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Cuộc nổi dậy Hà Lan, là cuộc nổi dậy vũ trang được lãnh chống lại chế độ quân chủ Tây Ban Nha bởi một phần của Mười bảy tỉnh thuộc Hà Lan thuộc Tây Ban Nha.

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La guerre de Quatre-Vingts Ans, également appelée révolte des Pays-Bas, est le soulèvement armé mené de 1568 à 1648 contre la monarchie espagnole par une partie des Dix-Sept Provinces des Pays-Bas espagnols.

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Nội chiến và Cách mạng Anh (1642 - 1649)

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Nội chiến và Cách mạng Anh (1642 - 1649)

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Cách mạng Anh đã lật đổ chế độ quân chủ chuyên chế thiết lập chế độ quân chủ lập hiến.

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In March 1688, Queen Mary Beatrice was six months pregnant, raising the possibility that she would produce a Catholic son and heir for her husband, James II. By then, James had sat on the throne for a little over three years, his Catholicism barely tolerated by the majority of his government and the English people on the grounds that his heir was his Protestant daughter, Mary, who was married to the equally Protestant Prince William of Orange.

Worried about what the birth of a prince would mean politically, three Englishmen - Arthur Herbert and William and Edward Russell - traveled to The Hague and proposed to William of Orange that he "invade" England and "rescue" the country from the threat of papacy. On June 10, the Queen delivered a healthy son and on June 30, Herbert again arrived in Holland, this time with the Earls of Devonshire, Danby and Shrewsbury, Richard Lumley, Edward Russell, Henry Sidney and Dr Compton, Bishop of London, to request that William "save" them.

On October 26, William took his leave of the Dutch States-General, thanked them for their support and prepared to invade England. "What God intends for me I do not know, but if I should fall, take care of my adored wife who has always loved this country as if it were her own," he told them. That afternoon he and Mary dined together at their home at Honselaardijk for the last time and he then took leave of her.

On October 27, a day of prayer and fasting for a successful journey was held, and the Spanish envoy held a mass in its honor. The French envoy did not participate. On October 30, the party set sail, but bad weather forced their return to port. On November 9, Mary received a message to travel to Brill where she spent two final hours with her husband on Dutch soil before they made a second departure the following day. Again they were forced back and then, finally, on November 11, they successfully launched.

William was accompanied by over 600 ships in full, but mid-trip decided that instead of traveling to Yorkshire where the friendly Earl of Danby was based, he would instead head to the West Country. His primary objective was for a peaceful landing, and in that he would be lucky thanks to what became known as the fortuitous "Protestant wind" that allowed the Dutch to dock and kept the English navy, led by Lord Dartmouth, from intervening.

It was not a glamorous start. After prayers of thanksigiving, the party made do with the ground outside Brixham for sleep - even William slept on a mattress on the floor of a fisherman's hut. The following day the party fought wind and rain as they marched for Exeter, spending the night in a local inn or, for the common soldiers, in the mud outside. As the journey continued men fell ill and were forced back to Brixham, cottages being opened up for one or two soldiers as needed. In all, the trip took four days and when they reached Exeter they were cheered by a people grateful a Dutchman had come to depose their king - it was a strange situation, to say the least. Within days, William was joined by prominent Englishmen like Sir Edward Seymour and the Marquis of Bath.

As for James II, he was desperate. Though the head of an 34,000-strong army, he failed to understand that most were Protestants equally as suspicious of him, and when he announced to the leading Tories that it was not within his power to hold free elections when a foreign army was in the country, he was essentially done. His nephew, Lord Cordbury, declared for William, while Lord Delamere led a rising in Cheshire, Danby seized York and the Earl of Devonshire took Nottingham. By the time James left London to join his army in Salisbury, he seemed unclear as to what to do.

Two days in to the march to Exeter came news that James had withdrawn without giving battle. The English counseling William advised that he should negotiate a victory instead of forcing a fight and so, on December 7, William received James's commissioners at The Bear, a roadside inn in Hungerford. William's terms were that all Catholics officers be dismissed and proclamations made against William and his supporters be revoked. James would pay for William's army and the two men would attend Parliament together to negotiate next steps in unison. Remarkably, at this point, there was an option for James to remain on the throne.

James received the terms and stated that he would consider them, but on December 10, he sent Queen Mary Beatrice and their son to France under the protection of Louis XIV and felt obliged to follow them. He attempted just that on the 11th by sneaking down the back stairs at Whitehall Palace with a handful of supporters. They then took a boat to Vauxhall where James threw the Great Seal into the Thames and then rode horses for a boat waiting to carry them to France.

William met the news of his father-in-law's desertion with relief, but it was short-lived. Five days later, James was back in London after being apprehended by fishermen. William was by now in no mood to negotiate, knowing that James was far from prepared to do right by his people. William summoned a council of Englishman to decide the King's state and James was eventually escorted to Rochester, though he issued a proclamation that he was leaving London due to William's "discourtesy" and he was prepared to return to the capital when asked by his people. No request came and when James again slipped out of the country on December 23, no one stopped him. Though his presence abroad was a constant thorn in William's side, it was better than the awkwardness of having him in England, or the possibility of violence breaking out and having to put him to death.

Like that, William had effectively conquered England in a matter of weeks without battle. On December 30, he sent word to Mary asking her to prepare to join him in London, and on December 31, he went to visit Charles II's widow, Catherine of Braganza, then residing in Somerset House in London. When he learned that her Chamberlain had been detained for his support of James, William ordered his release so that the Dowager Queen wouldn't be inconvenienced.

The next phase was oddly enough the more complicated one, for it was Mary, not William, who was in fact James's Protestant heir. William was clear from the start that he had not come to England to start a Commonwealth or to participate in government unless he was his wife's equal. Unlike, say, Henry VII before him, he was also clear that he in no way meant to diminish the rights of his wife - he did not mean to be king to the exclusion of his wife being queen regnant. Pointedly, he also stated that if he was named king it would not be only for the remainder of Mary's life, which would lead to the possibility of her dying and him being ousted by her sister, Anne.

As for the English, they were split to the point of being at a loss. Though William's arrival in the country had been welcomed - indeed, invited - few had anticipated that James would leave so quickly. No one really wanted him to come back, but the succession and the sanctity of the crown being casually undermined by popular demand made many uneasy. The idea of William being made sole monarch - as the Dutch wanted - was discarded. So, too, was the idea of leaving James on the throne, but naming Mary his regent, the argument against being that James was not mentally ill and it was equally as troubling for Parliament to force the separation of the crown and monarch.

Against this backdrop, Mary wrote to Danby from Holland that she would never become queen if her husband wasn't made king. Thus, with few other viable options, on January 31, 1689, Parliament voted that William and Mary would rule together during their joint and separate lives. If William and Mary had children, they would succeed their parents (though everyone knew the likelihood after 11 years of childless marriage was remote). If Mary died and William remarried and had children with his second wife, Mary's sister Anne and her children would precede them in the line of succession. Thus it was that the presence of Anne and her husband became a powerful force for William to manage.

In February, Mary set sail from Holland, later writing that aboard the ship she looked behind her,

"And saw the vast seas between me and Holland that had been my country for more than 11 years. I saw with regret that I had left it and I believed it was forever; that was a hard thought, and I had need of much more constancy than I can brag of, to bear with patience. Yet when I saw England, my native country, which long absence had made me a stranger to, I felt a secret joy...but that was soon checked with consideration of my father's misfortunes which came immediately to my mind."

William met her at Greenwich and they enjoyed a tearful reunion. On February 13 the couple were presented in the Banqueting Hall at Whitehall with the Declaration of Rights, which they accepted, and they were then proclaimed king and queen. On April 11, William and Mary were crowned in Westminster Abbey - the only coronation ceremony in British history for two sovereigns. The "Glorious Revolution" was over and Protestantism reigned supreme.

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In March 1688, Queen Mary Beatrice was six months pregnant, raising the possibility that she would produce a Catholic son and heir for her husband, James II. By then, James had sat on the throne for a little over three years, his Catholicism barely tolerated by the majority of his government and the English people...

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Cách mạng Hoa Kỳ là cuộc chiến tranh ly khai và giành độc lập của 13 thuộc Anh ở Bắc Mỹ.

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John Trumbull was an early American painter known for his depictions of historical events related to the Revolutionary War. He was personally acquainted with many of the principle figures of the Revolution, having spent two years as an officer in the colonial army, which included a stint as a military aide to General George Washington.

Trumbull's paintings tended to capture the drama of warfare and significant events including the presentation of the Declaration of Independence to the Continental Congress. Images created by Trumbull, including a set of large murals which adorn the rotunda of the U.S. Capitol, have defined how many Americans visualize the earliest days of the nation.

Fast Facts: John Trumbull

Early Life and Military Career

John Trumbull was born June 6, 1756. As the son of Connecticut's colonial governor, he grew up in a privileged environment.

Trumbull lost the use of one eye in a childhood accident, yet he was determined to learn to paint. He took some painting lessons from John Singleton Copley before attending Harvard. After graduating from Harvard at the age of 17, he taught school while trying to learn more about art.

As the American Revolution began, Trumbull became involved and enlisted in the Continental Army. George Washington had seen some of Trumbull's sketches of enemy positions and took him on as an aide. Trumbull served in the army for two years before resigning in 1777.

In 1780 Trumbull sailed for France. His ultimate destination, however, was London, where he intended to study with the painter Benjamin West. He traveled to London, where he began studies with West, but in November 1780 he was arrested by the British as an American rebel. Upon his release he returned to the continent, and then back to Boston.

Painting the Revolution

Following the end of the Revolutionary War, in late 1783, Trumbull made his way back to London and to West's studio. He spent two years painting classical subjects before embarking on what would become his life's work: painting scenes of the American Revolution.

Trumbull's first effort, "The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker's Hill" featured the death of one of the great heroes of the American cause, Boston physician and patriot leader Dr. Joseph Warren. The painting, which was completed in the spring of 1786 under the tutelage of Benjamin West, was influenced by West's own painting, "The Death of General Wolfe at Quebec."

The painting of the climactic action at Bunker Hill was noteworthy as Trumbull had been present that day, so in part he was painting from his own memory. Yet he included details that he admitted were inaccurate, such as a British officer trying to shield Warren. He justified that by noting that the officer had shown kindness to American prisoners.

Return to America

After leaving England and spending two years in France, he eventually returned to America in 1789. During the period when the federal government was based in Philadelphia he painted portraits of national figures. For a painting of the presentation of the Declaration of Independence he traveled to sketch men who had been present in 1776 (despite this attention to detail, his eventual painting included some men who had not been present).

In the early 1790s, Trumbull took a job working as the private secretary to John Jay. While working for Jay he returned to Europe, eventually returning to America for good in 1804.

Trumbull continued to paint, and a cataclysmic event, the 1814 burning of the U.S. Capitol by the British, led to his greatest commission. As the federal government contemplated rebuilding the Capitol, he was hired to paint four enormous paintings to decorate the rotunda. Each would measure 12 by 18 feet, and would feature scenes from the Revolution.

The four paintings, which hang in the Capitol's rotunda today, are "The Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga," "The Surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown," "The Declaration of Independence," and "The Resignation of Washington." The subject matter was carefully chosen, as it deliberately included two great military victories balanced by the presentation of the Revolutionary ideals to the Continental Congress and the return of the nation's heroic warrior, Washington, to civilian life.

The large paintings were based on smaller originals completed years earlier, and art critics have maintained that the enormous versions in the Capitol are flawed. However, they have become iconic, and periodically serve as the backdrop to noteworthy public events.

In 1831 the elderly Trumbull donated his unsold paintings to Yale College, and designed a building to house them, thus creating the first American college art gallery. He published an autobiography in 1841, and died in 1843, at the age of 87.

Trumbull's paintings have lived on as symbols of America's patriot spirit, and generations of Americans have essentially seen the American Revolution through his paintings.

"John Trumbull." Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., vol. 15, Gale, 2004, pp. 316-317. Gale Virtual Reference Library.

Selesky, Harold E. "Trumbull, John." Encyclopedia of the American Revolution: Library of Military History, edited by Harold E. Selesky, vol. 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, 2006, pp. 1167-1168. Gale Virtual Reference Library.

"Trumbull, John (1756-1843)." American Eras, vol. 4: Development of a Nation, 1783-1815, Gale, 1997, pp. 66-67. Gale Virtual Reference Library.

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John Trumbull, Painter of the American Revolution

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John Trumbull was an early American painter known for his depictions of historical events related to the Revolutionary War. He was personally acquainted with many of the principle figures of the Revolution, having spent two years as an officer in the colonial army, which included a stint as a military aide to General George Washington.

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Cuộc Đại cách mạng lật đổ chế độ quân chủ chuyên chế, thiết lập chế độ cộng hoà và xác lập các giá trị tự do, bình đẳng, bác ái ,và ghi nhận các quyền con người và công dân.

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Les grandes étapes de la révolution française de 1789

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Les étapes de la révolution française de 1789. Du serment du jeu de paume à la Terreur et la chute de la Monarchie française.

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L'Italie, on t'en parle depuis toujours avec l'empire romain et la renaissance. Pourtant, tu seras surpris d'apprendre que l'Italie telle qu'on la connait n'a que 161 ans. Eh oui, incroyable ! Son unification est due à un évènement historique qui s'appelle le Risorgimento. On te dit tout sur cet évènement qui n'aura bientôt plus aucun secret pour toi. Andiamos ! 😆

Le contexte 🧐

Avant de rentrer dans le vif du sujet, on recontextualise un peu tout ça. Juste avant le début du Risorgimento, l'Italie est divisée en régions ou royaumes indépendants. Il y avait entre autre le royaume de Sardaigne ou encore le royaume des deux Sicile, etc.

👉 Ces royaumes sont la plupart du temps dirigés par des princes ou des ducs d'origines étrangères comme la France ou l'Espagne.

Mais ce n'est pas tout ! L'empire d'Autriche domine et gère une très grande partie du nord du pays.

Tu l'auras donc compris, le pays en forme de botte n'est pas l'état unifié que l'on a pu connaître à l'époque de l'Empire Romain, ou même encore aujourd'hui.

Cependant, la Révolution Française (cocorico !) qui a eu lieu quelques décennies plus tôt va inspirer les Italiens et les pousser à se soulever. C'est ainsi que va commencer le Risorgimento. 💪

Les personnages clés du Risorgimento 👨

Giuseppe Garibaldi 🇮🇹

C'est un Général Italien et un personnage fondamental du Risorgimento. Durant les trois phases du Risorgimento, il a combattu personnellement dans des campagnes pour permettre à l'Italie de redevenir indépendante et de s'unifier.

Il a également entrepris des actions militaires en Amérique du Sud, en particulier en Uruguay. (Oui, le gars est sur tous les fronts. 😅)

👉 C'est pourquoi il est surnommé le " Héros des deux Mondes". Ses exploits ont suscité l'admiration de grands écrivains français, notamment : Alexandre Dumas, Victor Hugo ou encore George Sand. (Pas mal quand même 😆)

Giuseppe Mazzini 🇮🇹

Ce n'est pas un militaire. En revanche, c'est un révolutionnaire et patriote. Avant le début et pendant le Risorgimento, il soutient tous les mouvements insurrectionnels.

Il n'a qu'une seule ambition, permettre à l'Italie de s'unifier et de redevenir indépendante. (Avec le temps, on peut dire qu'il a plutôt réussi. 😅)

Camillo Cavour 🇮🇹

C'est un homme politique de la région du Piémont. Il n'a pas l'âme d'un guerrier, pourtant il arrive à fédérer autour de lui et du royaume de Sardaigne tous les patriotes qui souhaitent leur indépendance. Tu l'auras compris, ce qu'il aime lui, c'est parler et négocier. C'est ce qu'il fera en négociant certains territoires avec Napoléon 3.

👉 Une fois la botte unifiée, il deviendra le tout premier président du conseil d'Italie (en gros le premier ministre). 👨‍💼

Victor Emmanuel II

C'est un duc de Savoie, roi du Piémont-Sardaigne et prince du Piémont. Après l'indépendance et l'unification de l'Italie, il deviendra roi jusqu'à sa mort. 👑

Napoléon III 🇫🇷

Comme ses prédécesseurs, il est l'empereur des Français. Pour en arriver là, il a, lui aussi, réalisé un coup d'État. (On aurait été déçus sinon. 😉)

Durant quelques années, il a vécu en Italie. Après son accession un peu forcée au pouvoir français en 1851, il est préoccupé par le principe de nationalité. C'est pourquoi, il aide notre voisine à devenir indépendante.

Le Risorgimento en 3 étapes 📈

1️⃣ La première guerre d'indépendance (1848-1849)

C'est au milieu du XIXᵉ siècle que commence la première étape du Risorgimento. En 1848, des insurrections éclatent dans les villes comme Palerme, Milan et Messine. Alors, Charles-Albert de Sardaigne (roi de l'état du Piémont-Sardaigne) tente le coup et déclare la guerre à l'Autriche. Nos deux Giuseppe (Garibaldi et Mazzini) prennent part aux combats pour aider Charles Albert. ⚔️

Cependant, après quelques victoires, certains royaumes participants aux combats se retirent du conflit. Charles Albert de Sardaigne se retrouve seul et est contraint de signer un armistice.

En 1849, Charles Albert qui est plutôt du genre têtu, redémarre les combats à Novare. C'est un nouvel échec et c'est celui de trop, Charles-Albert signe un nouvel armistice. Dans le même temps, il abdique et laisse son fils Victor Emmanuel II prendre les reines.

👉 Toutes les régions d'Italie qui avaient profité de l'offensive pour déclarer leur indépendance cèdent avec le temps. C'est au bout d'un an de combat que la première guerre d'indépendance se termine. (Oui, ça n'a pas fait long feu 🔥)

2️⃣ La deuxième guerre d'indépendance (1859-1860)

Avant que la deuxième guerre d'indépendance ne commence, Camillo de Cavour (en tant que bon filou 😉) s'allie avec Napoléon III. En faisant ce pacte, il s'assure le soutien de l'armée française lors des futurs combats qu'il envisage. Si l'Italie venait à l'emporter contre l'Autriche, la Savoie et le comté de Nice iraient aux français.

Comme prévu, une deuxième période de combats démarre et le royaume de Sardaigne attaque l'Empire Autrichien. Bien aidés par les Français (hehe), ils remportent de grandes batailles comme Solferino et Magenta. Garibaldi et Mazzini sont encore une fois de la partie lors de ces combats.

👉 Ces grandes victoires permettent le début de l'union de la nation italienne. Ainsi, un plébiscité permet l'union :

Royaume de Sardaigne,

Toscane,

Romagne

Parme

Modène

Grande partie de la Lombardie. 🇮🇹

Le royaume des Deux-Siciles résiste encore et toujours à l'envahisseur (tu auras reconnu la référence😉) et refuse de s'associer aux autres régions. Giuseppe Garibaldi prend les choses en main et y débarque pour prendre possession du royaume. Après la victoire du général dans le sud, il ne reste plus que Rome et Venise qui n'appartiennent pas encore au royaume.

👉 Le 18 février, Victor Emmanuel II réunit pour la première fois tous les députés à Turin. Il devient par la suite le nouveau king d'Italie. 🤴

3️⃣ La troisième guerre d'indépendance (1866)

On arrive maintenant à la dernière étape du Risorgimento. En 1866, la Prusse et l'empire d'Autriche se disputent des territoires en Allemagne. Cette coquine d'Italie voit ce conflit comme un moyen de récupérer la Vénétie, toujours sous le contrôle de l'Autriche. Elle s'associe avec la Prusse le 8 avril et cette dernière attaque l'Autriche. 🗡

Le souverain d'Italie se met en route avec une armée et avance sur la Vénétie. Quant à Garibaldi, tel un héros, il envahit le Tyrol avec des chasseurs alpins.

Le 26 juillet, le chancelier Prussien Bismarck signe un armistice avec l'Autriche. Il considère le conflit comme terminé. L'Italie qui se retrouve seule, est obligée d'arrêter les combats.

L'Autriche finit par céder la Vénétie à l'Italie. Lors du traité de Vienne du 12 octobre, elle tente de donner la Vénétie aux français pour détruire la relation entre l'Empereur et le roi. C'est un échec, car la France rend la Vénétie à l'Italie. (On a la classe quand même. 😁)

En 1870, Rome était toujours sous le contrôle du Pape ; elle ne faisait donc pas encore officiellement partie du royaume. Mais une petite bataille le 20 septembre 1870 permet au souverain de prendre le contrôle de la cité.Elle intègrera officiellement du Royaume d'Italie le 2 octobre 1870. Elle en devient même la capitale en juin 1871.

Les dates à retenir 🤓

On te l'accorde, ça fait beaucoup d'infos à retenir.😅 Parce qu'on ne veut pas que tu perdes la tête, on te propose un petit résumé des dates les plus importantes à retenir. Ce sont elles qui ont fait l'histoire de l'Italie. 🇮🇹

De 1848 à 1849

La première guerre d'indépendance

1948

Premières insurrections au nord.

1949

Victor Emmanuel II prend les reines du Royaume de Sardaigne

De 1859 à 1960

La deuxième guerre d'indépendance

17 mars 1861

Victor Emmanuel II devient roi.

1866

troisième guerre d'indépendance

9 octobre 1866

La France rend la Vénétie à l'Italie

2 octobre 1870

Rome officiellement annexée au Royaume.

1er juillet 1871

Rome devient la capitale.

La culture issue du Risorgimento 🎬

Cette période de l'histoire italienne a inspiré un très grand nombre d'artistes, aussi bien des italiens patriotes que des étrangers. Alexandre Dumas a notamment écrit un livre sur Garibaldi : Viva Garibaldi ! Une odyssée en 1860. 📔

De nombreux réalisateurs italiens du XXᵉ siècle ont également mis en scène des films qui se déroulaient pendant le Risorgimento. C'est notamment le cas de Roberto Rossellini ( Vive l'Italie), Luchino Visconti ou encore Luigi Magni ( Au nom du peuple souverain). 🎥

Enfin, côté tableaux, on retrouve un très grand nombre d'œuvres, notamment réalisés par 5 peintres : 🖼

Gerolamo Induno

Francesco Hayez

Giuseppe Molteni

Federico Faruffini

Michele Cammarano

À lire aussi

On en a terminé avec la grande histoire italienne du Risorgimento. On espère que tu en as appris un peu plus sur cette période de l'histoire de nos voisins qui est souvent oubliée. 🇮🇹
Laisse-nous un petit commentaire pour nous dire si tu as aimé ! 😁

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Risorgimento: Histoire de l'Unification Italienne 🇮🇹 - Sherpas

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Explore l'histoire du Risorgimento, le mouvement d'unification italienne. Enjeux, acteurs et impacts sur l'Italie moderne. 🏛️

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Đại cải cách (tiếng Nga: Великие реформы, chuyển tự Velikie cải cách) là một loạt các cải cách xã hội, chính trị, pháp lý và chính phủ lớn ở Đế quốc Nga được thực hiện vào năm những năm 1860.

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Cuộc nội chiến giữa Liên bang miền Bắc và Liên minh miền Nam nhằm giải quyết các vần đề xung đột về chế độ nô lệ ở miền Nam