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The industrial process began spreading to France, Belgium, and Germany in Britain. These nations had the same natural advantages as Britain, leading to the spread of industrialization. Britain had abundant natural resources such as coal and iron that assisted them in industrializing.

The effects of industrialization were inventions like the spinning jenny and the power loom, which helped to speed up production, the establishment of factories, rising labor in urban areas, and innovations in steam power and railroads that boosted transportation and connectivity. The introduction of mechanized production led to mass production, drastically increasing efficiency output and economic growth. Britain became the world’s leading industrial power and dominated global trade during the 19th century.

Technologies/inventions: The spinning jenny and the power loom. The spinning jenny allowed one person to produce more yarn with less effort, which increased productivity and reduced labor costs. Power looms reduced the time it took to weave fabric and increased demand for cotton because factories could process more cotton rapidly.

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Belgium was the first continental European country to industrialize. With its rich coal and iron resources, the country developed rapidly in industries like textiles, iron, and glass production. The Belgian government followed British industrial techniques and the construction of railroads helped increase economic growth. Industrialization in France was slower and more gradual compared to Britain, due in part to the Napoleonic Wars. However, by the mid-1800s, France had developed industries in textiles, coal mining, and transportation. France maintained a mix of small-scale artisans and large factories compared to Britain's mass production. Germany’s industrialization grew after its unification in 1871. The country benefited from its natural resources, coal and iron, and it developed strong industries in steel, chemicals, and machinery. The German government invested in infrastructure like railroads and encouraged scientific and technological research. Germany became one of Europe’s leading industrial powers, rivaling Britain.

Industrialization led to mass production of goods, which allowed factories to produce items more quickly and cheaply than traditional artisan methods. Another effect is many European economies shifted from agriculture-based systems to diversified industrial economies causing a massive migration from rural areas to urban centers, as people searched for jobs in factories. However, rapid urbanization resulted in overcrowded cities with insufficient housing, sanitation, and infrastructure. In addition, new social classes rose, including a wealthy industrial bourgeoisie and a growing working-class proletariat.

Technologies/inventions: The steam engine and electric generator. The steam engine was used to power steam locomotives, steamboats, steamships, and machines in factories. Electric generators allowed factories to run longer hours and produce more goods.

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Industrialization spread from Europe to the United States. The United States became the most powerful industrial force in the world due to the large amount of Europeans (Irish and Germans) immigrating to the United States. The immigrants helped the factories with their unskilled, unpaid labor and ran the machines. The Americans believed that these immigrants polluted the American nation.

The effects of industrialization in the United States were the growth of the U.S. cities, economic expansion, and labor specialization. In addition, the transcontinental railroad enhanced and assisted the effects of industrialization by providing an increase in the production and transportation of cargo.

Technologies/inventions: The cotton gin and electrical telegraph. The cotton gin increased the availability of cotton and the cotton allowed the textile industry to grow. The electrical telegraph enabled instant communication at the speed of light quickly over long distances, facilitated the growth in the railroads, and reduced information costs.

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In the century after the adoption of the federal Constitution, the United States developed from an overwhelming agrarian society into the world’ s leading industrial power. This course examines industrialization as, variously, an economic, technological, political, environmental, and cultural process that transformed both the nation’s social order and the daily lives of ordinary Americans. To understand the causes, dynamics, and consequences of industrialization, we will employ a wide range of analytic strategies, evaluate a variety of scholarly interpretations, and make extensive use of both print and electronic resources. During the second half of the term, students will undertake original research projects in primary documents. Throughout the semester students will be encouraged to think critically and independently about the history of capitalist development in the United States. Everyone is expected to contribute to class discussions--both face-to-face and online--and to promote a constructive educational environment.

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In Russia, the spread of industrialization influenced the government to invest in the construction of a railroad system, namely the Trans-Siberian Railroad. This railway stretched from Moscow to the Pacific Ocean and the establishment of this project led to the increase of trade with eastern states such as China. In addition, the spread of industrialization led to the steel industry expanding, making Russia the fourth largest steel producer.

Industrialization effects were increased production, specifically in industries such as steel, coal, and oil, and the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railroad, boosting transportation and trade. In addition, rapid urbanization was also an effect due to many Russians moving from rural areas to cities to work in factories. Cities like St. Petersburg and Moscow expanded quickly because of this growth.

Technologies/Inventions: The introduction of the combustible engine and incandescent light bulb. The combustible engine was used in many industrial machines and equipment, which increased productivity and efficiency. The incandescent light bulb was a safer alternative to gaslight, especially in factories. For example, miners could work faster and more safely without the risk of explosion and factories could operate 24 hours a day.

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Industrialization during the Meiji and Taisho Periods.

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The industrialization of Japan is known as the Meiji Restoration.

Japan had a desire to modernize Japan. As a result, during the middle of the 19th century to the early 20th century, Japan adopted Western technologies and practices, where they invested in infrastructure, factories, and modern transportation. Japan was fast with industrializing themselves, focusing on industries like textiles before expanding into steel and machinery.

This trend led to the development of infrastructure, economic growth, urbanization, social changes, environmental impact, and imperial expansion. As Japan transformed into major industrial and military power, the traditional classes lost their statuses. Instead, new social classes were developed to create a skilled workforce to operate new technologies, which is where major cities experienced rapid population growth. While Japan appeared to be striving and its territory expanded, pollution and waste increased, affecting air, water, and trees.

Machines were also being commonly used, which increased productions and efficiency, price changes, improved wages, and migration. For example, the power loom was adopted in Japan during this time, allowing for mass production of cotton and silk fabrics. Additionally, steam engines were also being popularized as it easily generated energy by converting the thermal energy from steam into mechanical energy, powering transportation.

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Industrialization in both India and Southeast Asia were limited by colonialism, where European powers were controlling key territories. These European powers focused on serving European markets and economies, slowing down the spread of industrialization. Industries, as a result, were discouraged and often underdeveloped. During the early twentieth century, countries focused on urban centers, where industries and trade was popularized and agriculture was left behind in rural areas.

Industrialization impacted these two regions through colonial exploitation, urbanization, social changes, economic growth, and uneven development. The colonial powers that controlled these parts of Asia led to economic imbalances, where the regions dealt with resource extraction of their raw materials. This major focus on industrialization led to city growth and urbanization, where rural areas continued to experience poverty and depend on agriculture. This unbalance depended social inequalities and created economic disparities.

The introduction of spinning machines during the British rule of India allowed for mass production of textiles. This resulted in India becoming a key exporter of raw cotton and textiles. The British also build railways in order to connect raw material hubs with ports, making the transportation of goods more efficient and beneficial for the industrial transport infrastructure. In Southeast Asia on the other hand, the rubber tapping knife allowed for efficient extraction of latex from rubber trees. Tin mining can also be found, where dredging machines were used to extract tin from riverbeds.

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The spread of industrialization in Egypt under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Pasha, and later Gamal Abdel Nasser, was uneven and shaped by several key periods. In the early 19th century, Muhammad Ali aimed to modernize the economy. He envisioned developing state-run industries that reduced Egypt's dependency on European goods until the British began to colonially rule. Later, during the mid-20th century, Gamal aimed to modernize infrastructure, where he developed large-scale infrastructure projects like the Aswan High Dam. He focused on state-led projects that turned out to be short-term successes. In common terms, industrialization was limited due to British interests as their imperial needs prevented the modernization of Egypt.

Industrialization effected Egypt through urbanization, social changes, infrastructure development, and economic dependence on cotton. Projects like the Aswan High Dam provided electricity and irrigation while also leading to soil erosion and the disruption of natural ecosystems. Urbanization increased significantly, leading to over population and poor urban infrastructure. Economic-wise, Egypt's economy became heavily reliant on cotton exports, resulting in vulnerability to global price fluctuations. Positively, efforts were made in order to modernize education and construct a skilled work force.

Muhammad Ali introduced mechanized cotton-spinning machinery when he had the idea of developing a local textile industry. Additionally, the Helwan Steel Complex, part of Nasser's efforts, became a central hub for Egypt's steel production.

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A lack of industrialization was present in Africa during the Industrial Revolution. Industrialization in Africa was limited, primarily due to the continent's colonization, exploitation, and inadequate investment in infrastructure by European powers. European colonizers focused on extracting natural materials such as rubber, minerals, and cash crops from Africa rather than developing local industries. The European powers prioritized agriculture and mining, while industrial infrastructures were largely absent, and local economies were structured around the export of raw materials to Europe. This colonial period left Africa in an underdeveloped industrial position.

Industrialization helped African countries diversify their economies outside of agriculture and natural resource exports following their independence. African nations aimed to industrialize to modernize and reduce dependence on imports; Governments in Egypt, South Africa, and Nigeria, invested in industrial sectors such as textiles, steel, and manufacturing. For example, South Africa became a leading industrialized nation in Africa.

Technologies/inventions: Africa provided raw materials such as agricultural products: cotton, palm oil, cocoa beans, and groundnuts, and minerals such as gold, diamonds, copper, and iron ore to European powers.

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When commodity exports thrived, South America had began to industrialize. During the colonial period, South America focused on the extraction and exports of raw materials, rather than manufacturing. This was an effect of the colonial powers and their actions of discouraging local industries. In the late 19th century, South American countries focused on processing agricultural and mineral exports by developing their industrial sectors. Nations then began reducing their dependence on imported goods by adopting ISI policies and developing local industries, until they eventually shifted away towards open, market-driven economies. This incorporation of export-oriented industrialization made countries more competitive.

In South America, industrialization had many effects. For example, it affected urbanization where cities had attracted rural populations due to becoming major industrial hubs. While this appeared to be beneficial, the working class faced poor wages and living conditions, unlike rural and indigenous populations that remained marginalized. As stated before, countries were previously dependent on raw material exports, which later transformed into manufacturing and steel industries that provided jobs and boosted the economy. This industrial growth led to environmental challenges such as deforestation, pollution, and over-exploitation of natural resources.

Brazil developed a significant automobile manufacturing industry, consisting of companies like Volkswagen and Ford. Then, Argentina introduced refrigeration technology that allowed for the export of chilled and frozen meats. West of Argentina, Chile's fishing industry grew with modern fishing vessels and processing technologies that mass exported fish. Traveling west, Colombia advanced with oil drilling and extraction.