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The Age of Reason and The Enlightenment 

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The Age of Reason and The Enlightenment 

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The Age of Enlightenment or the Enlightenment,[note 2] also known as the Age of Reason, was an intellectual and philosophical movement that occurred in Europe, especially Western Europe, in the 17th and 18th centuries, with global influences and effects.[2][3] The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on the value of human happiness, the pursuit of knowledge obtained by means of reason and the evidence of the senses, and ideals such as natural law, liberty, progress, toleration, fraternity, constitutional government, and separation of church and state.[

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The Tower of Babel is a story in the book of Genesis about people who tried to build a tower to reach Heaven. God confused the people building the tower by giving everyone a different language to speak.
This is song about the tower of babel by Elton John, titled, Tower of Babel.
Snow, cement and ivory young towers
Someone called us Babylon
Those hungry hunters
Tracking down the hours

But where were all your shoulders when we cried
Were the darlings on the sideline
Dreaming up such cherished lies
To whisper in your ear before you die

It's party time for the guys in the tower of Babel
Sodom meet Gomorrah, Cain meet Abel
Have a ball y'all
See the letches crawl
With the call girls under the table
Watch them dig their graves
'Cause Jesus don't save the guys
In the tower of Babel

Watch them dig their graves
'Cause Jesus don't save the guys
In the tower of Babel, no no no

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Download this Tower Of Babel photo now. And search more of iStock's library of royalty-free stock images that features Tower Of Babel photos available for quick and easy download.

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The native Americans were the people occupying America before Christopher Columbus arrived. Two interesting facts about the native Americans were that they spoke over 300 languages and that each Native American tribe has a different culture. These people had deep respect for nature and animals as it is what gave them their necessities. In 1607 , the English men and boys arrived to start their settlement in Jamestown.

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The Tower of Babel situation is what caused the variety of diverse languages of the world.
https://answersingenesis.org/tower-of-babel/

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The main reason for the Tower of Babel was because the Babylonians wanted to make a name for themselves by building a tower that reached to the heavens
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tower-of-Babel

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The Native Americans were gifted with surprising visitors in the English men in 1607. Another special event was the disruption of the construction of the Tower of Babel in 2200 BC. The Austronesians reached the Batanes islands as part of the Austronesian expansion in 2200 BC.

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Puritanism and Early Settlement of First "American" Colonies. Characteristics 

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Puritanism and Early Settlement of First "American" Colonies. Characteristics 

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1. Wrote mostly diaries and histories, which expressed the connections between God and their everyday lives.
2. South to "purify" the Church of England by reforming to the simpler forms of worship and church organization described in the New Testament.
3. Saw religion as a personal, inner experience.
4. Believed in original sin and "elect" who would be saved.
5. Used a plain style of writing.

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William Bradford
-"Of Plymouth Plantation"

Anne Bradstreet (poetry)

John Edwards
-"Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God"

Edward Taylor
-"Huswifery"

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Puritans became noted in the 17th century for a spirit of moral and religious earnestness that informed their whole way of life, and they sought through church reform to make their lifestyle the pattern for the whole nation.

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The Puritans believed God had chosen a few people, "the elect," for salvation.

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1507: Early Settlement of the first American colonies - Jamestown

1692: Salem Witch Trials

1741: Jonathan Edwards "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God"

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Benjamin Franklin
—Autobiography

Patrick Henry
—"Speech to the Virginia Convention"

Thomas Paine
—"The Crisis"

Phyllis Wheatley
—poetry

The Constitution

The Bill of Rights

The Declaration of Independence

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Mostly comprised of philosophers, scientists, writing speeches and pamphlets

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Human beings can arrive at truth (God's rules) by using deductive reasoning, rather than relying on the authority of the past, on religious faith, or intuition

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1607 Early Settlement—Jamestown

1775-1783 Revolutionary War

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The Age of Enlightenment or the Enlightenment,[note 2] also known as the Age of Reason, was an intellectual and philosophical movement that occurred in Europe, especially Western Europe, in the 17th and 18th centuries, with global influences and effects.[2][3] The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on the value of human happiness, the pursuit of knowledge obtained by means of reason and the evidence of the senses, and ideals such as natural law, liberty, progress, toleration, fraternity, constitutional government, and separation of church and state.[

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enjamin Franklin
—Autobiography

Patrick Henry
—"Speech to the Virginia Convention"

Thomas Paine
—"The Crisis"

Phyllis Wheatley
—poetry

The Constitution

The Bill of Rights

The Declaration of Independence

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Mostly comprised of philosophers, scientists, writing speeches and pamphlets

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Human beings can arrive at truth (God's rules) by using deductive reasoning, rather than relying on the authority of the past, on religious faith, or intuition

# data[].attributes.body
Human beings can arrive at truth (God's rules) by using deductive reasoning, rather than relying on the authority of the past, on religious faith, or intuition

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1607 Early Settlement—Jamestown

1775-1783 Revolutionary War

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American Renaissance, also called New England Renaissance, period from the 1830s roughly until the end of the American Civil War in which American literature, in the wake of the Romantic movement, came of age as an expression of a national spirit. One of the most important influences in the period was that of the Transcendentalists (see Transcendentalism), centred in the village of Concord, Massachusetts, and including Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Bronson Alcott, George Ripley, and Margaret Fuller. The Transcendentalists contributed to the founding of a new national culture based on native elements. They advocated reforms in church, state, and society, contributing to the rise of free religion and the abolition movement and to the formation of various utopian communities, such as Brook Farm.

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Ralph Waldo Emerson
—Nature
—"Self-Reliance"

Henry David Thoreau
—Walden
—Life in the Woods

Louisa May Alcott
—Little Women

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1. Everything in the world, including human beings, is a reflection of the Divine Soul.

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Self-reliance and individualism must outweigh external authority and link conformity to tradition.

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1840-1860
Transcendentalism

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People protested against a law that did not declare abortion as legal. This is an example of taking a stand. *Note: I do support abortion I am just providing an example
https://firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/abortion-protests/

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Huge protests were sparked after a ruling on the Roe v. Wade case was announced.
https://firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/abortion-protests/

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Romanticism, a cultural movement from the late 18th to mid-19th century, rejected the rationalism of the Enlightenment. Emphasizing emotion, individualism, and a connection with nature, it influenced literature, art, and music. Romantic works often explored intense feelings, the sublime, and the mysterious aspects of the natural world. Notable figures include Wordsworth, Coleridge, Turner, and Beethoven. The movement left a lasting impact on cultural expression and shifted the focus from reason to emotion and imagination.

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Washington Irving
—"Rip van Winkle"

Emily Dickinson
—poetry

Walt Whitman
—Leaves of Grass

Edgar Allan Poe
—"The Raven"

Nathaniel Hawthorne
—The Scarlet Letter

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Placed faith in inner experience and the power of the imagination.

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. Shunned the artificiality of civilization and sought unspoiled nature as a path to spirituality.

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He was the college classmate of a famous writer and president, who is none other than Franklin Pierce

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He changed his last name to hide his family's dark past. His uncle was a part of the Salem Witch trials. ALL FACTS FROM : https://www.history.com/news/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-nathaniel-hawthorne

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Mccarthyism is also known as the Red Scare

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It was the political repression and persecution of left-wing individuals and a campaign spreading fear of alleged communist and Soviet influence on American institutions and of Soviet espionage in the United States during the late 1940s through the 1950s.

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He was an American poet, essayist and journalist.

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He left school at just eleven years old.

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He founded his own newspaper while he was still a teenager.

All facts are from : https://interestingliterature.com/2023/04/walt-whitman-facts/

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She was one of the first immigrants of the New World in the 1630's.

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She was the first published poet in America

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She was the first Puritan figure in American Literature.

All facts from: https://interestingliterature.com/2023/01/facts-about-anne-bradstreet/

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11 Important and Interesting Facts about Anne Bradstreet

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By Dr Oliver Tearle (Loughborough University) Anne Bradstreet (1612-72) holds a special place in American literature, and has a notable claim to fame. Her life as one of the first immigrants to the…

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Ezra Weston Loomis Pound was an expatriate American poet and critic.

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He was a major figure in the early modernist poetry movement, and a collaborator in Fascist Italy and the Salò Republic during World War II.

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Ezra Pound is generally considered the poet most responsible for defining and promoting a Modernist aesthetic in poetry.

source for facts: https://interestingliterature.com/2015/05/five-fascinating-facts-about-ezra-pound/

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Realism (including neorealism) focuses on abiding patterns of interaction in an international system lacking a centralized political authority. That condition of anarchy means that the logic of international politics often differs from that of domestic politics, which is regulated by a sovereign power. In literature
Realism is characterized by the use of realistic characters over a complicated plot. Elements of Realism include the focus of social issues, struggles of everyday life, truths of everyday life, and focus on mostly middle- and lower-class people.

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Mark Twain
-Huckleberry Finn

Jack London
-Call of the Wild
-"To Build a Fire"

Stephen Crane
-"The Open Boat"

Ambrose Bierce
-"An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge"

Kate Chopin
-"Story of an Hour"
-The Awakening

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Realism rejects imaginative idealization in favour of close observation of outward appearances.

https://www.britannica.com/summary/realism-art#:~:text=Realism%20rejects%20imaginative%20idealization%20in,the%20landscape%20near%20their%20village.

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In the 20th century German artists associated with the Neue Sachlichkeit worked in a realist style to express their disillusionment after World War I.

https://www.britannica.com/summary/realism-art#:~:text=Realism%20rejects%20imaginative%20idealization%20in,the%20landscape%20near%20their%20village.

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Civil War
1861-1865

Reconstruction Era
1865-1877

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Mark Twain was his pen name, his real name was Samuel Clemens.

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Samuel Clemens, the sixth child of John Marshall and Jane Lampton Clemens, was born two months prematurely and was in relatively poor health for the first 10 years of his life

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Clemens studied the Mississippi River and the operation of a riverboat under the masterful instruction of Bixby, with an eye toward obtaining a pilot’s license.

All facts from : https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mark-Twain/Apprenticeships

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Sandra Cisneros is an American writer. She is best known for her first novel, The House on Mango Street.

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she grew up as the only daughter in a family of six brothers, which often made her feel isolated, and the constant migration of her family between Mexico and the United States instilled in her the sense of "always straddling two countries

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Cisneros has held a variety of professional positions, working as a teacher, a counselor, a college recruiter, a poet-in-the-schools, and an arts administrator, and has maintained a strong commitment to community and literary causes.

All facts are from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandra_Cisneros

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Modernism is a period in literary history which started around the early 1900s and continued until the early 1940s. Modernist writers in general rebelled against clear-cut storytelling and formulaic verse from the 19th century.

https://www.utoledo.edu/library/canaday/guidepages/Modernism2.html#:~:text=Modernism%20is%20a%20period%20in,verse%20from%20the%2019th%20century.

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Modernism Stands For Innovation And Experimentation

https://www.thecollector.com/modernism-definition/

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Like any other description of an epoch in art, 'modernism' and 'modern art' are difficult to define precisely. The reason is that such categories are subjective in a way and therefore will always stay controversial. Using the term 'modernism', we usually speak of a global movement that occurred both socially and culturally at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century in the countries of the Western world. Especially in fine art, the term meant a break with almost everything that happened before in art. And it describes the search for new means of expression.

Enclosed with great social, cultural, and political upheavals, 'modernism' is considered a period of innovation and experimentation. Roughly speaking, the term 'modernism' in art ranges from the realism of artists like Gustave Courbet to the abstraction of the 1960s. In the following, we will explain 'modernism' to you in more detail using 5 facts and 12 works of art.

1. Modernism Does Not Describe One Single Style

Mostly, the description of an epoch is made according to its similarities in the works of art produced in a special period. , however, is not so easy to narrow down - quite the contrary. Instead of a single style, many different styles and artforms emerged in the modernist period. Many of the new art forms and styles have one thing in common: many bear the suffix in their name. These include, for example, Impressionism , which was followed by Expressionism . But also and fall into the category of 'modernism.'

In this section, you can see one work each of the artists Claude Monet and George Braque . On the surface, these works of art could not be more different. The technique as well as the colors and motifs are fundamentally different. However, the two works have more in common than you might suspect in the beginning. Both paintings were created during the modernist period in art. What still unites them will be shown in the following explanations.

2. Modernist Artists Questioned Or Even Rejected Conservative Values

The era of modernism in art was heralded when more and more artists rejected classical principles of art and increasingly repudiated traditional ideas about art. Artists such as Claude Monet refrained from depicting the world as realistically as possible in their paintings, as it was taught in the Renaissance before. Instead, like many other artists, he was concerned with a subjective expression of perception. This also meant that artists like Monet questioned seeing as such. An objective idea of seeing was put to the test and was increasingly replaced by a subjective idea of seeing.

Let us take a look at Edvard Munch 's famous painting (1893). With this artwork, Edvard Munch shows how sudden excitement changes all our sensory impressions. All lines in the painting lead to the screaming head in the center of the painting. The wild mixture of bright colors and organic lines intensify the impression of the outburst of emotion. In this painting by the Norwegian artist, something becomes very clear: Painting in 'modernism' is neither about truths of nature nor about the presentation of ideal beauties. What counts is the pure expression of emotion, even if this means distorting a figure to the point of ugliness.

3. Modernism Stands For Innovation And Experimentation

Modern art was strongly influenced by the social and political events of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The turn of the century represents one of the greatest historical upheavals for Western societies. Industrialization really took off during this period, capitalism took hold more and more, there were inventions such as the railway and the First World War. All of this confronted people with the unforeseen. This awakening and upheaval could also be felt in art. There were many innovations and people experimented with shapes, colors, lines, and motifs as they had done never before.

A good example of this development is Pablo Picasso's artwork Les Demoiselles D'Avignon (1907). If you look at this painting today, one could almost think that Picasso painted this work to change Western painting from its ground. Here, the artist does not only play with the shape of the female body by combining it with geometric forms but the faces of the women were inspired by African art . Both can be seen as elements of a pictorial revolution.

Abstraction also found its way into art at the time of modernism. The Swedish artist Hilma af Klint is today considered a pioneer of abstract art , together with artists such as Wassily Kandinsky . In her art, she went through a pictorial development from naturalistic art to abstract art. Hilma af Klint painted her first abstract pictures already around 1906.

4. The Focus Was Often On Material, Color, Technique And Process

Whether the brushstrokes of a Claude Monet, the areas of color on a work by Piet Mondrian or splashes of paint on an action painting by Jackson Pollock - in the age of modernism, material, color, technique and painterly procedure pushed themselves into the foreground in the works of many artists.

Yet, the paintings need not be overloaded in any way. Often it is even the total reduction that creates a special focus. Some good examples of this are the monochrome works of the French artist, .

Yves Klein is considered an artist of the avant-garde . His monochrome picture compositions, which he created in an ultramarine blue developed by himself, have become particularly famous. The color bears the official name International Klein Blue. In such a blue picture the color becomes the only motif and thus immediately attracts the attention of the viewer.

5. Clement Greenberg: An Important Theoretician Of (Abstract) Modernism

One name that is definitely worth knowing in connection with modern art is Clement Greenberg. The art critic Clement Greenberg is something like the head of late modern painting. Greenberg was convinced that art had to be reduced to its most basic elements: to the surface and its color. Thus, the American theorist primarily propagated Abstract Expressionism and color surface painting.

Artists such as Jackson Pollock, owe their fame and international recognition to the influence and support of Willem de Kooning and Barnett Newman Towards A Newer Laocoon Clement Greenberg. One of Clement Greenberg's most famous writings is (1940). The title already reveals it: With his writing, Greenberg refers to a famous text by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. Like Lessing, Greenberg also wanted to separate the arts into their disciplines. He declares the visual arts to be the highest art. The strength of painting, he explains in his essay, only becomes visible when it renounces all narrative. This is precisely what the avant-garde has set itself in its painting, as we can see in the previous paintings.

So let us note: 'modernism' is the term for a period of time at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century. At that time, major social and cultural changes contributed to the fact that art was about to change. Modern art can by no means be reduced to a few similar characteristics. However, there are some characteristics by which modern art can be defined. There was a spirit of new beginnings in art and the courage to experiment. During the modernist era, artists questioned conservative values and traditional notions of art. They expressed themselves with color, forms, lines and techniques, thus paving the way to abstraction. An important theoretician figure in the development of modern art is the American art critic Clement Greenberg. His writings provide decisive answers to the question of what modern art should look like.

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Defining Modernism through 5 Facts and 12 Works of Art

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Like any other description of an epoch in art, 'modernism' and 'modern art' are difficult to define precisely. The reason is that such categories are subjective in a way and therefore will always stay controversial.

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The American dream is the belief that anyone, regardless of where they were born or what class they were born into, can attain their own version of success

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The term "American dream" was coined in a best-selling book in 1931 titled Epic of America.

both facts from: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/american-dream.asp

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During the 1930's, the ideal American Dream consisted of three different criterions: two children, a marriage, and a three-bedroom house with the infamous white picket fence.

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The American Dream rose to its greatest fame during the 1930's as a result of the on-going Great Depression from 1929 to 1939.

All facts from: https://transformationoftheamericandream.weebly.com/1930s.html#:~:text=American%20Dream%20of%20the%201930'S,Depression%20from%201929%20to%201939.

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https://www.smokyhillmuseum.org/exhibits/online_exhibits_folder/1950s-an-american-dream.html#:~:text=On%20the%20surface%2C%20this%20decade,living%20in%20modern%2C%20suburban%20homes.

The American dream of the 1950s centered on nuclear families living in modern, suburban homes.

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1950s: An American Dream?

Many have a nostalgic view of the 1950s. On the surface, this decade beamed with prosperity with new homes, automobiles and appliances. Yet, under this decade's shiny appearance, many felt pressure to conform to societal norms.

The American dream of the 1950s centered on nuclear families living in modern, suburban homes. However, not all was ideal. Family roles were changing. The business industry used color to target consumer behaviors. Everything from leisure activities to automobiles to appliances pushed for sameness and for keeping up with ones neighbors. The countryside itself shifted as new highways were built. Changes were brewing below the surface of the American dream.

After American servicemen returned home from WWII, many women lost their jobs and returned to homemaking duties. Societal norms said women should manage the household and care for children.

Feminine images shown by media shaped the stereotypical housewife. Many women embraced this image. Others rebelled. Many sought jobs to raise their status and to eliminate the boredom of suburban living.

In 1957, Betty Friedan attended a class reunion at Smith College and surveyed former classmates. She discovered women were dissatisfied with their lives. They felt the media's image of women was inaccurate. While these women were educated, many felt displaced from society. They felt stuck in the role as a housewife. This prompted Friedan to write the book, Feminine Mystique (1963) that challenged the traditional homemaker's role and prompted change for women's rights.

Friedan criticized Dr. Benjamin Spock's guidance on the mother's role in the home. Friedan's book prompted a review of the ideas on traditional gender roles in the 1950s. The term, "feminine mystique" described the cultural acceptance and erroneous ideal of the housewife. It dispelled the myths that were at the core

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1950s: An American Dream? : Online Exhibits : Exhibits : Smoky Hill Museum

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1950s: An American Dream? Many have a nostalgic view of the 1950s. On the surface, this decade beamed with prosperity with new homes, automobiles and appliances. Yet, under this decade's shiny appearance, many felt pressure to conform to societal norms. The American dream of the 1950s centered on nuclear families living in modern, suburban homes.

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With victory under their belts and money in their pockets, Americans in the 1950s could optimistically pursue the American dream.

https://www.achrnews.com/articles/87033-the-1950s-pursuing-the-american-dream

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Harlem Renaissance, a blossoming (c. 1918–37) of African American culture, particularly in the creative arts, and the most influential movement in African American literary history. Embracing literary, musical, theatrical, and visual arts, participants sought to reconceptualize “the Negro” apart from the white stereotypes that had influenced Black peoples’ relationship to their heritage and to each other. They also sought to break free of Victorian moral values and bourgeois shame about aspects of their lives that might, as seen by whites, reinforce racist beliefs.

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ames Weldon Johnson

Claude McKay

Countee Cullen

Langston Hughes (poetry)

Zora Neale Hurston

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The Harlem Renaissance was a phase of a larger New Negro movement that had emerged in the early 20th century and in some ways ushered in the civil rights movement of the late 1940s and early 1950s.

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The social foundations of this movement included the Great Migration of African Americans from rural to urban spaces and from South to North

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"The New Negro Movement"
1919-1925

Prohibition
1920-1933

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The American Dream in the 1960s was in the balance due to civil rights movements, gender equality struggles, and an unpopular war.

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The counterculture movement emerged, questioning traditional values and norms, while personal fulfillment and freedom remained quintessential dreams.

All facts from: https://brilliantio.com/what-is-the-american-dream-in-the-1960s/#:~:text=Key%20Takeaways,and%20freedom%20remained%20quintessential%20dreams.

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The “American Dream” in 1980s was people having fun, making money, and living free but was mainly focused on people getting as much money as they possibly could.

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In the early 1980s we were going through a recession and it was severe.

All facts from: https://prezi.com/6er_-og3lxtu/american-dream-in-the-80s/#:~:text=The%20%E2%80%9CAmerican%20Dream%E2%80%9D%20in%201980s,recession%20and%20it%20was%20severe.

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Once the 1990s hit, technology began to influence the American dream heavily. People started craving their own personal computers, cell phones, televisions (for each room), and video games.

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Later in the 2000s, with the crash of the economy, the American dream shifted towards the idea of financial security vs. gaining more things.

All facts from: https://www.rd.com/list/how-the-american-dream-has-changed/

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Contemporary "Postmodernism"
1950–present

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Korean War
1950-1953

Vietnam War
1954-1975

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1. Influenced by studies of media, language, and information technology.
2. Sense that little is unique; culture endlessly duplicates itself.
3. New literary forms and techniques: works composed of only dialogue, or combining fiction and nonfiction, experimenting with physical appearance of their work.

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Alice Walker

Wallace Stevens

e.e. cummings

Maya Angelou

Anne Sexton

James Baldwin

Richard Wright

Sandra Cisneros

Amy Tan

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Many postmodernists hold one or more of the following views: (1) there is no objective reality; (2) there is no scientific or historical truth (objective truth);

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Postmodernism and modern philosophy

Postmodernism is largely a reaction against the intellectual assumptions and values of the modern period in the history of Western philosophy (roughly, the 17th through the 19th century). Indeed, many of the doctrines characteristically associated with postmodernism can fairly be described as the straightforward denial of general philosophical viewpoints that were taken for granted during the 18th-century Enlightenment, though they were not unique to that period. The most important of these viewpoints are the following.

1. There is an objective natural reality, a reality whose existence and properties are logically independent of human beings-of their minds, their societies, their social practices, or their investigative techniques. Postmodernists dismiss this idea as a kind of naive realism. Such reality as there is, according to postmodernists, is a conceptual construct, an artifact of scientific practice and language. This point also applies to the investigation of past events by historians and to the description of social institutions, structures, or practices by social scientists.

2. The descriptive and explanatory statements of scientists and historians can, in principle, be objectively true or false. The postmodern denial of this viewpoint-which follows from the rejection of an objective natural reality-is sometimes expressed by saying that there is no such thing as Truth.

3. Through the use of reason and logic, and with the more specialized tools provided by science and technology, human beings are likely to change themselves and their societies for the better. It is reasonable to expect that future societies will be more humane, more just, more enlightened, and more prosperous than they are now. Postmodernists deny this Enlightenment faith in science and technology as instruments of human progress. Indeed, many postmodernists hold that the misguided (or unguided) pursuit of scientific and technological knowledge led to the development of technologies for killing on a massive scale in World War II. Some go so far as to say that science and technology-and even reason and logic-are inherently destructive and oppressive, because they have been used by evil people, especially during the 20th century, to destroy and oppress others.

4. Reason and logic are universally valid-i.e., their laws are the same for, or apply equally to, any thinker and any domain of knowledge. For postmodernists, reason and logic too are merely conceptual constructs and are therefore valid only within the established intellectual traditions in which they are used.

5. There is such a thing as human nature; it consists of faculties, aptitudes, or dispositions that are in some sense present in human beings at birth rather than learned or instilled through social forces. Postmodernists insist that all, or nearly all, aspects of human psychology are completely socially determined.

6. Language refers to and represents a reality outside itself. According to postmodernists, language is not such a "mirror of nature," as the American pragmatist philosopher Richard Rorty characterized the Enlightenment view. Inspired by the work of the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, postmodernists claim that language is semantically self-contained, or self-referential: the meaning of a word is not a static thing in the world or even an idea in the mind but rather a range of contrasts and differences with the meanings of other words. Because meanings are in this sense functions of other meanings-which themselves are functions of other meanings, and so on-they are never fully "present" to the speaker or hearer but are endlessly "deferred." Self-reference characterizes not only natural languages but also the more specialized "discourses" of particular communities or traditions; such discourses are embedded in social practices and reflect the conceptual schemes and moral and intellectual values of the community or tradition in which they are used. The postmodern view of language and discourse is due largely to the French philosopher and literary theorist Jacques Derrida (1930-2004), the originator and leading practitioner of deconstruction.

7. Human beings can acquire knowledge about natural reality, and this knowledge can be justified ultimately on the basis of evidence or principles that are, or can be, known immediately, intuitively, or otherwise with certainty. Postmodernists reject philosophical foundationalism-the attempt, perhaps best exemplified by the 17th-century French philosopher René Descartes's dictum cogito, ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am"), to identify a foundation of certainty on which to build the edifice of empirical (including scientific) knowledge.

8. It is possible, at least in principle, to construct general theories that explain many aspects of the natural or social world within a given domain of knowledge-e.g., a general theory of human history, such as dialectical materialism. Furthermore, it should be a goal of scientific and historical research to construct such theories, even if they are never perfectly attainable in practice. Postmodernists dismiss this notion as a pipe dream and indeed as symptomatic of an unhealthy tendency within Enlightenment discourses to adopt "totalizing" systems of thought (as the French philosopher Emmanuel Lévinas called them) or grand "metanarratives" of human biological, historical, and social development (as the French philosopher Jean-François Lyotard claimed). These theories are pernicious not merely because they are false but because they effectively impose conformity on other perspectives or discourses, thereby oppressing, marginalizing, or silencing them. Derrida himself equated the theoretical tendency toward totality with totalitarianism.

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Postmodernism | Definition, Doctrines, & Facts

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Postmodernism, in contemporary Western philosophy, a late 20th-century movement characterized by broad skepticism, subjectivism, or relativism; a general suspicion of reason; and an acute sensitivity to the role of ideology in asserting and maintaining political and economic power.

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My journey this past year connecting literature to history has been great. I have learned a lot from each week that I have added to this project. I hope to remember what I have learned and even apply it in the future. Connecting literature to the time period during the time the literature was written has been eye opening and allowed me to understand the novel better, because I have an understanding of the time period it was written in.