15 - 50 km above the Earth’s surface, it prevents excess ultraviolet rays from reaching Earth.

Since 1970, scientists found layers of holes in the ozone layer

More UV radiation is entering our atmosphere and has a negative impact.

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In the Alberta oil industry, companies have found innovative ways of reducing CO2(g) emissions

CO2(g) gets captured and injected into depleted oil reservoirs for enhanced oil recovery (EOR)

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Enhanced greenhouse effect increases the overall temperature on Earth.

The average global mean temperature has increased 0.5% over the past 150 years. This increase in temperature is called global warming.

Scientists believe global warming has an effect on climate  and severe weather patterns.

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We live in a natural greenhouse

The heat from the Sun’s radiant energy gets trapped and keeps Earth at temperatures that allow things to grow

Carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and methane gas, trap heat and contribute to the greenhouse effect.

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Carbon dioxide gas is part of the natural carbon cycle

It is required for photosynthesis by plants and is produced during respiration of animals.

However the increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has become a concern

Major Contributors:

Industry and vehicles are a major contributor

Combustion (burning)

Cleared land reduces the number of trees available to use up carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.

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1. Sulfur dioxide

2. Nitrogen oxides

3. Carbon monoxide

4. Ozone

All affect air quality

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This same chemical - ozone - is also found at Earth’s surface

Odourless, colourless gas composed of 3 oxygen atoms

Sources:

Fuel combustion in vehicles and industry

Reactions:

Odourless, colourless gas composed of 3 oxygen atoms

VOCs evaporate easily

VOCs mostly from solvents and gasoline

How is it formed?

At ground level, formed from a reaction between oxygen, nitrogen oxides, and compounds called volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in presence of heat and sunlight

Affects:

Increased effects during summer

Especially harmful for people with lung diseases

Anyone exercising outside with high levels of ozone may suffer breathing problems

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A layer of ozone protects Earth’s surface from harmful UV light

This layer is located in the upper atmosphere. “Good ozone”

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Carbon monoxide is called the silent killer

Colourless and odourless

How is it formed?

When chemicals containing carbon burn, they produce carbon dioxide OR carbon monoxide

Carbon monoxide CO(g) forms if there is not enough oxygen to produce carbon dioxide CO2(g)

Sources:

Motor Veichles

Industrial Processes

Combustion

Forest Fires

Affects:

If inhaled, carbon monoxide reduces the amount of oxygen carried by blood

Can cause headaches, sleepiness, chest pains, brain damage, and death

How can it be reduced?

Catalytic converters in vehicles and industry convert carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide.

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Nitrogen oxides are a major air pollutant.

NOx(g) where the x indicates that nitrogen oxides are mixtures of NO(g) and NO2(g) and sometimes other oxides of nitrogen.

How is it formed?

Forms both smog and acid rain

Mainly forms from combustion in vehicles, generating plants, and some industrial processes such as oil refineries

Affects:

Affects the respiratory system and eyes

Nitrogen dioxide is a brownish gas which gives smog the distinctive colour

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Sulfur dioxide is a major air pollutant

How is it formed?

Forms from smog and acid rain

Formed when oxygen combines with sulfur SO2(g)

Major source of sulfur dioxide is industrial processes

Affects:

Affects respiratory system (throat and lungs) and irritate eyes

How can it be reduced?

Scrubbers are used to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions by up to 99%

Scrubbers use limestone (calcium carbonate) to convert sulfur dioxide to produce gypsum (calcium sulfate).

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Air quality can be determined in two ways:

By measuring the levels of pollutants in the air

More accurate way of measuring air quality

Also includes chemicals produced by natural sources such as forest fires

By estimating the amount of emissions from pollution sources

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Mercury belongs to a group of substances called heavy metals.

Metals that have a density of 5 g/cm³ or more (five or more times heaver than an equal volume of water)

Examples of heavy metals

Copper, lead, zinc, mercury, cadmium, and nickel

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Toxins are substances that produce serious health problems or death when introduced into an organism.

Toxicity describes how poisonous a substance is.

Unit of measurement scientists use is called LD50

“LD” - Lethal dose

“50” - 50%

LD50 is the amount of a substance that causes 50% of a group of test animals to die if they were given a specific dose of the substance all at once.

Different chemicals can affects organisms in different ways

Damage liver, or brain etc.

The amount of chemical given per unit of body mass (i.e. mg/kg)

The more toxic the substance is, the lower its LD50 number is.

FORMULA:

amount of chemical

LD50 = ------------------ = death

body mass

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Some pesticides and remain in the environment long-term

Most are designed to only last one growing season. They are broken down by bacteria so they are no longer toxic

However, pesticides can remain in tissues of some organs long after exposure

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Acidic deposits builds up in ice and snow in the winter

In spring, the acid meltwater flows into aquatic systems

This can cause a dramatic drop in pH

This affects their reproductive ability

Spring acid shock: spring acid shock concentration of acid that can dramatically lower the pH of the water

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Acid precipitation (snow or rain with a pH lower than 5.6) affects the acidity of a body of water

High acidity = low diversity

Most fish disappear with a pH of 4.5

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The process of decay that causes oxygen depletion is called eutrophication.

Plants begin to decay with lack of nutrients.

Aerobic bacteria use oxygen during the decay process leaving little for aquatic organisms.

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Most aquatic organisms are sensitive to changes in the amount of dissolved oxygen

Increased phosphorus and nitrogen levels in water affect dissolved oxygen.

Higher concentrations of these nutrients in water cause increased growth of algae and green plants

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Dissolved oxygen is essential for the health of the aquatic life

An acceptable level of dissolved oxygen for aquatic life is between 5 and 8 ppm.

Biological Indicators of Dissolved Oxygen in Water

Poor Quality

(0-4 ppm of oxygen)

Midge larvae

Leech

Mosquito wriggler

Moderate Quality

(5-8 ppm of oxygen)

Freshwater clam

Dragonfly nymph

Fairy shrimp

Good Quality

(9-10 ppm of oxygen)

Caddisfly larvae

Stonefly larvae

Mayfly larvae

The level of dissolved oxygen in water depends on:

Temperature - cold water contains more dissolved oxygen than warm

Turbulence - Oxygen from the air has a better chance to mix and dissolve in turbulent water

The number of organisms using up the oxygen

The amount of photosynthesis by plants and algae in the water

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Measuring Chemicals in the Environment (extra notes)

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Measuring Chemicals in the Environment (extra notes)

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Worker exposure to certain chemicals is limited to a few parts per million (ppm).

Regulations reduce an industrial waste discharge to one part per billion (ppb).

Pesticide residues are found in drinking water in the low parts per trillion (ppt).

Chemical fertilizers contain nitrate, which can be dangerous to infants in quantities as small as 10 parts per million.

Trichloroethylene (TCE), a common industrial solvent, is more dangerous than nitrate and when present in drinking water in quantities as small as 5 parts per million can cause a higher than normal incidence of cancer among people who drink the water regularly.

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Parts per million (ppm): how many grams of solute are in 1 million grams of solution

Formula: mass of solute

ppm = ---------------- x 1000000

mass of solution

To find ppm:

1. express both quantities in the same units.

2. set up the ratio as a fraction.

3. equate this ratio to x / 1,000,000

4. solve for x

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The concentration of chemicals in the environment is measured in parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per litre (mg/L).

This measurement is used in extremely dilute solutions

Example:

A concentration of 4 ppm of chlorine in water means there is 4 parts chlorine in 1 million parts of chlorine/water solution.

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Chemical Indicators - Evidence of Death/Lack of Diversity

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Chemical Indicators - Evidence of Death/Lack of Diversity

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Diversity of all organisms decreases as acidity increases    and dissolved oxygen decreases  .

I.e. if a body of water has few insects and many worms this may mean the water contains little dissolved oxygen

A pond that supports a wide variety of organisms probably has good water quality for allowing organisms to survive

If pH OF WATER IS LESS THAN 5.0 = DEATH FOR ORGANISMS

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The most commonly monitored for water quality:

Dissolved oxygen

Acidity

Heavy metals

Plant nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus)

Pesticides

Salts (sodium chloride and magnesium sulfate)

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Biological Indicators - Aquatic Invertebrates 

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Biological Indicators - Aquatic Invertebrates 

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Are considered indicator organisms.

Can show the effect of pollution

Invertebrates are animals without backbones

Used for monitoring because different invertebrates prefer different living conditions.

Some like stagnant ponds

Ponds with higher concentration of dissolved oxygen

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More commonly known as E. Coli

Constant monitoring determines what needs to be done to control numbers.

Proper monitoring could have prevented May 2000 catastrophe. 11 people died from E. coli bacteria poisoning by drinking contaminated water

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Scientists use organisms that live in water to determine water quality.

Some microscopic organisms like bacteria can cause serious health problems.

How to determine:

Samples of water are taken frequently from water sources people use

Samples processed

Determines the numbers and types of organisms

If the count is too high, additional treatment may be necessary.

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Provincial and Federal Government Guidelines

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Provincial and Federal Government Guidelines

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These guidelines are design to protect humans, animals, crops, and other organisms that live in or near water systems.

Met by monitoring water quality:

1. Biological indicators - Bacteria, parasites, viruses, protozoa

2. Chemical indicators - pH, metal, salt, nitrate, phosphate concentration, dissolved oxygen, pesticide concentration.

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Water quality is determined according to what the water is used for.

Both provincial and federal governments set guidelines for water quality

5 Categories of water use:

1. Human drinking water

2. Recreation such as swimming

3. Livestock drinking water

4. Irrigation

5. Protection of aquatic life

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Clarity is not a good indicator of water quality!

Clear water can sometimes be harmful to humans

For example: lakes affected by acid rain are clear and lifeness.

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Lakes can become cloudy in the summer because of excessive algae growth or algae blooms.

Reduces the oxygen content in the lake

Affects the types of organisms that can live there (Trout is the first fish to die of there is not enough dissolved oxygen in the water.)

Some bloom-forming types of blue-green algae produce toxins.

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Micronutrients are elements such that are required by living things in trace or extremely small amounts.

I.e. selenium is essential for both plant and animal growth and development.

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If you have ever hiked high in the mountains in early summer, you probably saw snow still remaining from the winter. Sometimes this snow is red and smells like watermelons. In the early 1800s, observers thought that iron from a meteorite must have been responsible for the red snow. Soon after, a biologist observed single-cell algae in the coloured snow. These algae manage to survive on a substrate that is near freezing, poor in nutrients, and often acidic. The red pigment masks the green chloroplasts that enable the algae to carry out photosynthesis.

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A substrate is the material on which an organism moves or lives. Some organisms are attached to their substrate.

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Ingestion and Absorption of Materials by Animals

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Ingestion and Absorption of Materials by Animals

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Animals get the substances necessary for survival by inhaling air and ingesting food.

The process of taking food into our bodies is called ingestion.

Humans break down food both mechanically and chemically.

Mechanical breakdown: mouth, stomach

Chemical breakdown: mouth, stomach, and small intestine

Ingested food is broken down by the digestive process into smaller particles that enable it to pass through the cell wall.

This process of breaking down complex molecules into simple molecules by using water is called hydrolysis.

Hydrolysis: “hydro” water and “lysis” breakdown

The process by which large organic molecules are broken down

Hydrolyzed: means the substance has been broken down by hydrolysis.

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Plant moves some nutrients from the soil (an area of low concentration ) into the root (an area of high concentration ) through active transport.

Active Transport (ATP - what does this mean?) to move molecules of nutrients oppositely than diffusion.

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Osmosis

osmosis is the diffusion of water.

Water passively moves through the walls from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

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Diffusion

Some nutrients enter or exit the roots passively by diffusion

It is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

I.e. someone farts in the classroom and eventually someone can smell it on the other side!

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Plants are chemotropic (respond to chemical nutrients) and grow toward the nutrient source.

Once the root is close to the source, water in the soil brings the nutrients in contact with the root cells.

This is accomplished in three ways:

Diffusion

Osmosis

Active transport

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Plants and animals rely on the enviroment for the substances they need tp survive.

Plants use inorganic compounds  (water , and CO2 ) to make compounds

Consumers eat the plants or eat other organisms that eat plants to get the organic compounds made by plants for their energy , growth , and repair .

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Nucleic acids are the largest and most complicated molecules found in living things.

Play an important role in heredity and cell division.

There are two types of nucleic acids:

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

The monomers are up of three substances:

Phosphate

Ribose (simple sugar)

Nitrogen

Monomer: A molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer

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Proteins form essential building blocks for tissues and organs. Contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur

A protein is an organic compound  made up of units called amino acids

While the body can store carbohydrates and fats, it cannot store the amino acids that constitute protein molecules

Daily protein intake is necessary for stable body metabolism

Each protein has its own number and arrangement of amino acids

A protein contains between 40 - 500 amino acid units

I.e. insulin contains 51 amino acids

Green plants convert glucose into amino acids

The body requires 20 types of amino acids and 9 are considered essential

Deficiency (low protein diet) can lead to:

Anemia as well as a number of enzyme and hormone disorders

Excessive consumption: linked to poor bone composition, infections, and immune system problems.

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Lipids: Fats, oils and waxes

Compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms

Both plants and animals produce lipids

Humans: produce oils and store food in the form of fat

Plants: canola seeds, corn, peanuts, soybeans, walnuts and cashews

Fatty acids form an important part of body energy and are closely linked with blood clotting and the prevention of heart disease.

fatty acids  are broken down into groups: omega-3  and omega6  fatty acids

omega-3  deficiency: linked with depression and other psychological disorders

omega-6  deficiency: can cause hormonal and fluid imbalances

Imbalance in both: can increase risk of heart attack and stroke

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What are some examples of foods that contain carbohydrates?

Examples: rice, potatoes, and fruits

Carbohydrates can be simple and complex sugars

Provide 50% of the metabolic for a human body

Important role in cell growth and development

Carbohydrates are organic molecules made up of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Simple molecules: sugar or glucose. Made by green plants for photosynthesis

Complex molecules: starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Made from many glucose molecules joined together#

Important role in cell growth and development

Low carb intake: can lead to ketosis, which creates an acidity of the blood and creates several negative health effects including; dizziness, confusion, nausea, and a loss of body water and minerals

Excessive consumption: particularly simple starches and sugars, can lead to obesity and high blood glucose levels

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scary black figure at the end of a dim hallway under an exit sign in an old building 

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Most chemicals in humans and other living things are organic compounds.

There are four classes or organic compounds essential to health body makeup:

1. Carbohydrates

2. Fats (lipids)

3. Protein

4. Nucleic acids

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Macronutrients and Micronutrients are essential for plant and animal growth and survival.

They are the building blocks of a body structure and the source of energy.

Plants and animals require nutrients in optimum to maintain a balance.

Optimum is the most favorable amount for the best health

An overdose of nutrients is as harmful as not having enough

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Macronutrients and Micronutrients are essential for plant and animal growth and survival.  They are the building blocks of a body structure and the source of energy.  Plants and animals require nutrients in optimum to maintain a balance.   Optimum is the most favorable amounts for best health  An overdose of nutrients is as harmful as not having enough

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Nitrogen

Basis of chlorophyll

Leaf and stem growth

Composition of proteins and nucleic acids found in all cells

Growth and repair of tissues

Phosphorus

Root and flower growth

Cellular respiration and photosynthesis

Composition of bones, teeth, and DNA

Potassium

Stimulation of early growth

Starch and protein production and sugar movement

Muscle contraction and nerve impulses

Magnesium

Composition of chlorophyll

Photosynthesis

Composition of bones and teeth

Calcium

Cell wall structure

Cell division

Composition of bones and teeth

Blood clotting

Muscle and nerve function

Sulfur

Production of fruits and grains

Protein synthesis

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Macronutrients are elements required in fairly large amounts

They include three common elements: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

And several less common elements: nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and sulfur.

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All living things need nutrients to survive.

Living things obtain many of the nutrients from their substrate.

I.e. a mushroom growing on a fallen tree obtains its food from the rotting log.

Nutrients are grouped into two categories: macronutrients and micronutrients.

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ORGANIC:

Contain carbon

Contain other elements

Found in organisms

BOTH:

Contained in living things

Chemical compounds

Made of a combination of elements

INORGANIC:

Do not usually contain carbon

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Inorganic compounds generally do not contain the element carbon

Two exceptions: carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide

Examples of inorganic compounds: water, potassium, salt, oxygen, gas, baking soda, and the mineral quartz.

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dwayne the rock johnson high fiving john cena

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Organic compounds contain the element carbon bonded together to make long chains of molecules.

Three major elements - carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen in their molecular structure

Carbon atom is always to the hydrogen atom and in most cases, the oxygen atom too.

Sometimes these elements are attached to minor elements such as nitrogen, magnesium, or sulfur.

I.e. nitrogen is bonded to hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen to produce amino acids (NH₂CH₂COOH). Amino acids are building blocks of protein and are required fpr growth and repair

Examples of organic compounds: glucose, sugar, and protein and fat.

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the cheese is organic btw (nah that looks hella processed)

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Look around the environment. What do you see? Trees, flowers, animals, water, rocks, and air. These are physical features

All living things are made up of organic or inorganic substances and depend on them for survival

The human body needs about 25 elements for normal growth.

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organic moldy cheese being eaten by a monkey at night on a road in the middle of nowhere with streetlights and rain

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(it is acid raining btw even though it dont look like it)

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Ordinary water is naturally slightly acidic

Raindrops dissolve carbon dioxide gas to form a very weak carbonic acid (pH 5.6)

In central Canada, acid rain can have a pH as low as 3.

Acidic lake are sometimes treated with limestone (calcium hydroxide) to neutralize

Ca(OH)2(aq) + H₂SO4(aq)                 CaSO4(s) + 2H₂O(l)

Calcium hydroxide + sulfuric acid          calcium sulfate + water

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Bases, also called alkaline compounds, have a pH greater than  7. They can be used as a weak acid to neutralize bases. Examples include sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and ammonia.

Many different products aid in the neutralization of acids and bases. They can be as simple as a bag of citric acid or sodium sesquicarbonate, or as complex as a solidifier and neutralizer combined.

The acid and base react during neutralization, forming water and salt. If the acid and base are both very strong (such as concentrated hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide), a violent reaction will occur. That’s why most neutralizers are very weak: to slow the reaction. Even with neutralization products, heat and gas will often evolve. Take proper precautions as recommended by the neutralizer’s manufacturer.

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a tall black figure at the end of a very dark hallway with little to no light from a small light bulb. No windows

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Neutralization of stomach acid (HCl) produces water a compound called a salt.

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)                 NaCl(s) + H₂O(l)

acid+ base                 salt+ water

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An antacid is a mild base that reacts with the acid in your stomach.

The base in the antacid and the acid in your stomach then neutralize it.

This acid-base reaction is called neutralization

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pH Meter

A probe attached to a meter

Test the fluid by submerging the tip of the probe and the meter will indicate the fluid’s pH

Universal Indicator

A mixture of indicators that change color  over a wide pH range

The pH of a clear fluid can be identified after several have been added to the fluid

Need to use a color to compare

Red & Blue Litmus Paper

Neutral Reactions

Neutral (both remain)

Red Litmus remains Red

Blue Litmus remains Blue

Acid Reactions (blue changes)

Red Litmus remains Red

Blue Litmus turns Red

Base Reactions (red changes)

Red Litmus turns Blue

Blue Litmus remains BLue

Universal pH Strip'

Strips that when placed in the solution will turn the color associated to the pH of the solution

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The pH scale is usually given as a range of measurement from 0-14

The difference between one number to the next on the pH scale represents a 10-fold difference.

I.e. A pH of 3 is more acidic than a pH of 4

I.e. A pH of 9 is more basic than a pH of 8

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Power of Hydrogen (Acids, Bases, and Neutrals)

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Power of Hydrogen (Acids, Bases, and Neutrals)

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“pH” stands for the “power of hydrogen.”

Acid

An acid is a substance that dissolves in water and increases the hydrogen (h+) ion concentration of the acid solution

The strength of an acid is a measure of the free hydrogen ions in the solution and is expressed as pH

The pH number indicates its acidity

Any number below 7

Basic

A basic solution has more hydroxyl (OH⁻) ions than hydrogen ions

A base is a compound that dissolves in water to form a solution with a pH higher than 7

Neutral

Neither an acid or a base

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Sweet Natural Gas

Sweet natural gas is a type of natural gas obtaining trace amounts of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide

Properties

Non-corrosive

less acidic

requires less refining and easy to transport and handle

Sour Natural Gas

Sour natural gas is a type of natural gas containing large amounts of hydrogen sulfide

Properties

Corrosive

can damage piping due to sulfide stress cracking process

requires more refining and more difficult to handle