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The Cold War had huge impact and consequences.

Proxy battles during the Cold War were conflicts between smaller countries, often in developing regions, where the superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, provided support to opposing sides. These indirect confrontations were a way for the superpowers to assert their influence and compete for global dominance without directly engaging in war with each other. These conflicts often reflected the ideological divide between capitalism and communism, and their consequences included significant casualties, political instability, and arms proliferation.

The Middle East  was a crucial battleground during the Cold War serving as a proxy for the rivalry between the US and the USSR. Some examples could be the Yemeni Civil War (1962-1970), The US supported the royalist government, while the Soviet Union baked the republican forces.

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In an essay by Lowenstein (2016), a conversation between Henry Kissinger, US Secretary of State, and officials from Iran is cited with important. Key points, such as when the fact that although the Shah (monarch of Iran) supported the US and allied with western powers, they acknowledge that China and Russia are their neighbors which placed Iran in a difficult position.

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Lowenstein, J. (2016). US Foreign Policy and the Soviet-Afghan War: A Revisionist History. EliScholar – A Digital Platform for Scholarly Publishing at Yale. https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1045&context=applebaum_award

Orkaby, Asher Aviad. 2014. The International History of the Yemen Civil War, 1962-1968. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University. Accessed April 17, 2018 5:02:09 PM EDT. Citable Link: http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:12269828

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Baharçicek, A. (2010). From neutrality to alignment: The formation of NATO and Turkish bids for membership. AKADEMİK YAKLAŞIMLAR DERGİSİ/Journal of Academic Approaches. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/39450

De Vita, L. (2019). The Cold War in the Middle East: Then and Now. Atlantisch Perspectief, 43(6), 34–37. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48581547

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Türkiye's NATO bid was motivated by both the Soviet threat and the pursuit of Westernization and modernization. As explained by Baharçicek (2010) when quoting a Turkish diplomat, "Foreign Minister, Fuat Köprülü: 'our foreign policy, which has been oriented towards the west since the Second World War, will take a more energetic and active form in this direction' (Ahmad, 1977: 390)."

When looking at countries beyond the Middle East, one can talk about Korea. The Korean War marked a significant moment for Türkiye's entry into NATO, as Turkey was the second country to respond to the UN's call for military support. Ankara's swift response was motivated by the belief that participation would facilitate NATO membership and address potential crises Türkiye might've encountered.

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He noted that the political views of Ankara and its NATO allies differ greatly on many key international issues, and as for BRICS, Turkey has almost complete agreement on fundamental principles of foreign policy and economics, TOP War reports.

Türkiye will join BRICS. There is such an intention. It will be an unprecedented example when a NATO country will be a member of BRICS, said Latifoglu.

The expert believes that Turkey will cease to be a NATO member in the near future, as its relations with the alliance are more reminiscent of confrontation than alliance. Either it will leave the bloc itself or it will be forced out, Latifoğlu added.

Let us recall that Turkey became a member of NATO in 1952 together with Greece. It was accepted into the alliance only to prevent the spread of the USSR's influence over it.

However, despite all attempts to become part of the Western world, Turkey continues to be kept aside, a clear confirmation of which is the fact that the country has not been accepted into the EU for more than 35 years. Obviously, Ankara is fed up with this attitude, and it is looking for itself in the multipolar world that is currently forming.

MNA/PR

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north atlantic treaty organization (nato)

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Turkey will leave NATO in future: Turkish expert

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TEHRAN, Sep. 09 (MNA) - Turkey will soon become part of the international community of BRICS countries and distance itself from the North Atlantic Alliance, Turkish political analyst Serhat Latifoğlu is confident.

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Although the fall of the Berlin Wall ended the bipolar order, the Gulf War was the start of the new unipolar order.

Saddam’s Hussein needed to replenish an impoverished Iraqi economy, so he ordered the invasion and annexation of Kuwait on 2 August 1990. The US, UK and their allies swiftly stopped the invasion, and it was acknowledged as an international success. This is important because it shows that the US (and its allies) were the only world police. "The rapid success of the international military campaign, whose legitimacy was reinforced by unequivocal UN authorization, ushered in an era of triumphalist confidence – hubris in fact – in the possibilities offered by such a ‘new world order’ and in the United States’ ability to mold it." (De Vita, 2019).

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Industrial Revolution in the Ottoman Empire

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Industrial Revolution in the Ottoman Empire

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Although the Ottoman Empire tried to industrialize like Europe, they ultimately collapsed. After Europe industrialized, the Ottoman Empire started to build factories, roads, trains and even technical schools in order to modernize the country. Still, there were many problems that limited the growth. Because the empire was so big and still based on the old ways of governing, the government depended on their military power to control the area. This led to focus the manufacturing to favor the army. As stated by Edward Clark, "The bulk of the new Ottoman manufactures of the 1840s was consumed by the military and the palace, and it can be assumed that Ottoman industrial objectives in that decade at least temporarily excluded the civilian market." (1974: 73). In addition to that, when building the new factories, they brought in a lot of European (experienced) personnel. As later explain by Clark (1974: 74) "Foreigners had little incentive to train recruits for their own positions, and apparently few desired or attempted to separate themselves from well-paid employment." This led to having very expensive salaries to maintain the skilled workers. Finally, the empire also needed to import many things (from goods, skills, metal, coal, factory designs, etc.) from Europe which created an unhealthy dependence. Little by little, the industrial revolution led to the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.

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Economic history of the Ottoman Empire - Wikipedia

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The economic history of the Ottoman Empire covers the period 1299–1923. Trade, agriculture, transportation, and religion make up the Ottoman Empire’s economy.

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Clark, E. C. (1974). The Ottoman Industrial Revolution. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 5(1), 65–76. http://www.jstor.org/stable/162344

Warren, K. (2024, July 10). Secret treaties and broken promises: the Sykes-Picot Agreement. Institute for Curriculum Services. https://icsresources.org/the-sykes-picot-agreement/

Yasamee, F. (2024, July 9). War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Ottoman Empire). 1914-1918-Online (WW1) Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/war-aims-and-war-aims-discussions-ottoman-empire/#easy-footnote-bottom-2-1088977

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Aware that the Ottoman Empire would fall after WW1, the British and French made a secret agreement to split up the Middle East, this is known as the “Sykes-Picot Agreement". This was considered treason by the Arabs. As explained by Warren, During World War I, the British sought alliances with Arabs and Jews, promising Arab independence in exchange for their support against the Ottomans (established in the McMahon–Hussein correspondence) and offering the establishment of a Jewish homeland through the Balfour Declaration. (2024). This agreement did give an Arab state but with large European influence, and also didn't establish a Jewish state.

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The Sykes–Picot Agreement: A Historical Perspective | Institute for Curriculum Services

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The treaty that shaped the Middle East, division of Ottoman empire, the British & French spheres of influence with the Sykes–Picot Agreement

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Since the Industrial Revolution, the Ottoman Empire was starting to weaken. Especially after the Balkan Wars, the International community saw that the Empire was going to die. That's why, as mentioned by Feroze Yasamee, the Empire needed to ally with the central powers. "The Ottoman government’s decision to join the First World War was therefore rational: neutrality would have left it vulnerable, while belligerency gave it allies and influence abroad, and freed its hands at home. Of necessity, it joined the Central Powers: they had need of its alliance, the Entente did not." (Yasamee, 2024). Unfortunately for the empire, WW1 would become the final thing that was needed for it to collapse.