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the stage of human social and cultural development and organization that is considered most advanced.

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belief in the benefits of profitable trading; commercialism.

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the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, disease, technology, and ideas between the Americas (the New World) and the Old World (Europe, Asia, and Africa) after Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage

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a person who agrees to work for another person for a specific period of time, typically without pay but in exchange for a benefit, such as free passage to a new country, food, clothing, shelter, or to work off a debt

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a system where a human being is treated as the personal property, or "chattel," of another person

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a member of a group of English Protestants of the late 16th and 17th centuries who regarded the Reformation of the Church of England under Elizabeth as incomplete and sought to simplify and regulate forms of worship.

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A triangular shade is a piece of fabric, shaped like a triangle, that is tensioned between three anchor points to provide sun protection for an outdoor area. Also known as a triangular shade sail, it is a versatile and stylish alternative to traditional umbrellas or awnings.

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The encomienda system was a labor and land system implemented by the Spanish crown in the Americas, granting Spanish colonists the right to demand labor and tribute from Indigenous peoples in exchange for protection and religious instruction.

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a group of British colonies in North America, specifically Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia

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a group of four English colonies—New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware—located in colonial North America between the New England and Southern Colonies

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a group of British colonies in North America, founded primarily by religious dissenters like the Pilgrims and Puritans in the 17th century

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a British decree following the French and Indian War that prohibited Anglo-American colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains, creating a boundary to prevent conflict with Native American tribes

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a person who vigorously supports their country and is prepared to defend it against enemies or detractors.

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an American colonist who supported the British side during the American Revolution.

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the United States' first written constitution, establishing a weak central government with limited powers in favor of strong individual state governments

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a person who advocates or supports a system of government in which several states unite under a central authority.

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a political faction that opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution in 1787, fearing it would create a strong, oppressive central government that would threaten individual liberties and states' rights

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a European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason and individualism rather than tradition. It was heavily influenced by 17th-century philosophers such as Descartes, Locke, and Newton, and its prominent exponents include Kant, Goethe, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Adam Smith.

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a proposed plan in 1754 to unite the British North American colonies under a single, centralized government to address issues like defense against the French and Native Americans during the French and Indian War

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a 1787 act passed by the U.S. Congress that established a system for organizing the Northwest Territory (the land north of the Ohio River) and admitting it as new states into the Union

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a near-mutiny in March 1783 where Continental Army officers, frustrated by unpaid wages and promised pensions, threatened to use force against the Confederation Congress or abandon their posts

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a pivotal agreement at the 1787 Constitutional Convention that resolved the debate between large and small states over legislative representation

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an agreement at the 1787 Constitutional Convention that allowed states to count three-fifths of the enslaved population towards their total population count

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Britain's informal policy from the late 17th to the mid-18th century of loosely enforcing parliamentary laws and trade regulations in its American colonies

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an organized group of people who come together to acquire and exercise political power by running candidates for office

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a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court that established the principle of judicial review, meaning that American courts have the power to strike down laws and statutes they find to violate the Constitution of the United States

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a social, political, and religious effort in the 19th and early 20th centuries to advocate for the moderation or total prohibition of alcohol consumption in the United States and other Western countries

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a 19th-century organized effort to end slavery, particularly in the United States, which sought the immediate and full emancipation of all enslaved people

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a broad, global social and political movement advocating for legal and social equality for women, striving to end gender-based discrimination and ensure women can participate equally in all aspects of life, including the right to vote, own property, receive education, hold jobs, and live free from violence

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a machine that efficiently and quickly separates cotton fibers from their seeds

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a machine that harnesses the mechanical energy from pressurized steam to do work, typically involving a piston moving in a cylinder

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a method of mass production that began during the Industrial Revolution (18th century), centralizing production in a single facility with large-scale machinery and a standardized workforce, replacing decentralized home-based or craft production

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an artificial waterway constructed to allow the passage of boats or ships inland or to convey water for irrigation.

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a U.S. foreign policy statement in 1823 that declared the Western Hemisphere closed to further European colonization or interference, warning that any attempt to assert control over independent nations in the Americas would be viewed as a hostile act towards the United States.

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The Democratic Party is one of the two major political parties in the United States, alongside the Republican Party.

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a member of the British reforming and constitutional party that sought the supremacy of Parliament and was eventually succeeded in the 19th century by the Liberal Party.

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a system for transmitting messages from a distance along a wire, especially one creating signals by making and breaking an electrical connection.

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components manufactured to identical, precise specifications, allowing them to be easily swapped out for one another in a product without custom fitting

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the forceful conscription of individuals into military or naval service without their consent

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the 19th-century belief that the United States was destined to expand across North America

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a set of five laws passed in 1850 to temporarily ease tensions between free and slave states

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a law that allowed settlers in new territories to decide whether or not to allow slavery through popular sovereignty

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the principle that the authority of a government is created and sustained by the consent of its people, and the people are the ultimate source of all political power

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a pair of federal laws in the United States, primarily the 1850 version, that mandated the capture and return of runaway enslaved people (called "freedom seekers") to their owners, even if they had escaped to a free state

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loyalty and devotion to a particular region or section of a country, rather than to the country as a whole, leading to a "narrow-minded" focus on that region's interests, often causing political and social divisions within a nation

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the action of withdrawing formally from membership of a federation or body, especially a political state.

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a group of people who join together for a common purpose, such as workers uniting to negotiate better wages and conditions with their employer

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a league or alliance, especially of confederate states.

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a U.S. Constitutional amendment that abolished slavery and involuntary servitude throughout the United States, except as a punishment for a crime

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grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. and guarantees all citizens "equal protection under the laws" and "due process of law" from the states

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prohibits states from denying a citizen the right to vote based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude"

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an economic system where private individuals and companies own the means of production and operate for profit

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a 19th-century American businessman who built a vast fortune in the shipping and railroad industries, becoming one of the wealthiest men in America

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Scottish-born American industrialist who became one of the wealthiest men in America by building the U.S. steel industry in the late 19th century

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American industrialist and philanthropist who founded the Standard Oil Company, becoming the world's first billionaire

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the historic financier J. Pierpont Morgan (1837-1913)

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a term for a business leader who has achieved exceptional success, power, and influence in their field, often by building a large and prosperous company

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a person who has become rich through ruthless and unscrupulous business practices

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a group of people who join together for a common purpose, such as workers organizing to collectively bargain for better wages, benefits, and working conditions

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movement of people to a new area or country in order to find work or better living conditions.

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a period in U.S. history, from roughly the 1870s to 1900, characterized by rapid economic growth and industrialization, which created a "gilded" surface of prosperity that masked significant social problems like poverty, political corruption, and vast wealth inequality

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a theory that applies the biological concept of "survival of the fittest" to human societies, arguing that social and economic inequalities are natural and that some groups are inherently superior to others

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wealthy individuals have a moral obligation to use their fortunes for the benefit of society during their lifetime

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a type of investigative journalism that exposes corruption, social injustices, and other abuses of power in government and business

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the right to vote in public, political elections, and it also refers to the movement to gain this right for women

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the prevention by law of the manufacture and sale of alcohol, especially in the US between 1920 and 1933.

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a policy of remaining apart from the affairs or interests of other groups, especially the political affairs of other countries.

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a policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force

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a United States Navy officer and historian whom John Keegan called "the most important American strategist of the nineteenth century."

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a communication approach where employees are encouraged to speak directly with any manager about work-related issues, rather than being limited to their immediate supervisor.

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the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests.

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identification with one's own nation and support for its interests, especially to the exclusion or detriment of the interests of other nations.

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an international organization founded in 1920 to promote peace and cooperation

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the peace treaty signed on June 28, 1919, that officially ended World War I between Germany and the Allied powers

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the mass movement of approximately six million Black Americans from the rural South to cities in the North, Midwest, and West between 1916 and 1970

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a secret message sent by Germany's Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmermann to Mexico in January 1917, proposing a military alliance against the United States during World War I. It promised that if the U.S. entered the war, Germany would help Mexico reclaim lost territories in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The telegram was intercepted by the British and its publication in the U.S. caused public outrage, pushing the United States toward declaring war on Germany in April 1917.

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Stocks on margin refers to buying securities with money borrowed from a brokerage firm

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a tax a government imposes on imported goods, which increases their price to protect domestic industries or generate revenue

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Relief, Recovery, and Reform

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the activity of traveling from one island to another, especially as a tourist in an area of small islands.

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The systematic extermination of six million Jews and millions of others by Nazi Germany during World War II.

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Entities formed by multiple countries to address global issues, promote cooperation, and maintain peace and security.

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An international organization established in 1945 to promote peace, security, and cooperation among countries.

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A post-World War II monetary order that established fixed exchange rates and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance formed in 1949 for mutual defense against aggressors.

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The ideological and physical boundary separating the Soviet Bloc and the West during the Cold War.

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A military alliance of communist countries in Eastern Europe, established in 1955 as a counter to NATO.

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A U.S. foreign policy strategy aimed at preventing the spread of communism during the Cold War.

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The belief that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would also fall like dominos.

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A military doctrine where two or more opposing sides possess enough nuclear weaponry to ensure total destruction of both, deterring aggression.

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A nuclear weapon that utilizes nuclear reactions to release massive amounts of energy, causing catastrophic destruction.

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Explosive devices that derive their destructive force from nuclear reactions, capable of causing widespread devastation.

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A series of domestic programs initiated in the 1960s under President Lyndon B. Johnson aimed at eliminating poverty and racial injustice.

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A landmark 1954 U.S. Supreme Court case that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

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An economic policy introduced by President Ronald Reagan in the 1980s focused on tax cuts, deregulation, and reduced government spending to stimulate economic growth.

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A political ideology that generally emphasizes social equality, government intervention in the economy, and civil liberties.

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A political ideology that typically advocates for tradition, limited government intervention in the economy, and individual liberties.

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A conservative political group in the U.S. during the 1980s that sought to promote traditional values and influence politics based on Christian principles.

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An economic theory suggesting that benefits provided to the wealthy will eventually "trickle down" to the rest of the population in the form of job creation and economic growth.

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Economic policy implemented by a country's central bank to control the money supply and interest rates to influence overall economic activity.