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Kimberly Annette Hutchinson - What is Constructivism in Education: Piaget's Pros and Cons.

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Kimberly Annette Hutchinson - What is Constructivism in Education: Piaget's Pros and Cons.

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I really liked this article .. an easy read and simple to understand. "Students learn though thinking things, through trial and error." I found this to be very true.
Just watch a three or four year old try to build a castle out of blocks, an adult laying dominos curving around, or a teen learning to yoyo.
The child building with blocks puts one on top of - on in the case of the adult domino player - one in line after the other. While the teen spins the yoyo up... and down. All three work on this slowly and diligently until - OHHH NO! For the child and the adult - they (dominos and blocks) fall. The teen... trying to catch the spinning yoyo. Then..  they all begin again. Until... at some point in time after many trials and errors: the castle is built (and does not fall); the dominos are all lined up, then with one push... they ALL fall, and the teen begins to catch after each spin!

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The constructivist learning theory explains that we learn by 'constructing' knowledge in our minds. Constructivism argues that learners have an active role in thinking things through, mulling them over, and coming to conclusions based on logic and critical thinking. We also build on our prior knowledge, like a builder constructing (and sometimes deconstructing) his skyscraper.

Key Concepts in Constructivist Theory

1. Learning is a Cognitive Process
Students learn through thinking things through and trial-and-error, not by simply repeating facts.
Prior to the rise of Constructivism, teachers would teach using a behaviorist approach: we would hammer ideas into students' heads by getting them to repeat answers over and over again. Students would sit in classrooms and repeat what the teacher says. We often call this old approach the banking model of education.

Then constructivism came along and argued that children use cognition - or mental processes - to come to logical conclusions. Students need to think things through in order to truly understand them.

Thinking things through means mulling them over, seeing if they really make sense, comparing and contrasting them to what they already know, and coming to your own independent conclusions ... not just repeating what your teacher says.
Interesting Fact: Even though constructivist theory was developed in the late 1800s and early 1900s, it wasn't until the late 1960s that constructivism was taken seriously in schools.
2. We Learn Through Experiences (Piaget)
Piaget came up with some fundamental constructivist concepts. He theorised that learners get more knowledgeable by thinking about new experiences and comparing them to old experiences.
Piaget is the most famous constructivist theorist. He came up with many of the fundamental ideas in constructivism.

According to Piaget, there are six key components to how we learn:

Learning through experience: Whenever we come across a new experience, we process it in our minds. We will use that experience to understand our worlds. Piaget called learners 'lone scientists' who go out into the world and investigate to learn.

Prior knowledge: Each new experience is compared to previous experiences we have had. We will look at our new experiences and use them to understand what we're looking at.

Cognitive Schema: Piaget stated that a cognitive schema is a packet of knowledge that we have in our mind. We can add to a cognitive schema (assimilation) or change it (accommodation).

Assimilation: Piaget used this term to explain 'adding new knowledge' to our knowledge bank (cognitive schemata). If I come across new knowledge that I can add to my knowledge bank, I'll place it into a cognitive schema. For example, if I see a new breed of dog, I'll recognize it as a dog, so I'll add this new breed of dog to my 'dog' cognitive schema in my mind.

Cognitive disequilibrium: When we come across a new experience, it may contradict our prior knowledge. A learner will be confused and not understand what they can see. At this point, a learner is in a state of cognitive disequilibrium. We always want to be in a state of cognitive equilibrium where everything makes sense.

Accommodation: To overcome cognitive disequilibrium (confusion), we need to 'fix' old or broken prior knowledge. We will need to recall a cognitive schema and repair it. For example, if I see a horse for the first time, I may think it's a dog because it has four legs. Then, someone will tell me it is a different animal called a 'horse'. Now I need to fix my 'dog' schema by breaking it up so I don't bank all horses into the dog schema. I might create two new schemata: one for dogs and one for horses. I'll try to remember key features of horses (their height, their body shape) so that in the future I can tell the differences between horses and dogs. I learned through experiences!

3. There are Four Stages of Learning (Piaget)
Many constructivists also believe that biological development is central to learning. We tend to learn certain things at key stages in our childhood. This is because our brains need to be developmentally ready to learn.
Several constructivist theorists believe in stages of learning. Piaget's stages are the most famous, but there are others. Here are just a few:

Montessori: Maria Montessori was a constructivist. She believed in four planes of development.

Froebel: Friedrich Froebel believed that we go through several stages, and at each stage we should give children special toys that help them overcome the challenges at each stage.

Kolberg: Kolberg's stages were based on moral development. As our brains become more cognitively advanced, we can explore more and more complex moral problems.

Piaget: Piaget's 4 stages mainly explore scientific and mathematical skills that emerge at different stages in our lives.

Piaget's four famous stages are:

Sensorimotor stage (0 - 2 years): Babies develop cognitive skills such as object permanence, goal directed action, and deferred imitation (see image below).

Preoperational stage (2 - 7 years): Young children develop cognitive skills such as symbolic thought (such as language use and symbolic play) yet remain egocentric (meaning they cannot see things from others' perspectives).

Concrete stage (7 - 12 years): Students develop more complex logical thinking skills and master the skill of conservation (see image below).

Formal operations stage (12 - 18 years): Teenagers start developing deductive reasoning, metacognitive skills, abstract thought, and complex moral reasoning.

Not all stage-based theories are based on cognitive theories. A cognitive stage-based theory must believe stages are based on our brain's growing ability to think in new ways. For example, Freud's and Erikson's stages are not cognitive - they're psychodynamic stages.
4. We Learn Through Social Interaction (Vygotsky)
Vygotsky came up with 'Social Constructivism'. This theory highlights the important role of social interaction in constructing new ideas in our minds.
Vygotsky and Piaget both believed that experience is important for our learning. But while Piaget thought of learners as 'lone scientists', Vygotsky thought of learners as social beings.

By talking with others, we can think through ideas. We will hear other perspectives and how different people describe things. These social experiences are important for helping us to come to strong logical conclusions.

When we discuss ideas, we also 'socially construct' knowledge. This means we pool all our thinking together and come to shared agreements about what the facts really are.

Vygotsky and Piaget agreed on a lot (they were both constructivists), but they disagreed on many things, too.

Vygotsky didn't believe that we learn in stages. He thought we all learn differently depending on our social interactions. In some non-Western societies, for example, a child may learn really difficult skills required for hunting that a Western child wouldn't learn until they are much older. This observation undermines Piaget's idea that we all learn in generally the same biological stage-based way.

Role of the Teacher and Learner
The teacher shouldn't lecture students but rather guide them as they learn through hands-on experiences.
Constructivism believes learning involves trial-and-error and discovery.

Therefore, the teacher shouldn't just lecture students while the students listen (we call this passive learning).

Instead, the teacher needs to expose children to many active, hands-on experiences. The teacher will observe their students' learning and give them gentle guidance and nudges. But, if a class is well designed and structured for the right developmental level, the students will be able to learn simply through their experiences alone.

Here is a quick comparison of a traditional teacher role vs. a facilitator role:

Monologue (teacher talks)

Dialogue (teacher and students discuss)

Tells the answers

Asks questions and guides

Expects one 'correct' answer

Lets students come up with their own answers

Believes they know everything

Sees themselves as a co-learner

Teacher-centered classroom

Student-centered classroom

Teaches theories

Links theories to practical experiences

One size fits all lessons

Differentiated lessons to meet students' cognitive needs

Constructivist Teaching Methods

1. The Zone of Proximal Development
The zone of proximal development helps teachers to identify the target difficulty levels for their lessons.
Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal development explains how to create a lesson that is at the perfect difficulty level.

We also sometimes call this the Goldilocks principle:

A lesson that is too easy will not help a student progress;

A lesson that is too hard will not stimulate learning;

A lesson that is challenging but achievable with help will help students progress.

That skill level that's challenging but achievable is called the 'zone of proximal development'.

This approach involves getting a teacher to assess prior knowledge. Then, the teacher create lessons that are just a step harder than the student's current abilities.

The teacher will need to provide support as the student moves into the 'zone of proximal development'. That's where scaffolding comes in...

2. Scaffolding

Scaffolding is an approach developed by Jerome Bruner.
Scaffolding involves providing guided support to a student. Guidance is removed when a student's abilities improve.
It gets its name from the supports that are placed around buildings while they are being constructed. Once the building is finished, the scaffolding is removed and the building can stand on its own.

The same goes for learners: a teacher should provide support to students while they are learning a concept. Then, when the student is capable with the concept, the support is removed so the student can learn on their own.

3. Problem and Inquiry Based Learning

Problem based learning is an approach where the teacher presents students with a problem. Students then need to address the problem by talking things through, conducting experiments, and going through a process of discovery.

Inquiry based learning focuses on using systematic and scientific methods to collect data and come up with answers to problems.
The teacher and students come up with a problem that needs to be addressed through an inquiry process.
Both approaches (which are used in conjunction) help students to learn through student-led and student-initiated discovery. Students use their cognitive skills and trial-and-error to reach their own conclusions and construct new knowledge in their minds.

You can read more about inquiry based learning here.

4. Guided Practice

The guided practice model is also known as the ' gradual release of responsibility ' or 'I Do, We Do, You Do' method.

In this approach, the teacher starts with explicit teaching. The teacher might model something in front of the students while they observe ('I Do'). Next, the teacher and students do the task together ('We Do'). An additional 'We Do' step may be to get students to do tasks together in groups. Lastly, the student gets to do a task independently ('You Do').
Guided practice involves an educator gradually releasing responsibility to a student in a four-step process. It starts with explicit instruction and ends with independent work.
You can read more about the I Do, We Do, You Do approach here.

5. Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning involves students working together to come up with solutions to problems.

A cooperative learning approach will involve a teacher getting students to work in groups to complete a task.

One way to do this is to get students to work in groups (tip: let them name their group) based on ability level or learning style.

Another approach may be to get each student to develop expertise in one specific area of a topic. Then, the students get together to share what they learned. In this model, every student in the group is an expert on one aspect of the task. We call this the 'expert jigsaw' approach to cooperative learning.

For more on the role of social interaction in learning, see my post on the sociocultural theory of learning.

6. Play-Based Learning

Constructivism is all about learning through exploration, interaction, discovery and thinking things through.

That's exactly what we do when we play. We make mistakes, learn new ways to do things, think creatively, and gain new experiences.
A play-based approach to learning involves getting students to discover new things through play. While often reserved for early childhood, play-based learning really could be good for just about any age!
Maria Montessori, a famous constructivist, argued that educators should set up well-equipped play-based environments. Froebel, another constructivist, argued that play was the "highest form of learning". Forest schools and other contemporary learning perspectives also embrace a play-based approach.

Some versions of play include:

For more, see my article on the 17 different versions of play.

Pros and Cons of Constructivism

1. Students are seen as capable 'agentic' learners

1. It's Time Consuming

2. It's Student-Centered

2. It doesn't Fit with Standardized Tests

3. It provides a Guide to Children's Expected Developmental Levels

3. It requires differentiation, which is resource intensive

4. It's an enjoyable approach to learning

1. Pros (Advantages)

Benefits of constructivist theory include:

Students are treated as capable learners and are encouraged to exercise creative, critical and independent thinking.

Educators recognize that students require targeted, differentiated lessons that match their cognitive needs.

Using Piaget's stages, new and fill-in educators can quickly get an estimate of children's ability levels based on their age.

Students often find constructivist approaches to be more enjoyable because they learn through doing rather than sitting and memorizing.

A constructivist approach to education sees students as active, powerful, capable and competent. It tends to encourage students to learn through 'doing', which helps with engagement, critical thinking, and memory retention.
2. Cons (Disadvantages)

Disadvantages of constructivist theory include:

Learning through trial-and-error is a time consuming process. In the age of a crowded curriculum, teachers often don't have the time to organize sustained problem-based learning lessons.

International testing regimes that push standardized curriculum encourage conformity and memorization over inquiry-based critical thinking.

Constructivism requires differentiation so that students learn at the optimal cognitive level. Differentiation for each child is exceptionally difficult and often impractical for educators.

Constructivism can be time-consuming and does not prepare students well for standardized tests.
Alternative Approaches

Alternative theories of learning include:

Behaviorism: Constructivism is often juxtaposed to behaviorism. The behaviorist approach does not care for what goes on in our minds. It only cares for our ability to memorize and repeat information. Read more about behaviorism here.

Humanism: Humanists believe constructivism does not pay enough attention to the role of students' emotions and holistic well-being in learning. Read more about humanism here.

There are many different theories of learning. While constructivism is the dominant theory today, other theories of learning offer important insights and should not be dismissed.
Final Thoughts

Constructivism in education is the dominant educational theory in the 21st Century. It helps students to develop 21st Century skills such as collaboration, cooperation and creativity.
Read More: 31 Prominent Learning Theories
Central to this theory is the idea that we learn by 'mulling over' new ideas in our heads and come to our own conclusions through logic and reasoning. To achieve this sort of learning, students need to engage in active learning, learning by doing, and personal experiences.

It is juxtaposed to other theories like behaviorism which uses teaching methods that are more teacher-centered and fail to cater lessons to students' cognitive needs.

For more, explore the ideas of key constructivist theorists:

References and Further Reading

Kang, E. K. (2018). A Search for the Meaning of Constructivism: Constructivism Revisited and Reviewed. Education of Primary School Mathematics, 21(3), 261-272.

Krahenbuhl, K. S. (2016). Student-centered education and constructivism: Challenges, concerns, and clarity for teachers. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 89(3), 97-105.

Mattar, J. (2018). Constructivism and connectivism in education technology: Active, situated, authentic, experiential, and anchored learning. RIED. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación a Distancia, 21(2).

Srivastava, S., & Dangwal, K. L. (2017). Constructivism: A paradigm to revitalize teacher education. International Journal of Applied Research, 3(5), 753-756.

Taber, K. S. (2018). Constructivism in Education. Early Childhood Development: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications. London: Routledge.

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What is Constructivism in Education? Piaget's Pros & Cons

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The constructivist learning theory explains that we learn by 'constructing' knowledge in our minds. Constructivism argues that learners have an active role in thinking things through, mulling them over, and coming to conclusions based on logic and critical thinking. We also build on our prior knowledge, like a builder constructing (and sometimes deconstructing) his skyscraper.

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Kimberly Annette Hutchinson: Education Reimagined Through Constructivism | Michelle Thompson | TedX Bethany Global University.

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Kimberly Annette Hutchinson: Education Reimagined Through Constructivism | Michelle Thompson | TedX Bethany Global University.

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Imagine if we could make learning fun! Actively engaging our "learners," as Thompson calls our students, in such a way that their brains ignite as their hands touch as they learn. Making each learner want to go to class like a kindergartener looks forward to school each day. If I could transform or reimage my lessons to look and sound like this each day I WOULD look forward to going to school each day like a kindergartener. And would that be fun to have a school staff full of folks like this!

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Education Reimagined Through Constructivism | Michelle Thompson | TEDxBethanyGlobalUniversity

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Kimberly Annette Hutchinson -Constructivism: 

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Kimberly Annette Hutchinson -Constructivism: 

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I saw this and was captivated by how gaming has taken off and this article talks about how gaming education features constructivism:
https://www.filamentgames.com/blog/constructivism-constructionism-and-video-games/

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This site instructs teachers on constructivism and how to use it in their classrooms. The page “What does constructivism have to do with my classroom?” provides examples of how it can be used, the “Demonstration” page shows it actually being used in schools, and the “Exploration” and “Implementation” pages provides instructions on how to start using it. I like how it shares the positives and the negatives of the theory and the challenges of implementing constructivism. There is a page that shows how to create a lesson plan with the theory which would be useful. I also like how it shows how constructivism is used in classrooms. It’s different seeing it used compared to just examples.

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This infographic gives background information on constructivism, the 5E model (engage, explore, explain, extend, and evaluate), methods of learning, positives and negatives of the theory, and what instructors need to use when implementing the theory. I like the use of the 5E model, it explains how to get students interested, learn about a topic, and decide if they have the desired level of understanding. The methods of learning show that students need to absorb that knowledge and then use it. The suggestions for instructors would be useful when teaching according to constructivism, as they need to know what students presently know so students can construct knowledge.

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This page compares the three types of constructivism, the constructivist classroom and the traditional classroom, and constructivism and other learning theories. I enjoyed reading about the three different types, as they are all slightly different. Social constructivism is based on knowledge developing from one’s interactions and collaboration with others, cognitive constructivism states that knowledge is based on mental processes, and radical constructivism is that knowledge is created by subjective experiences and interactions with the world. I did not know there were multiple forms of constructivism and this page helped me understand constructivism more extensively.

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Constructivism Learning Theory & Philosophy of Education

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Constructivism is a learning theory that emphasizes the active role of learners in building their own understanding. Rather than passively receiving information, learners reflect on their experiences, create mental representations, and incorporate new knowledge into

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It seems to me constructivism-based learning and instruction is heavily used in the science field. At the core of constructivism there is an assumption that if given the chance, children will naturally be able to act and think like scientists. Due to this theory, constructivism has been used frequently to teach K-12 science. This paper goes over evidence from the cognitive neuroscience and neuroimaging communities that suggests that this core assumption about constructivism might be incorrect. Instead the author proposes an intersubjective approach to science education.

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I found this to give a good breakdown of the theory. It emphasizes that constructivism is a discovery and collaborative type of learning.  Learners are able to create meaning when learning instead of just acquiring information. Like cognitivism, constructivism focuses on connecting new information with existing information. However, it points out that different experiences or perceptions will shape the learning experience for each person.

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Another interesting critique of constructivism. This article acknowledges that constructivism successfully articulates a theory of learning. However, a theory of learning does not automatically imply a distinct pedagogical approach. While I don't know how much I agree with the authors argument, I do find it interesting to consider.

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Unsurprisingly, teachers are very interested in the brain, and excited about the potential for psychology and neuroscience evidence to be used in improving what they do (see for example the responses to this survey). It's a shame, then, that so little time in many teacher training routes has traditionally been given over to psychology and the science of learning. Especially if you trained five or more years ago (as I did), it seems to have been very rare to have received more than a cursory introduction to the subject... apart from one notable exception. However little psychology gets covered otherwise, one mandatory inclusion on many teacher training courses is constructivism - the idea that every individual constructs their own understanding and knowledge of the world, based on their own unique experiences. As a result, constructivist ideas are undoubtedly the most widely held 'folk-psychological' belief about learning amongst current teachers (See Torff, 1999, and Partick & Pintrich, 2001 for more on the content of teacher training and changes in trainee teachers' beliefs about learning).

In this post I am going to argue that this state of affairs is dangerous. Importantly, though, the problem is not that constructivism is wrong. Constructivism works well as a theory of learning. The problem comes, however, when it is assumed that the theory of learning implies a particular pedagogical approach ('educational constructivism', or sometimes the closely related approach of ' constructionism'). Using evidence from neuroscience, I will try to show that there is a great deal of support for constructivism the learning theory, and a good deal less for constructivism the pedagogical approach. I'll use the evidence underpinning the theory of 'Neuroconstructivism' ( Mareschal et al., 2007), one of the most popular theories of developmental cognitive neuroscience, to help me with this.
Partial representations, and context-specificity
A central feature of neuroconstructivism is that the development of our brains and the storage of information in them is hugely context-dependent. At any one moment, activity in the brain is a reflection of the context that the organism finds itself in. Mareschal et al., provide four different levels where the activity of the brain is constrained by the context in which it occurs: neural, network, bodily and social. I looked in more detail at these four levels in a previous description of the theory. The important point, though, is that brain activity reflects the precise state of the organism at the time of the event, so any new piece of 'learning' will be encoded completely within the context of the learning experience, rather than reflecting any general underlying feature of it. In the terminology of the theory, we are only ever able to create 'partial representations'; representations of the world which capture some, but not all of it. Partial representations are, by their very nature, completely context-dependent; that is, they reflect the features of the world (and of the brain) which were the case when the information was originally stored.
Examples of partial representations in learning

Even at the level of individual neurons in the brain, the characteristics of its response and the way in which it connects and influences other neurons is context dependent. The more that cells communicate with each other, the more that their connections are strengthened, and the greater influence that a preceding cell exerts over the activity of subsequent cell. This context is constantly changing due to a number of different factors: the ever-changing strengths of connections to potentially thousands of other inputs, competition (or co-operation) between neighbouring cells, or a progressive specialisation of the cell's function. Therefore a signal from a neuron can only be interpreted as representing that cell's response to a particular set of circumstances at that specific time; the neural context. Neural responses will never capture a concept or an idea in its entirety. Instead, they record a blurred snapshot of some of the key details approximating the concept, a partial representation.

More broadly, the activity of entire brain areas is dependent on the context within the brain as a whole. People who have been blind from an early age, 'visual' cortex begins to take on other functions entirely, such as touch when reading braille. In less drastic fashion, maturation in the brain involves the progressive specialisation of many different brain areas, which gradually take over sole control of functions that previously relied on wider networks (see here for examples of this with reasoning skills in adolescence, for example). Most formal education is taking place during periods of rapid brain development and maturation. In this context, the distributed and partial representations that we build of the world are likely to be highly context-dependent, not only on the particular pattern of inputs, but also on the time and stage of development in which the information was learned.

The brain does not sit in glorious isolation from the rest of the body. The development of our brains is constrained and uniquely differentiated by our nervous systems and by the body in which we find ourselves. Again, this is not just the case between individuals but also within individuals as they develop over time, and as they pass through the myriad different internal states which characterise our existence. For example, we recall information more successfully in a similar 'state' to when we learned it, for example after exercise or even when drunk. The representations that we have of the world will reflect these changing embodiments, and will be 'partial representations' in that they are formed, and linked to, this embodied context.

Finally, the social context for any act of learning is crucial to shaping the learning that takes place. People learn from others with more skills than them; with the more knowledgeable mentors using language and guidance to 'scaffold' the learner's interactions with the world in the most productive manner (Vygotsky's social constructivist theories are probably the most famous educational application of this sort of idea). The concept of scaffolding; a supportive structure which is gradually removed as the learner gains in ability, is used to one degree or another by almost every major educational approach. However, the type of scaffolding that is used may become inextricably linked to the solution that is produced, to the point where the 'partial representation' that we have of the solution is not accessed when the problem is framed differently. In one famous example, children working in Brazilian markets were able to demonstrate mathematical strategies on their stalls that they could not do in the classroom. Knowing how to do something in one context is no guarantee of being able to demonstrate the same skill in another.

Neuroconstructivism and constructivist learning
This brief survey has aimed to show how our experiences in the world can only ever lead to context-specific, partial representations of these events in our brains. It should hopefully be immediately clear that this evidence fits very well with many of the main ideas of constructivism as a theory of learning. The constructivist idea that meaning and knowledge are created by the individual in response to their specific experiences and ideas clearly fits very comfortably with the notion of partial representations. Given that each individual will have their own unique neural, network, bodily and social context at any one moment, even the same environmental stimulus is likely to lead to different partial representations of that stimulus in different people.

The neuroscientific evidence also complements the 'constructive' aspect of learning very nicely: the building up of ever more complex schemas through the gradual formation of multiple, overlapping partial representations of the world. It also appears to explain the focus of at least some constructivist theories (e.g. Piaget and Dewey) on the individual, highlighting the unique individual context in which any act of learning takes place. Indeed, the individual context is so important that, as we have seen, learning will often not transfer to contexts (even seemingly very similar tasks and environments) which do not share enough of the original features.
Neuroconstructivism and constructivist pedagogy
So far so good. Unfortunately, it has been common practice in education to go a step further, and to assume that the theory of learning implies/favours a particular pedagogical approach. Because constructivism emphasises the unique individual context in which learning takes place (and the individual's role in the construction of that knowledge), so constructivist pedagogy places the onus on the individual student to construct their own understanding of the world. Teachers are therefore encouraged to design learning environments through which students are able to learn for themselves, sometimes facilitating the learning, but generally providing limited explicit guidance. Because constructivism emphasises the 'active construction' of knowledge, so constructivist pedagogy often places increased value on hands-on, 'active' or experiential learning (such as by experiment, project or solving real-world problems). This will, naturally, be entirely familiar to any teachers reading this post. If your teacher training was anything like mine, it will have been exactly how you were taught to teach.

Unfortunately, the leap from learning theory to pedagogy is not justified. Constructivism, as conceived purely as a theory of learning by Piaget, was not designed to be associated with any specific pedagogical approach. More importantly, the raft of neuroscientific evidence supporting the theory of 'neuroconstructivism' actually, in my view, provides strong evidence to suggest the opposite, that constructivist pedagogies are unlikely to be the most effective approaches to learning, at least until schemas are well developed.
Partial representations, and constructivist pedagogy
Let us return to 'partial representations', those context-dependent neural traces which constitute how the brain changes in response to experience. As we have seen, these traces are:

partial - in that they reflect not the underlying structure of the knowledge but the whole neural, network, bodily and social context in which the knowledge was formed.

distributed - in that they are made up of numerous small contributions from neurons distributed across brain areas. No one piece of information therefore resides in any one place, and any reactivation of that knowledge will be an approximate reconstruction, rather than a video-tape playback.

context-dependent - as the knowledge contained in our partial representations often does not transfer to situations.

What relevance does this have for pedagogy? Well, let us take a constructivist-inspired pedagogical approach, which involves minimal explicit guidance being given to a student. Imagine a child over the course of a lesson discovering - through some trial and error and some careful teacher-facilitation in a thoughtfully structured learning environment - the formula for Pythagoras' theorem. It sounds like a lovely educational experience for both student and teacher. Unfortunately, at the end of this process we have (time-consumingly) produced but a single partial representation, which is likely to be highly susceptible to context-dependency.

What the neuroscience of learning tells us is that in order to increase the likelihood of them being more easily accessed subsequently, students require multiple, overlapping partial representations, which are strengthened through repeated access. In his book ' The Hidden Lives of Learners', Graham Nuthall wrote that students need to encounter information three or four times to learn it, and with the idea of multiple, overlapping partial representations we can see why such repeated exposure to information is so important. From this perspective, it is not the discovery of the strategy which is important for subsequent success, but the repeated exposure to it, and practice at accessing it, multiple times and in multiple different ways. There is therefore nothing wrong with the student learning about Pythagoras in the way described above, provided that they are subsequently afforded repeated opportunities to revisit and practise their new knowledge in different contexts. The problem is that, all too often, demonstration of a skill in the learned context is taken as indicating mastery of the skill in general, so lessons move on after a limited number of demonstrations of any new idea. Neuroconstructivism clearly shows that under such circumstances, we are unlikely to form enough overlapping partial distributions to be able to transfer our knowledge to a new context.
'Neuroconstructivist pedagogy': Multiple, overlapping, partial representations
What I have tried to show above is that our representations of the world, by their very nature, are only ever 'partial' representations. Given that, it makes sense for educators to work to create as many of them, and to strengthen them, wherever possible. So is there a particular pedagogical approach that is specifically favoured by the neuroscientific evidence? No. I should be clear I do not think that neuroscience findings can ever be used to directly conclude that any one pedagogical method is better than others. I do, however, think that the evidence underpinning neuroconstructivism provides some important considerations which different pedagogical approaches can all benefit from taking into account. These considerations are encapsulated in the statement:
Students require multiple, overlapping, partial representations of knowledge in order to transfer it to new contexts.

Given that having knowledge that we are able to transfer to a new context is pretty much the point of education itself, I think this is an important message. Again, however, I am not arguing here in favour any one pedagogical approach. I have my personal preferences, but I want to keep this separate from what I think the scientific evidence objectively tells us. The creation of multiple, overlapping, partial representations could conceivably be achieved through numerous pedagogical approaches, as long as students have the opportunity for repeated exposure to information and multiple chances to apply new knowledge to different contexts. It could be achieved through more explicit or direct instruction methods, through dialogic approaches, through well-structured co-operative or group strategies, even (if you have enough time spare in your curriculum) through repeated overlapping inquiry-style investigations such as the one described earlier. What teachers need to consider is, in their own context, which (combination of) teaching methods is most likely to produce repeated exposure to knowledge, and practice at applying it to different contexts. What this looks like in each, however, classroom is a decision for each individual teacher. So... how are you going to form multiple, overlapping, partial representations?

N.B. This post is adapted from an original on my personal blog

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Constructivism is a theory of learning, not a theory of pedagogy. Neuroscience explains why this is important

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A successful theory of learning does not imply a particular pedagogical approach.

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Oddly enough, when researching critiques of constructivism, I found another originating from the sciences. While its only two articles, I'm starting to see a trend. It makes me curious as to what theory of teaching is popular in the sciences. This article aims to identify weaknesses in constructivism, as well as its contributions to the field of education. Similar to the other article I posted, this one takes issue with constructivist epistemology as it relates to the sciences. This article also critiques constructivism's inability to recognize its own limits.

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Something I find really helpful when learning about something unfamiliar is to consult critiques of the new subject.  For whatever reason, engaging with literature of doubt surrounding an idea helps solidify the new concept in my mind. Given that we're doing a deep dive into constructivism, I thought I'd explore the theory in this way. The article I found critiques constructivist epistemology in the context of science and science education. A very simplified summary of the author's critique is that the constructivist notion that "constructing belief is sufficient for knowledge" is incompatible with scientific conceptions of nature and the process of teaching science.

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A negative to constructivism that I think instructors should look out for is the confirmation bias. Since constructivism is people building knowledge based off their experiences and prior understandings, there will be students that do not want to confront changes in their beliefs, so they will only accept information that aligns with what they already believe. This issue is something that instructors will need to confront students about that are struggling to keep an open mind.

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When students are learning about one subject, they are also building their knowledge on others as well. This was fascinating to me, and can see this applied in some areas. Like if an English class is reading The Great Gatsby, they are also learning vocabulary, critical thinking skills, and 1920's America.

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What is Constructivism?

Constructivism is a learning theory that teachers use to help their learners understand. Constructivism is founded on the notion that individuals actively establish their understanding through experiences, rather than just passively accepting information. As individuals experience the world and reflect upon their experiences, they build on their learning and add new details into their pre-existing knowledge.

Cognitive development is a key aspect of constructivism. This theory emphasizes the importance of learners actively engaging with new information and building upon their existing knowledge. Through this process, learners can develop critical thinking skills and problem-solving abilities.

Teachers who embrace constructivism encourage their students to explore and question the world around them, rather than simply memorizing facts and figures. By fostering an environment of active learning and discovery, constructivism helps learners develop a deeper and more meaningful understanding of the world.

Teachers that understand the Constructivist Learning Theorybelieve that each student brings a unique experience to the classroom. Also, they acknowledge that a student's previous knowledge and background affects his ability to learn.

Teachers should not assume students know what they need to learn or how to do it. Instead, they must guide them in this process of discovery.If you're interested in creating a constructivist learning environment you might be interested in our block building learning methodology. We put the learning experience in the hands of the student and enable them to make the conceptual connections using specially designed building blocks. This problem based learning approach puts children in the driving seat as they make the decisions about the best way forward.

The pedagogy can be described as an active learning strategy that sits within the social and cognitive domain. The dialogue that is generated between the students creates a cooperative learning environment.

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Principles of Constructivism

There are many principles and specific elements of constructivism that shape how this theory helps and correlates with the students. Following are different principles of the theory of Constructivism.

One of the key principles of Constructivism is that learners create knowledge and understanding of the world through external activities such as explorations, experiences, and interactions. This means that Cognitive Development is a central part of Constructivism as learning actively takes place in the environment instead of in isolation. This also entails guided instruction geared towards helping students reach their own conclusions about how the world works.

Another key principle of the Constructivist theory is that knowledge is "constructed" through active experience. This means that learners must go beyond simply absorbing facts and data, but instead interact with the materials to make personal interpretations and connections. By doing so, they build their own understanding of the world around them and become more engaged in the learning process.

Constructivism also stresses the importance of creating a supportive learning environment. This means that it's important to facilitate an engaging, interactive experience for your students or learners. This could involve providing opportunities for hands-on experimentation, encouraging student collaboration and dialogue, or allowing them to have ownership over their own learning experience.

Knowledge is constructed upon pre-existing knowledge.

Everything we learn provides us with a better knowledge of other things in the future.

Learning is not a passive process, it is an active process in which one needs to engage in activities, reading and discussions. The learner takes an active role.

Teachers use social interactions to help students learn and maintain their knowledge.

Knowledge is contextual, individuals learn from things they already know and believe from their surroundings.

Knowledge is a personal phenomenon because each person has a different experience and prior knowledge to share.

Mental experiences are essentially needed to retain knowledge

Motivation is crucial for learning because it allows students to use their preexisting knowledge for making connections for new knowledge.

Cognitive strategies such as the ones featured in the Universal Thinking Framework must be fully understood.

Discovery-based teaching techniques have often been associated with this domain of research. Discovery-based learning techniques have been criticised in the past, direct instruction approaches sit at the polar opposite of this debate.

At Structural Learning, we see a classroom as a knowledge community. This means that both the teacher and pupil play an active process in constructivist classroom activities. For example, the mental model approach that we have been researching using building blocks requires the teacher to direct the learning in different directions. This hands-on activity is led by the learner but the educator plays a critical role in guiding the child's thinking.

These types of constructivist teaching approaches builds learning agency. We don't see it as free play as there are usually clearly defined assessment criteria that need to be met. The adult guidance is used to move the learning in productive directions. The educators can use this authentic formative assessment activity to understand where the child is in their learning. These type of constructivist teaching techniques enable the educator to be responsive to the child's needs.

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Types of Constructivism

There are various types of constructivism that teachers can utilize to bring success to the classroom.

Cognitive Constructivism

Cognitive constructivism is founded on the research and work of cognitive development in children byJean Piaget. This theory has two important parts:

Cognitive constructivism is based on the concept that learning must occur according to a student's stage of cognitive development. Piaget is known for the identification of four primary stages of development i.e. sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

The order of these stages remains the same across cultures. Piaget believes that each child experiences these stages in the same order (but they may experience each stage at a different rate). These stages help learners to learn new knowledge by relating it with things they know already, allowing them to make changes in their previous knowledge to adapt to the new information.

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Social Constructivism

The theory of Social Constructivism was proposed by post-revolutionary Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky was not against cognitivism, but he opposed the assumption that it was possible to remove social context from learning. Social constructivism addresses the collaborative aspect of learning.

Knowledge develops from how persons in a society interact with one another. Students depend upon others to help build their learning and building blocks. They need to have support to construct their knowledge. Social constructivism is closely related to cognitive constructivism with the additional element of peers and societal influence.

Radical Constructivism

Radical constructivism was proposed by von Glasersfeld, whoprovides a pragmatic approach to problems related to truth, reality and human understanding. In this theory, von Glasersfeld contended that we developmentally build our understanding and our concepts about the world.

‍ Radical constructivism is relatively different from social and cognitive constructivism. It focuses on the notion that students and the knowledge they construct do not tell things that are real, only help people to live and work in their environment. The basic idea is that knowledge is developed, not discovered. The stuff we discuss on the table is just interpretations of knowledge, which makes it difficult for us to know the truth.

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Constructivism in the Classroom

It is essential to understand how educators can apply constructivism in a classroom to build a unique learning environment for learners. In constructivist classrooms, the teachers establish a collaborative environment in which students show active participation in their learning.

Teachers need to act more as facilitators of learning. They must understand the preexisting knowledge of the students and, then they must incorporate new knowledge within the preexisting knowledge of the students. Teachers may also adjust their teaching according to the student's level of understanding.

Our collaborative learning method that uses the learning tool Writers Block transforms academic tasks into hands-on activities. These collaborative learning methods creates climates of active learning. The children are organising information and making the conceptual connections that sit at the heart of the constructivist learning environment. Unlike filling out a worksheet, the building process is more of a learning journey.

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Children are free to connect and reconnect the blocks and make as many conceptual connections as they like. The process can be directed as much as the educator likes. At one end of the spectrum, a completely free session would promote discovery learning.

If the material is complex, a more directed approach might be suitable. This approach to learning not only enables an individual learner to understand curriculum material but it also acts as a vehicle for intellectual development. The conversations and reasoning promotes human development.

This approach to promoting critical thinking and communication can be used across subjects and year groups. Whether a learner is in a language class or a maths class, they are engaged in the construction of knowledge. If a child has a lack of background knowledge that other learners within the group can serve as a learning resource.

That is to say, the groups acquisition of knowledge is greater than the sum of its parts. Neil Mercer calls this concept 'Inter-thinking'. Another by product of these social activities is the development of communication skills.

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Constructivist theories of learning have increasingly gained attention in the field of education due to its focus on making students active participants in their own learning process. This approach is particularly useful for students with special educational needs who require a more individualized approach to learning. A constructivist approach provides students with an opportunity to learn at their own pace and in a manner that is most conducive to their personal learning styles.

Using inquiry-based learning and learning activities that are designed to be cognitively engaging, students with special educational needs can develop their abilities to process external stimuli in a manner that is most effective for them. A social constructivist model places emphasis on creating a learning environment that is social in nature, providing opportunities for students to collaborate and engage in group work. This approach helps to foster a sense of community within the classroom, allowing students to learn from each other and to develop a deeper understanding of the concepts being taught.

By embracing a constructivist learning environment, students with special educational needs can make significant strides in their educational growth. This approach allows students to actively engage in the learning process and take ownership of their own learning. As such, this approach is particularly effective for those students who may be struggling with traditional educational models. Incorporating constructivist theories into educational theory can be particularly effective in creating a truly inclusive classroom environment.

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Role of a Teacher in a Constructivist Classroom

The primary role of a teacher is to build a collaborative problem-solving environment in which learners show active participation in their learning process. From this viewpoint, an educator acts as a facilitator of learning instead of a teacher. The educator ensures he/she knows about the students' preexisting knowledge, and plans the teaching to apply this knowledge and then build on it.

Scaffolding is a crucial aspect of effective teaching, by which the adult frequently modifies the level of support according to the students' level of performance. In the classroom, scaffolding may include modelling an ability, providing cues or hints, and adapting activity or material.

In a constructivist classroom, the teacher's role is to act as a facilitator or guide rather than a lecturer or dispenser of information. The teacher's primary responsibility is to create a learning environment that encourages students to construct their own knowledge through exploration and inquiry.

This involves providing scaffolding, which can take the form of modelling an ability, providing cues or hints, and adapting activity or material to meet the needs of individual students. T

The teacher also encourages students to collaborate with one another, share their ideas, and reflect on their learning experiences. By doing so, the teacher helps students develop critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and a deeper understanding of the subject matter.

Another important role of the teacher in a constructivist classroom is to facilitate the zone of proximal development (ZPD) for each student. This means that the teacher helps students work on tasks that are just beyond their current level of understanding, but still within their reach with guidance and support. By doing so, students are able to stretch their abilities and develop new skills, while feeling challenged and engaged in the learning process. The teacher may use a variety of techniques to facilitate the ZPD, such as scaffolding, modeling, and providing feedback.

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Pedagogical Objectives of Constructivist Learning Environment

Following are the pedagogical objectives of constructivist classrooms:

To offer experience alongside the knowledge construction process (learners decide how they will learn).

To offer experience in multiple dimensions (trying out alternative solutions).

To encourage learning in realistic contexts (factual tasks).

To encourage students' choice and ownership in the learning process (learning is student-centred).

To include social experience in learning (collaboration).

To incorporate various methods of representation (text, audio, video etc.)

To provide an understanding of the knowledge construction process (metacognition, reflection ).

The minimal guidance associated with the constructivist learning theory goes against the theory of direct instruction which has a lot of evidence to support it. Teaching methods such as discovery based teaching do not have as much empirical evidence to support them.

The success of such teaching techniques relies on a successful collaboration among learners. If a learner is not willing to take a central role and collaborate with others then the strategy might not work.

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Developing a Constructivist Classroom

The success of a Constructivist classroom depends upon the following four key areas:

Teachers act as a facilitator or guide;

Small numbers of students in learning groups;

Shared knowledge between educators and students;

Sharing of authority between students and teachers.

In addition, you might want to think about using a mental representation such as Writer's Block to support the active construction of knowledge.

Constructivist classrooms are usually very different from other types of classrooms. Constructivist classrooms pay attention to students interests and interactive learning. They add to students' pre-existing knowledge and are student-centred. In constructive classrooms, teachers interact with students to guide them to build their knowledge, they encourage negotiation about what students need to achieve success and students mostly work in groups.

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Key Strengths of the Constructivism Learning Theory

A constructivist approach to education views learners as active, competent, capable, and powerful. It tends to motivate learners to learn by ' doing', which leads to memory retention, critical thinking and engagement. Following are the main benefits of using Constructivism Learning Theory in a classroom.

Students are viewed as able learners and are motivated to apply independent, critical and creative thinking. This can bring more enjoyment to the learning process.

Teachers acknowledge that learners require differentiated and targeted lessons according to their cognitive status.

Through Piaget's stages, fresh and fill-in teachers can quickly guess a student's ability level based on his age.

Developing understanding is often treated as a child-led learning journey.

Students mostly find constructivist learning approaches to be more exciting and enjoyable as they learn by doing rather than memorizing or sitting. The learning experience is often more engaging.

One of the key figures in the development of constructivism is John Dewey, who believed that education should be centered around the learner and their experiences. Dewey believed that learning should be interactive and that students should be encouraged to explore and discover new information on their own. This approach to education is aligned with constructivism, which emphasizes the active role of the learner in the learning process. By incorporating the principles of constructivism and the ideas of John Dewey into the classroom, educators can create an environment that fosters critical thinking, problem solving, and creativity.

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Inquiry-Based Learning: A Constructivist Approach

Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) serves as a powerful constructivist teaching technique, drawing inspiration from both Piaget's and Vygotsky's cognitive learning theories. This instructional strategy emphasizes the role of cognitive structures and the knowledge construction process, creating an approach to teaching that fosters active learning and encourages students to take ownership of their educational journey.

At the heart of IBL lies the belief that interaction in classroom cultures plays a crucial role in promoting understanding and developing cognitive skills. By engaging students in problem-solving, questioning, and exploration, teachers can create a collaborative environment where the sharing of knowledge happens organically.

This approach not only supports the development of critical thinking skills but also aligns with the cognitive apprenticeship model, in which students learn from their peers and mentors through observation, imitation, and reflection.

Incorporating IBL into classroom practices can significantly enhance the learning experience. By presenting students with real-world problems or open-ended questions, educators can challenge them to actively engage with the subject matter and apply their existing knowledge. This process of discovery and investigation helps students build and refine their cognitive structures, enabling them to construct new knowledge and make meaningful connections to prior experiences.

Ultimately, adopting an inquiry-based approach to teaching can transform the classroom dynamic, turning students from passive recipients of information into active constructors of knowledge. By embracing the principles of constructivism and fostering a culture of curiosity, educators can help students unlock their full potential and cultivate a lifelong love of learning.

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Criticisms of the Theory

The Constructivist Learning Theory is mainly criticized for its lack of structure. An individual learner might need highly organized and structured learning environments to prosper, and constructivist learning is mostly related to a more laid-back strategy to help students engage in their learning.

Constructivist classrooms place more value on student progress, rather than grading which may result in students falling behind and without standardized grading it becomes difficult for the teachers to know which students are struggling.

One common criticism of the constructivist learning theory is that it lacks clear instructional strategies for teachers to follow. Without a set curriculum or standardized grading system, some argue that teachers may struggle to guide students towards specific learning goals.

Additionally, some critics argue that constructivism may not be the most effective approach for all types of learners, particularly those who thrive in more structured environments. Despite these criticisms, many educators continue to embrace constructivism as a valuable approach to learning that prioritizes student engagement and critical thinking skills.

Another criticism of the constructivism learning theory is that it may not be suitable for learners at different developmental levels. For example, younger students may not have the cognitive abilities to construct their own knowledge and may need more guidance and structure in their learning.

Similarly, learners with learning disabilities or cognitive delays may struggle with the open-ended nature of constructivism. It's important for educators to consider the individual needs and abilities of their students when implementing any learning theory, including constructivism.

Another criticism of the constructivism learning theory is its emphasis on intellectual development over other forms of development, such as social and emotional development. While constructivism can be effective in promoting critical thinking and problem-solving skills, it may not address the holistic needs of the learner. Educators must balance the benefits of constructivism with the importance of addressing all aspects of a student's development.

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Embracing the Learning Theory: Constructivism

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What is the constructivist learning theory, and how can teachers embrace this philosophy in their classrooms?

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This video is awesome and breaks the theory down to be more digestible. The takeaway quote from it is "Everyone's individual experiences make their learning unique to them." It means that everyone's experiences influence their learning. For example, it reminds me of our discussion boards, and if someone has a background with the topics in this class- like they have experience at a library instructing patrons, they will understand the topics differently than a student that has no experience. Learning about constructivism validated me because I realized that, most of the time, I can only really remember or understand something I've learned if I can relate it to something I already know. Otherwise, it seems like an intangible thing. -Cat

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What is Constructivism? (See link below for "Constructivism in Education")