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This Padlet was updated on 26/06/2025. It has sources from the course learning materials and additional sources to enhance your professional development. 

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This Padlet was updated on 26/06/2025. It has sources from the course learning materials and additional sources to enhance your professional development. 

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Every child grows uniquely, and some children may take a different path in their developmental journey. Engaging early with intervention support services can benefit children, enhancing their potential.​

Why the early years count?

​​​In the first years of a child's life, their brain development will create the foundations for all learning and development later in life. While genetics provide the initial 'map' for development, it is everyday ex​per​iences and relationships that shape a child's brain.

Genetics lay the foundational blueprint for a child's brain development. Positive interactions with trusted and supportive caregivers in the early years set each child up for a lifetime of learning, health and wellbeing.

A baby's brain begins developing before birth and, in the early years, significant 'wiring' occurs within the brain, effectively programming the child's development. Between 2 to 6 months, a baby will learn about emotions through watching how you react to them when they coo, cry, smile or yell.

Making important connections

In the first 9 months, a baby's brain is forming connections between what they see, hear, taste and feel.

From 9-12 months, a baby will become increasingly vocal, as their understanding of emotions develops.

By the age of 3, a child has around 1,000 trillion brain connections (synapses), the most they will ever have in their life, as these are 'pruned' in later development.

These initial brain connections are formed as a result of the everyday experiences, relationships and care a child receives in their early years and will provide the foundations for further brain development later in life.

What you can do

Parents, caregivers and family members play an important role in the ongoing development of a child. Providing a safe and caring environment for your child and engaging with them through talking, reading and playtime has a great influence on their early development.

Community and learning environments can also play a key role in supporting optimal development through providing support, learning opportunities and social experiences.

Brain development from birth

Essential brain development occurs in the first years of a child's life. When you look at the years in which the main brain development is made and the effect this development has in schooling and later years, the importance of positive experiences in the early years is clear.

As a parent or guardian, you can support your child's early development by providing a safe and nurturing environment with learning opportunities and minimal stress.

Your child's brain has already started developing. All 5 senses begin to function before birth. During this time, prenatal sensory experiences help shape the brain and nervous system.

2-6 months

Significant 'wiring' of the brain occurs in the first years of a child's life and your baby's brain is developing as a result of the experiences and relationships they are exposed to each day. Babies learn emotions through observing their parents and caregivers, and how they react to various movements and sounds such as crying, yelling, smiling and cooing.

6-​9 months

By 9 months, your child's brain has already undergone a rapid growth spurt that helps form connections between what they see, hear, feel and taste. Playtime and interactions with parents and family members provides key learning opportunities for early development.

3 years

By 3 years of age, a child's brain has around 1,000 trillion brain connections (synapses). The early years are a rapid period of brain development which can be fostered by positive relationships with parents and optimal community environments for families and children. Engaging with your child and providing a safe environment and physical care to your child has a significant impact on your child's development.

3-5 years

By school, a child's brain development is built upon the now solid foundation created in the first 5 years. It is more difficult for children to take advantage of learning environments, such as school, if they have not had optimal early learning experiences or a nurturing home environment.

Adolescence

When adolescence is reached, brain synapses will number around 500 trillion, a figure that remains relatively steady into adulthood. The brain development prioritises the connections used most often, resulting in 'pruning' of the brain networks and circuits.​​​

Help and support

If you are concerned about any aspect of your child's development:

If you are in doubt, it is better to have your concerns checked than to wait and see​.

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kindy; early childhood; brain development; development; developmental milestones; milestones; early intervention; development milestones; milestone; child milestones

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Chemical synapses are links between neurons and non-neuronal cells (glandular cells, muscle cells, sensory cells). The synaptic complex of each chemical synapse is a non-reducible primary component that constitutes the basic minimum for chemical synaptic transmission.

It encompasses three components: the presynaptic (an axon terminal), a synaptic cleft, and a postsynaptic component (dendritic spine).

Table of Contents

Synapse and Chemical Synapse

Synapse

The points of contact between neurons where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next are referred to as synapses.

The majority of synapses use chemical messengers to communicate. Other synapses are electrical, and ions move directly between cells in these synapses.

An action potential causes the presynaptic neuron to produce neurotransmitters at a chemical synapse. These chemicals attach to receptors on the postsynaptic cell, causing it to discharge an action potential more or less frequently.

Chemical Synapse

Chemical synapses are much more prevalent. Neurotransmitters are responsible for the transfer of nerve signals through chemical synapses.

The synaptic cleft is a fluid-filled gap between the two neurons. A nerve impulse cannot travel from one neuron to the next.

Synaptic vesicles from the terminal of the presynaptic neuron produce neurotransmitters at the synaptic cleft when the action potential reaches the terminals.

Neurotransmitters bind to postsynaptic membrane receptors enabling voltage-gated channels to open, allowing ions to flow.

The polarity of the postsynaptic membrane changes and the electric signal is transmitted across the synapse.

Neurotransmitters could be inhibitory or excitatory. Various cells respond to the same neurotransmitter in different ways.

The neurotransmitter is inhibitory if there is a net influx of positively charged ions within the cell, which causes the action potential to be generated. EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential) is the name given to this phenomenon.

The membrane is hyperpolarized as the membrane potential gets increasingly negative, and neurotransmitter action becomes inhibitory. They produce IPSP or inhibitory postsynaptic potential.

Once connected to the receptor, neurotransmitters are either worked on by enzymes or transferred back and recycled to end the signal after it has been transmitted forward.

Structure of Chemical Synapse

Chemical synapses have a larger synaptic cleft (region between the pre and postsynaptic neurons) than electrical synapses. The presence of tiny, membrane-bound structures called synaptic vesicles within the presynaptic terminal is a key feature of all chemical synapses.

The chemical signals generated by the presynaptic neuron are filled with one or more neurotransmitters, and it is these chemical agents serving as messengers between the connecting neurons that provides this synapse its name.

There are many different types of neurotransmitters, with acetylcholine being the most well-studied. It is used in peripheral neuromuscular synapses, autonomic ganglia, and some central synapses.

Synapses are asymmetrical in both structure and function. Only the presynaptic neuron produces the neurotransmitter binding to receptors on the postsynaptic cell's side of the synapse.

The presynaptic nerve terminal (also known as the synaptic button, bouton, or knob) develops from the axon's tip, whereas the postsynaptic target surface develops from a dendrite, cell body, or another component of the cell.

Difference Between Chemical Synapse and Electrical Synapse

Chemical and electrical synapses are specialised biological structures that connect neurons and carry impulses across them in the nervous system.

Chemical and electrical synapses differ in their way of signal transmission: chemical synapses send signals in the form of chemicals called neurotransmitters, whilst electrical synapses send signals in the form of electrical signals without using chemicals. Because of their various modes of action, chemical and electrical synapses have slightly different structures.

Chemical synapse allows unidirectional transmission by using chemicals called neurotransmitters to send signals along the neurons. The electrical synapse transmits signals along the neurons via an ionic current and allows for transmission in both directions.

The synaptic cleft is the greater space connecting two neurons in a chemical synapse. Neurotransmitters diffuse through the synaptic cleft until they reach their target receptors. The electric synapse is made up of two neurons that are physically connected by gap junctions. As a result, the space between them is very narrow.
Related Links:
Frequently Asked Questions

What are the steps in chemical synaptic transmission?

The following steps are required for chemical synaptic transmission:

The neurotransmitter is synthesised in the presynaptic nerve terminal.

Secretory vesicles are used to store neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitter release is regulated in the synaptic gap between pre and postsynaptic neurons.

The presence of particular neurotransmitter receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, allows the neurotransmitter to imitate the results of nerve stimulation when applied to the synapse.

A method of stopping the released neurotransmitter from responding.

Why does the brain have chemical synapses?

Chemical synapses assist neurons in the central nervous system to create circuits. They play a critical role in the biochemical computations that underpin perception and thinking. They allow the nervous system to communicate with and control other body systems.

Define Desensitisation.

A decrease in reaction to a similar neurotransmitter stimulus is known as the desensitisation of the postsynaptic receptors. It means that as a stream of action potentials arrives in quick succession and the efficacy of a synapse might be reduced-a process known as frequency dependency of synapses. The nervous system takes advantage of this characteristic for functional reasons, and it can fine-tune its synapses by phosphorylating the proteins involved.

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Chemical Synapse - An Overview of Chemical Synapse and Its Functions along with FAQs

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In mammals, chemical synapses are the most common route of neural transmission. Several studies have been conducted on their neuropharmacological, structural and functional properties. They facilitate the transmission of neuronal function by releasing a neuroactive chemical.

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Five Steps of "Emotion Coaching" Preschoolers

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Why early childhood relationships are so important – Kinderly

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In this blog, early years expert David Wright (AKA Mr Paint Pots) explores the importance of relationships in early childhood. Recently, I read this extraordinary tweet from an educationalist – “New…

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Mindfulness & Clinical Psychology Solutions

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The ACE Questionnaire:

To determine someone's ACEs score, they answer the 10 Adverse Childhood Experiences questions relating to events prior to their eighteenth birthday:

Toxic Stress and ACEs

In addition to the hugely influential nature of the Attachment relationship between a parent and a child, ongoing adverse experiences (such as those listed above) can cause toxic levels of stress that sadly can negatively impact on both brain structure (i.e., the development of neural networks) and brain function (i.e., can alter a developing brain's biochemistry and thus response to input).

Toxic stress happens when ACEs repeatedly trigger a child's fight-flight-freeze system (our innate stress response governed by our sympathetic nervous system). It also occurs when emotions associated with coping (like anger, fear, frustration, shame, humiliation, anxiety) continue to trigger a stress response in the body and mind. This is commonplace in families where children are either punished for their emotional experiences, or parents who may lack the skills / awareness to navigate certain emotions themselves miss opportunities (cues) to settle and soothe their children.

With repeated exposure to high levels of stress (particularly in the absence of attachment safety), the accumulation of toxic stress can affect both skill and brain development. Living an a heightened state characteristic of perpetual fear (or the need to ensure safety) can effectively narrow our Window of Tolerance making us susceptible to chronic health conditions.

Hopefully it is becoming clearer to you that the devastating impact of toxic stress on a developing brain (and the resulting emotion-regulation and skill deficits people are left with) is not the fault of the individual. Rather, it is the outcome of not having a safe and secure development. This results in a child missing many important skills and experiences that build resilience, or a child's brain being negatively affected in ways that can become pervasive in later life.

As we develop, particularly in the absence of supportive caregivers or healthy role models, toxic stress may also lead to less-than-ideal coping behaviours that may negatively affect our health. Over time and into adulthood, these coping behaviours can in turn cause health effects that can accumulate across a lifetime.

Summary of Key Findings from 17,000+ patients in the CDC-Kaiser Study

Due to the now well-documented effects of long-term toxic stress, the higher your ACE score the more likely you are to emerge from childhood with emotional and/or behavioural difficulties that can affect the rest of your life. In other words, the higher your ACE score the higher your statistical chance of suffering from a range of psychological and medical problems like chronic depression, cancer, or coronary heart disease.

Key findings from the ACEs study are summarized below:

The original study us available in full (via an external link) here.

Alarmingly, we now know that people who do not heal from their traumas are more likely to raise children who go on to have high ACE scores. In other words,

Untreated childhood trauma becomes a source of Intergenerational Trauma

Thankfully, although the effects of toxic stress can be profound, they can be significantly lessened by protective factors that build resilience and can buffer the effects of trauma. We know that safe, stable, and nurturing relationships can protect our brains and bodies from the harmful effects of stress and adversity.

We also know that healthy nutrition, regular exercise, restful sleep, practicing mindfulness, building social connections, and getting mental health support can all help decrease toxic stress hormones associated with ACEs and can improve health.

Below is Part 1 of a hugely informative (but easy to follow) 5-Part video series by Dr. Colleen Bridger that explores the impacts of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) on a child's developing brain and how trauma can influence both emotional and behavioural expression.

It presents eye-opening examples of ways trauma can shut down (or can activate) a child's nervous system and how behavioural problems in children can be easily mistaken (and misdiagnosed) particularly when a narrow symptom-focus that overlooks the impacts of ACEs is used.

Problems with ACEs Study: Correlation is NOT Causal

The ACEs Study is essentially a 'snapshot' of people who had adverse childhood experiences and where they were at later in their lives. It is not possible to infer direct causation from this research (i.e., it is an over simplification to say 'ACEs cause later difficulties'). Similarly, the Study did not look at whether or not participants had received any treatment for their traumas (or what kind). We know that trauma-informed therapies (like EMDR Therapy) can greatly help people to 'get past their past' which is especially important for people who are affected by ACEs.

Also, keep in mind that ACE Questionnaire is very brief and it is not exhaustive (after all, it is only 10 questions...). Because of this, it does not list all possible adverse events that can happen within a family situation. We also know that Attachment issues between a parent and a child can also have a huge impact on the emotional development and learning that a child can carry with them through adulthood. Equally - so too can events that occur outside the home ( e.g. bullying at school).

However - and this is important - the ACE questions do not ask about any protective factors. For example, we know that having a healthy relationship with at least one caring adult or parent, who is emotionally attuned to your emotional and developmental needs can make up for a non-secure (or absent, or abusive) relationship with another caregiver / parent.

Indeed, not everyone who experiences one or more ACEs will go on to developing a serious mental health or medical issue. In fact, many adults who experience significant adversity in their childhood have gone on to have amazing lives full of adventures, achievements, and happy relationships and families. This is because although the effects of toxic stress can be profound, they can be significantly lessened by protective factors that build resilience and can buffer the effects of trauma.

Again, we know that these adults have identified that this resilience was helped by having at least one healthy, safe, caring relationship in their life. This is because safe, stable, and nurturing relationships can protect our brains and bodies from the harmful effects of stress and adversity.

A safe, stable, and nurturing relationship can come from a number of different people - for instance, a different parent, sibling, relative, teacher, mentor, therapist, or coach.

A safe, stable, and nurturing relationship for a developing child is:

An emotionally responsive and a supportive person in their life (Someone they can lean on)

Someone who views them as unique and interesting (Someone who is interested in them)

Someone who supports their ideas or dreams (Someone who believes in them)
If you are a survivor of childhood trauma, it is recommended that you find a trauma-informed psychologist who can provide a securely attached, emotionally corrective relationship in which you can process your past, learn the emotional regulation and relationship skills that you may have missed out on, so that you can learn to break the patterns of your upbringing. Equally, if you are a parent who has experienced ACES or you are the parent of a child who has experienced ACEs, it is equally important to seek professional help to mitigate the effects of this trauma.
Summary

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are traumatic events that happen early in life (childbirth to 18 years of age), such as suffering maltreatment or living in a household affected by domestic violence, substance misuse or mental illness.

ACEs may cause a child's developing brain to become stuck in a physiological state of 'threat'.

This may affect a child's brain development, and psychological functioning and this may influence lifestyle behaviours that affect overall long-term health.

Parents who have experienced ACEs are (sadly) statistically more likely to create environments - or have lifestyles - that place their offspring at risk of experiencing ACEs themselves. Often, this is how the cycle of inter-generational trauma continues.

ACEs are not causal (and the questionnaire does not measure 'protective factors')

Although the effects of toxic stress can be profound, they can be significantly lessened by protectivefactors that build resilience and can buffer the effects of trauma.

With the appropriate help, adults who experience significant adversity in their childhood can go on to have amazing lives full of adventures, achievements, and happy relationships and families.

Safe, stable, and nurturing relationships can protect our brains and bodies from the harmful effects of stress and adversity.

Healthy nutrition, regular exercise, restful sleep, practicing mindfulness, building social connections, and getting mental health support can also help decrease toxic stress hormones associated with ACEs and can improve health.

Further Resources:

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The Impact of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) | Self-Help Here

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Adverse Childhood Events drastically change body & mind, increasing susceptibility to mental health & medical conditions. Self-help here...

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Why Co-Regulation is Vital in Early Child Development

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Our guide explains co-regulation in child development and identifies techniques you can use to teach children how to properly manage their own emotions.

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Learn about and support Self-Regulation in Durham District School Board.

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Where is the limbic system located?

The limbic system is thought to be an important element in the body's response to stress, being highly connected to the endocrine and autonomic nervous systems.

The nerve cells (neurons) within the limbic system are structured differently from those in the cerebral cortex. In the cerebral cortex, the cells are primarily neocortical, meaning they are formed into six layers.

Within the limbic system, the cells are either arranged in fewer layers or are more jumbled. As there is less complexity of the cells within the limbic system, this has led people to believe that this system is evolutionarily older than the cerebral cortex itself.

Hippocampus

There are two hippocampi located in each hemisphere of the brain. They are seahorse-shaped and are structures mainly associated with being the memory centers of our brains.

Episodic memories are formed in the hippocampus and then filed away into long-term storage throughout other parts of the cerebral cortex.

The hippocampus plays a role in spatial navigation and has also been associated with learning and emotions (Tyng, Amin, Saad, & Malik, 2017).

This area also has widespread connections to brain regions involved in cognition and movement control (McEwen et al., 2016).

The hippocampus is also known as a site where neurogenesis occurs - this means that new nerve cells are made here from adult stem cells.

Damage to the hippocampus

Due to the hippocampus's involvement in memory, damage to this area can lead to severe memory impairments.

Damage can also be detrimental to spatial memory, for instance, remembering directions to locations that should be familiar to the individual.

Damage to the hippocampus can disrupt cognitive functions such as learning, memory, and spatial navigation and contribute to dementia symptoms like memory loss, disorientation, and confusion (Gulyaeva, 2019)

In Parkinson's disease, hippocampus damage can worsen cognitive symptoms like executive dysfunction, visual-spatial deficits, and memory problems that many patients experience (Xie et al., 2011).

Structural and neurochemical abnormalities have also been found in the hippocampi of young people with bipolar disorder (DelBello et al., 2006).

Amygdala

The amygdala is an almond-shaped structure located right next to the hippocampus. The main function of the amygdala is in emotional responses, including feelings of happiness, fear, anger, and anxiety.

This area is also key for the formation of new memories. The amygdala interacts with the hippocampus by attaching emotional content to memories.

It has a role in how memorable memories can be - memories with strong emotional components tend to stick rather than those with little emotional content.

'Fear learning' is also an element of the amygdala.

Fearful memories can be formed after only a few repetitions, which can result in avoidance of certain fearful stimuli. Therefore, the amygdala is linked with the fight-or-flight response, as stimulating activity can influence the body's automatic fear response.

In recent years, it has been discovered that neurogenesis also occurs in the amygdala along with the hippocampus, meaning that new neurons are created here, expanding our knowledge of its role in the limbic system (Jhaveri et al., 2018).

Damage to the amygdala

Damage to the amygdala may result in more aggression, irritability, loss of control of emotions, and deficits in recognizing emotions, especially recognizing fear.

Damage to both sides of the amygdala can result in fewer feelings of shame about breaking social rules as well as trouble recognizing fearful and shamed facial expressions correction. This suggests that the amygdala may help detect unclear social situations (Piretti et al., 2020).

Reduced amygdala volume may underlie vulnerability to stress and depression. A study found that childhood violence exposure was linked to reduced amygdala volumes, which interacted with later life stress to predict worsening depression over time (Weissman et al., 2020).

Structural and neurochemical differences in the amygdala have been found in young people with bipolar disorder, suggesting an association between amygdala volume and this disorder (DelBello et al., 2006).

Cingulate Gyrus

The cingulate gyrus is part of the cingulate cortex of the brain and is thought to be an integral part of the limbic system.

This area is believed to help regulate emotions, behavior, and pain, as well as being responsible for controlling autonomic motor function.

This area is thought to involve fear and the prediction and avoidance of negative stimuli through monitoring the body's response to unpleasant experiences.

Damage to the cingulate gyrus

Damage to the cingulate gyrus can result in emotions being inappropriate, having a lack of fear, impaired sense of pain, and learning impairments.

This region has also shown differences in structure in those with Autism, depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and bipolar disorder due to its role in emotional processing (Yucel et al., 2003).

There is thought to be reduced volume and altered activity in the anterior and posterior cingulate cortex in those with schizophrenia (Ponirakis et al., 2022).

Likewise, there have been reduced gray matter volumes in the anterior cingulate cortex of people with ADHD (Carmona et al., 2005).

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus' most basic function is homeostasis (maintaining a steady internal state).

This region controls most autonomic functions, such as hunger, thirst, body temperature, blood pressure, heart rate, and sexual activity.

The hypothalamus also serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system and in the regulation of sexual motivation and behavior.

The hypothalamus also has a role in controlling the body's response to stress. To control these many functions, the hypothalamus integrates information from other parts of the brain and is responsive to a variety of stimuli, such as light, odor, stress, and arousal.

Damage to the hypothalamus

Damage or abnormalities in the hypothalamus have been linked to several mental health conditions, including anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder, aggression, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. (Herman et al., 2016).

This may be because hyperactivity in the hypothalamus can lead to excessive anxiety and agitation, whereas underactivity can contribute to depression and lack of motivation.

Chronic stress and elevated cortisol levels associated with hypothalamic dysfunction may predispose some individuals to mood disorders. (Herman et al., 2016)

Differences in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis responsiveness related to genetic factors or exposure to early life stress can make some people more vulnerable to PTSD and mood disorders later in life. (Pagliaccio et al., 2015)

Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia are a group of structures situated at the base of the forebrain and the top of the midbrain.

Its main functions are to regulate voluntary movements, including eye movements, and help with balance as well as posture.

There is a limbic region of the basal ganglia, which has multiple components ( nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, and ventral pallidum).

These areas are involved in cognitive and emotional behaviors and have a role in rewards and reinforcements. Because of this, it can be linked with addictive behaviors and the formation of habits.

Damage to the basal ganglia

Damage to the basal ganglia can result in tremors, involuntary muscle movements, abnormal posture, and links to movement disorders (Parkinson's and Huntington's disease).

In relation to the limbic system, the basal ganglia may also contribute to symptoms of depression (Stathis et al., 2007).

Research on the Limbic System

Several recent studies have furthered our understanding of the limbic system's structure and function in both healthy and clinical populations:

Rolls (2019) proposed there may be two separate limbic systems - one for emotion involving the amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and one for memory involving the hippocampus and posterior cingulate cortex. This highlights the diverse roles of limbic regions.

Neuroimaging research in Parkinson's disease patients by Banwinkler et al. (2022) found limbic system changes correlated with symptoms like depression, impulse control disorders, cognitive decline, and even motor symptoms. This supports the role of the limbic system beyond emotion regulation.

Structural MRI studies have identified limbic system abnormalities in psychiatric disorders. For example, Sahin et al. (2015) found damage to limbic regions in multiple sclerosis patients with emotional and memory deficits. White et al. (2008) found differences in cingulate, hippocampal, and amygdala structures in schizophrenic youth.

Changes to limbic areas involved in emotion regulation have been identified in major depressive disorder (Maletic et al., 2007).

In chronic traumatic encephalopathy, a neurodegenerative disease linked to repetitive head impacts, reduced volumes of the amygdala, hippocampus, and cingulate cortex were found in former NFL players (Lepage et al., 2018). This may indicate early neurodegeneration.

In summary, emerging research continues to reveal the widespread involvement of the limbic system in cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and neurodegenerative processes through diverse methodologies and clinical populations. This further emphasizes the central role of this system in brain function.

Treatment and Future Directions

As research continues to unravel the limbic system's complexity, new treatment targets and approaches may emerge.

Deep brain stimulation has shown promise for treating certain limbic-mediated conditions like anxiety, PTSD, and addiction by modulating activity in regions like the amygdala and nucleus accumbens (Bari et al., 2014).

Antidepressant medications may also work by restoring limbic system physiology (Maletic et al., 2007).

Further research on the functional connectivity between limbic regions could aid in the diagnosis and monitoring of neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Advances in neuroimaging, optogenetics, and other techniques will enable more precise targeting of limbic areas involved in memory, emotion, and behavior. A better understanding of limbic development may uncover windows for early intervention.

Assessing and restoring limbic system function through multi-modal therapies could become an increasing focus in treating limbic-related disorders. Overall, the limbic system remains a promising target for developing new diagnostic, monitoring, and therapeutic approaches in clinical populations.

References

Banwinkler, M., Theis, H., Prange, S., & van Eimeren, T. (2022). Imaging the Limbic System in Parkinson's Disease-A Review of Limbic Pathology and Clinical Symptoms. Brain Sciences, 12(9), 1248.

Bari, A., Niu, T., Langevin, J. P., & Fried, I. (2014). Limbic neuromodulation: implications for addiction, posttraumatic stress disorder, and memory. Neurosurgery Clinics of North America, 25 (1), 137-145.

Carmona, S., Vilarroya, O., Bielsa, A., Tremols, V., Soliva, J. C., Rovira, M., ... & Bulbena, A. (2005). Global and regional gray matter reductions in ADHD: a voxel-based morphometric study. Neuroscience letters, 389(2), 88-93.

DelBello, M. P., Adler, C. M., & Strakowski, S. M. (2006). The neurophysiology of childhood and adolescent bipolar disorder. CNS Spectrums, 11 (4), 298-311.

Grèzes, J., Berthoz, S., & Passingham, R. E. (2006). Amygdala activation when one is the target of deceit: did he lie to you or to someone else?. Neuroimage, 30 (2), 601-608.

Gulyaeva, N. V. (2019). Functional neurochemistry of the ventral and dorsal hippocampus: Stress, depression, dementia and remote hippocampal damage. Neurochemical Research.

Herman, J. P., McKlveen, J. M., Ghosal, S., Kopp, B., Wulsin, A., Makinson, R., ... & Myers, B. (2016). Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical stress response. Comprehensive physiology, 6(2), 603.

Jhaveri, D. J., Tedoldi, A., Hunt, S., Sullivan, R., Watts, N. R., Power, J. M., ... & Sah, P. (2018). Evidence for newly generated interneurons in the basolateral amygdala of adult mice. Molecular psychiatry, 23(3), 521-532.

Lepage, C., Muehlmann, M., Tripodis, Y., Hufschmidt, J., Stamm, J., Green, K., ... & Koerte, I. K. (2019). Limbic system structure volumes and associated neurocognitive functioning in former NFL players. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 13 (3), 725-734.

Maletic, V., Robinson, M., Oakes, T., Iyengar, S., Ball, S. G., & Russell, J. (2007). Neurobiology of depression: an integrated view of key findings. International Journal of Clinical Practice, 61 (12), 2030-2040.

McEwen, B. S., Nasca, C., & Gray, J. D. (2016). Stress effects on neuronal structure: hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41(1), 3-23.

Morris, J. S., Frith, C. D., Perrett, D. I., Rowland, D., Young, A. W., Calder, A. J., & Dolan, R. J. (1996). A differential neural response in the human amygdala to fearful and happy facial expressions. Nature, 383 (6603), 812-815.

Okun, M. S., Bowers, D., Springer, U., Shapira, N. A., Malone, D., Rezai, A. R., Nuttin, B., Heilman, K. M., Morecraft, R. J., Rasmussen, S. A., Greenburg, B. D., Foote, K. D. & Goodman, W. K. (2004). What's in a "smile?" Intra-operative observations of contralateral smiles induced by deep brain stimulation. Neurocase, 10 (4), 271-279.

Pagliaccio, D., Luby, J. L., Bogdan, R., Agrawal, A., Gaffrey, M. S., Belden, A. C., ... & Barch, D. M. (2015). Amygdala functional connectivity, HPA axis genetic variation, and life stress in children and relations to anxiety and emotion regulation. Journal of abnormal psychology, 124(4), 817.

Piretti, L., Pappaianni, E., Lunardelli, A., Zorzenon, I., Ukmar, M., Pesavento, V., Rumiati, R. I., Job, R., & Grecucci, A. (2020). The role of amygdala in self-conscious emotions in a patient with acquired bilateral damage. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 14, 677.

Ponirakis, G., Ghandi, R., Ahmed, A., Gad, H., Petropoulos, I. N., Khan, A., ... & Woodruff, P. W. (2022). Abnormal corneal nerve morphology and brain volume in patients with schizophrenia. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 1870.

Rolls, E.T. (2019). The cingulate cortex and limbic systems for emotion, action, and memory. Brain Structure and Function, 224(9), 3001-3018.

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The limbic system is a complex set of brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, memory, and behavior regulation. Key components include the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and cingulate gyrus. It's central to emotional processing, memory formation, and various autonomic functions, bridging higher cognitive processes and primal emotions.

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Easily create surveys and polls to collect customer feedback, measure employee satisfaction, and organize team events.

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Certificate in Understanding Adverse Childhood Experiences | Level 2 | P12764 | Burton and South Derbyshire College

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Adverse childhood experiences can be direct, such as physical abuse, or indirect, for example the divorce of parents. They have been shown to drastically impact a child’s development and can even lead to premature death. This course will give you the skills needed to support people with ACEs and help them overcome obstacles.

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Children and Young People’s Mental Health | Level 2 | P15897 | Burton and South Derbyshire College

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10% of children and young people (aged 5-16 years) have a clinically diagnosable mental health problem, yet 70% who experience mental health problems have not had the support they need.
This qualification will increase your knowledge and awareness of children and young people’s mental health. By completing the qualification, you will develop knowledge of mental health in children and young people which would support progression onto further qualifications and into relevant employment in the health and social care or education sector.
In this qualification, the term ‘children and young people’ refers to an age range of 5-18 years old.