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There are some amazing activities and places to visit in the capital.

Gerardo D.

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27 Best Things to Do in Mexico City, From Frida Kahlo’s Home to Storied Pastry Shops

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Everything to do in one of the Americas’ very oldest cities.

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Hiking routes in Sierra Madre Oriental

Eszter

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Top 10 Hikes and Walks in the Sierra Madre Oriental | Komoot

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Want to go hiking in the Sierra Madre Oriental? In this guide, we’ve reviewed our full collection of hikes and walking routes in the Sierra Madre Oriental to bring you the best hiking routes in the region. To see which of our walks in the Sierra Madre Oriental is the right one for you, browse real tips and photos uploaded by other hikers—and see what they had to say about each walk.

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Among the generally fertile basins is (El Bajío)

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Among the generally fertile basins is (El Bajío)

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https://www.britannica.com/place/Bajio

Introduce you the Bajío region.

Kathy Lam

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents Ask the Chatbot a Question

This article was most recently revised and updated by

Bajío, region on the Mexican Plateau, west-central Mexico. Bajío has been an important agricultural region since the 19th century and is known for its fertile soil, temperate climate, and adequate rainfall. Wheat, corn (maize), chickpeas, beans, and various fruits are the principal crops.

Bajío is bounded by the Sierra de Guanajuato to the north, by the hills separating the valleys of Celaya and Querétaro to the east, by the Cordillera Neo-Volcánica marking the southern edge of the plateau to the south, and by the Sierra de Pénjamo to the west. Occupying southern Guanajuato and northern Michoacán states, the Bajío region ranges in elevation from approximately 5,100 feet (1,550 meters) to 5,900 feet (1,800 meters) above sea level. The Lerma River and its major tributaries have channeled through lacustrine deposits, volcanic tuff, and basaltic rocks separating the series of lakes lying at the foot of the Cordillera Neo-Volcánica to create a single drainage basin. Numerous cities, including Celaya, Irapuato, Valle de Santiago, and Salamanca, lie in the densely populated region.

Mindy Johnston.

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Bajio | Guanajuato, Queretaro, Aguascalientes, & Map | Britannica

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Bajio is a region on the Mexican Plateau located in west-central Mexico.

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Here i found interesting source which speaks about Mexico's border.

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Mexico shares international borders with three nations:

To the north the United States-Mexico border, which extends for a length of 3,141 kilometres (1,952 mi) through the states of Baja California, Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León and Tamaulipas.

To the southeast, the Belize-Mexico border, 251 kilometres (156 mi) long, limiting the states of Quintana Roo and Campeche and almost exclusively following the course of the Río Hondo.

Also to the southeast, the Guatemala-Mexico border, which measures 871 kilometres (541 mi) and touches the states of Campeche, Tabasco and Chiapas, and includes stretches of the Río Usumacinta, Río Salinas and Río Suchiate.

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Mexico shares international borders with three nations: To the north the United States-Mexico border, which extends for a length of 3,141 kilometres (1,952 mi) through the states of Baja California, Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León and Tamaulipas.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?

https://www.sgm.gob.mx/Web/MuseoVirtual/Riesgos-geologicos/Volcanes-de-Mexico.html

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Sobreviviente del sismo de 1985 perdió a toda su familia en Tlatelolco

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https://amantoli.com/2015/04/23/boleador-tapatio-oficio-afectado-en-el-centro-historico/

Cesar Garcia

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Boleador tapatío, oficio afectado en el Centro Histórico | Amantoli Cultura

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En el primer cuadro del Centro de Guadalajara en torno a la Cruz de Plazas se instalan diariamente hombres dedicados al tradicional oficio de lustrar zapatos. Juan Antonio Sánchez Montalvo lo hace en Plaza Guadalajara desde hace 21 años; él como el resto de sus compañeros se enfrenta a situaciones que han perjudicado al oficio que hasta hace dos décadas estuvo sujeto a una gran demanda por parte de los ciudadanos que buscaban darle grasa a sus zapatos.

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https://museoanahuacalli.org.mx/#informacion

Cesar Garcia

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El archivo del Museo Anahuacalli atesora una gran riqueza de documentos y fotografías que nos permiten entender la obra y la figura de Diego Rivera, así como la gestación de este espacio.

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The Mesa del Norte is a vast arid region in the North of the Mexican plateau.

Morgane Laherrere

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Mesa del Norte, the northern section of the Mexican Plateau, sloping gently upward to the south for more than 700 miles (1,100 km) from the U.S.-Mexico border to the Zacatecas Mountains. Mesa del Norte largely spans the country from coast to coast and is bordered by the Sierra Madre Oriental on the east and the Sierra Madre Occidental on the west. Much of the region is arid land broken by mountains and salt-encrusted flats or depressions, locally called bolsónes ("pockets"); the sparse population is largely concentrated in the few irrigable areas such as the upper part of the Salado River valley, where wheat is grown, and the Laguna District, which produces much of Mexico's cotton. Other crops include corn (maize), beans, and alfalfa (lucerne), and large areas of the more arid land are utilized as rangeland. The area yields significant amounts of lead and zinc as well as some iron and silver.

Amy Tikkanen.

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Mesa del Norte | Desert, Chihuahuan, Plateau

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Mesa del Norte, the northern section of the Mexican Plateau, sloping gently upward to the south for more than 700 miles (1,100 km) from the U.S.-Mexico border to the Zacatecas Mountains.

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Mexico has the 15th largest economy, with 50% middle class and 30% upper class, demonstrating economic diversity.

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El gobierno de México proporciona a nivel internacional en distintos países a través de su Embajada de México en Filipinas, áreas de protección a mexicanos, documentación a mexicanos y extranjeros; servicios en las áreas de educación, salud y organización comunitaria dirigidos a la comunidad de origen mexicano; promoción cultural y de negocios destinados a la población que reside en el extranjero.

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The Yucatan Peninsula offers a variety of different experiences, ranging from beautiful beaches and islands to rich cultural heritage. Here is an example of that!

Lukas Rosendahl

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Chichén Itzá, ruined ancient Maya city occupying an area of 4 square miles (10 square km) in south-central Yucatán state, Mexico. It is thought to have been a religious, military, political, and commercial centre that at its peak would have been home to 35,000 people. The site first saw settlers in 550, probably drawn there because of the easy access to water in the region via caves and sinkholes in limestone formations, known as cenotes.

Chichén Itzá is located some 90 miles (150 km) east-northeast of Uxmal and 75 miles (120 km) east-southeast of the modern city of Mérida. The only source of water in the arid region around the site is from the cenotes. Two big cenotes on the site made it a suitable place for the city and gave it its name, from chi ("mouths"), chen ("wells"), and Itzá, the name of the Maya tribe that settled there. Chichén Itzá was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1988.

Chichén was founded about the 6th century ce, presumably by Maya peoples of the Yucatán Peninsula who had occupied the region since the Pre-Classic, or Formative, Period (1500 bce-300 ce). The principal early buildings are in an architectural style known as Puuc, which shows a number of divergences from the styles of the southern lowlands. These earliest structures are to the south of the Main Plaza and include the Akabtzib ("House of the Dark Writing"), the Chichanchob ("Red House"), the Iglesia ("Church"), the Casa de las Monjas ("Nunnery"), and the observatory El Caracol ("The Snail"). There is evidence that, in the 10th century, after the collapse of the Maya cities of the southern lowlands, Chichén was invaded by foreigners, probably Maya speakers who had been strongly influenced by-and perhaps were under the direction of-the Toltec of central Mexico. These invaders may have been the Itzá for whom the site is named; some authorities, however, believe the Itzá arrived 200 to 300 years later.

In any event, the invaders were responsible for the construction of such major buildings as El Castillo ("The Castle"), a pyramid that rises 79 feet (24 metres) above the Main Plaza. El Castillo has four sides, each with 91 stairs and facing a cardinal direction; including the step on the top platform, these combine for a total of 365 steps-the number of days in the solar year. During the spring and autumnal equinoxes, shadows cast by the setting sun give the appearance of a snake undulating down the stairways. A carving of a plumed serpent at the top of the pyramid is symbolic of Quetzalcóatl (known to the Maya as Kukulcán), one of the major deities of the ancient Mesoamerican pantheon. Excavations within the nine-platform pyramid revealed another, earlier structure containing a red jaguar throne studded with jade.

The ball court (for playing the game tlachtli [Mayan: pok-ta-pok]) is 545 feet (166 metres) long and 223 feet (68 metres) wide, the largest such court in the Americas. Six sculpted reliefs run the length of the walls of the court, apparently depicting the victors of the game holding the severed head of a member of the losing team. On the upper platform at one end of the court stands the Temple of the Jaguars, inside of which is a mural showing warriors laying siege to a village. Standing on the platform of the temple to the north of the court, it is possible to hear a whisper from 150 feet (46 metres) away.

Other structures include the High Priest's Grave and the Colonnade (Thousand Columns) and the adjoining Temple of the Warriors. Most of these buildings probably were completed in the Early Post-Classic Period (c. 900-1200). In the Late Post-Classic Period (c. 1200-1540), Chichén appears to have been eclipsed by the rise of the city of Mayapán. For a time Chichén Itzá joined Uxmal and Mayapán in a political confederacy known as the League of Mayapán.

About 1450 the League and the political supremacy of Mayapán dissolved. When the Spanish entered the country in the 16th century, the Maya were living in many small towns, but the major cities, including Chichén, were largely abandoned.

Long left to the jungle, Chichén Itzá remained sacred to the Maya. Excavation began in the 19th century, and the site became one of Mexico's prime archaeological zones.

A legendary tradition at Chichén was the Cult of the Cenote, involving human sacrifice to the rain god, Chaac, in which victims were thrown into the city's major cenote (at the northernmost part of the ruin), along with gold and jade ornaments and other valuables. In 1904 Edward Herbert Thompson, an American who had bought the entire site, began dredging the cenote; his discovery of skeletons and sacrificial objects confirmed the legend.

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Chichen Itza | Description, Buildings, History, & Facts

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Chichen Itza, a ruined ancient Maya city occupying an area of 4 square miles (10 square km) in south-central Yucatan state, Mexico. It was founded about the 6th century CE, presumably by Mayan peoples who had occupied the region since the Pre-Classic Period. In the 10th century it was invaded by foreigners.

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The Mesa Central, also known as the Central Altiplano, is a vast region in central Mexico.

Morgane Laherrere

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Mexican Plateau: Diverse Landscape & Cultural Heartland | LAC Geo

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The Mexican Plateau occupies much of northern and central Mexico. It comprises the vast Mesa del Norte and the smaller, heavily populated Mesa Central.

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Mexico’s Administered Islands

1. Tres Marías Islands: Located in the Pacific Ocean, this archipelago consists of four islands: María Madre, María Magdalena, María Cleofas, and San Juanito. Historically, María Madre was used as a penal colony, but today, the islands serve as a nature reserve with a focus on biodiversity conservation.

2. Cozumel Island: Situated in the Caribbean Sea, Cozumel is one of Mexico’s most famous tourist destinations. It is renowned for its crystal-clear waters, coral reefs, and vibrant marine life, making it a popular spot for diving and snorkeling.

3. Isla Mujeres: Also located off the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula, Isla Mujeres is known for its picturesque beaches and cultural significance. It attracts visitors seeking both relaxation and adventure, with attractions such as Garrafon Natural Reef Park and Punta Sur.

https://blog.cancunsailing.com/es/cozumel-vs-isla-mujeres-cual-debes-visitar/

https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islas_Mar%C3%ADas

-woojin-

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Colaboradores de los proyectos Wikimedia

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Islas Marías - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre

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Vista de satélite de la isla María Madre

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With a population exceeding 120 million people, Mexico is one of the most populous countries in the world and the second most populous in Latin America, after Brazil. The country’s population is diverse, with a mix of indigenous groups, European descendants, and other cultural influences.

Urbanization: Over 80% of Mexico's population lives in urban areas, with Mexico City being the largest metropolis.

Demographic Trends: The population has a relatively young median age, contributing to a dynamic labor force.

Cultural Diversity: Mexico's population includes over 60 indigenous ethnic groups, each with distinct languages and traditions.

-woojin-

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1. Introduction

Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) countries are in the middle of the established period to achieve the sustainable development goals (SDGs) of the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. Progress towards these goals and targets was seriously hampered by the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, which caused a strong impact in the world from 2020 and jeopardized progress towards the achievement of the 2030 agenda in large regions of the planet, including LAC, the most affected region by the pandemic ().

Mexico has shown significant improvement opportunities to achieve the SDGs, as was proven by its recent overall score of 70.2/100 published at the Sustainable development report 2022, given its 2000 base score of 62.25, which implies an advance of only 13% in 22 years (Sachs et al., 2022).

Recently, Mexico ratified its commitment to face the planetary climate crisis by updating its nationally determined contribution (NDC). The Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, SEMARNAT) (SEMARNAT, 2022) has set the following mitigation goals:

Increasing the reduction of greenhouse gases from 22 to 35% by 2030 with respect to its baseline, with national economic resources that will contribute at least to 30 and 5% through cooperation and international financing destined for clean energy.

Mexico can conditionally increase its goal up to 40% by 2030 with respect to its baseline if international financing, innovation, and technology transfer are scaled up and if other countries (the largest emitters) make proportionate efforts towards the more ambitious goals of the Paris Agreement.

Mexico ratified the goal of unconditionally achieving a 51% reduction of black carbon emissions by 2030 and 70% conditionally.

The Mexican government quantified the trend scenario projected by 2030 without the intervention of a mitigation policy at 991 megatons of equivalent carbon dioxide (Mt CO ₂e). The 35% reduction by 2030 implies a reduction of 347 Mt CO ₂e in that year, while compliance with conditional commitments amounts to 397 Mt CO ₂e ( Fig. 1). The implementation period of the updated NDC is from 2020 to 2030, and the policies implemented as of 2013 are considered after the publication of the Ley General de Cambio Climático (General Law on Climate Change) (SEMARNAT, 2022). As mentioned by SEMARNAT, the mitigation measures derived from the NDCs update at the sectoral level focus on the following sectors: land use, land use change and forestry (LUCF), transport, electricity generation, industry, oil and gas, agriculture and livestock, residential and commercial, and waste.

Extensive research has proven the relationship between population change and variation in carbon emissions, concluding that decreasing population growth could reduce emissions to desirable values to avoid dangerous climate change (O'Neill et al., 2020; Casey and Galor, 2017).

In order to study the relationship between population growth in Mexico and carbon emissions from mitigation components, keywords such as social impact, gender, and population perspective were found on the description of the different mitigation measures proposed by SEMARNAT (2022) and their components; therefore, this study considers that population variation directly affects the following mitigation components:

Transport, through the consolidation of electric mobility, transformation of public transport and the transition to more efficient vehicles.

Residential and commercial, by promoting energy efficiency, optimizing energy consumption, promoting mechanisms and regulations that promote the inclusion of best practices in new construction and renovations, and reducing the consumption of firewood.

Waste, by improving the comprehensive management of municipal solid waste (MSW), as well as wastewater treatment, reuse, recycling, composting, and bio digestion, in addition to also considering advancing in the capture and use of biogas.

Once the mitigation components related to population growth have been established, the main goal of this study is to estimate carbon emissions in 2018 (pre-pandemic conditions) of the selected mitigation components and to compare them with estimated values for 2030, considering the population variation under a business-as-usual scenario. The results obtained will allow future work to quantify and compare the impact of the different mitigation measures proposed by the federal government.
1.1 Analysis of the population trend
In general, current Mexicans would like to live in a country with less inequality and more social mobility. In this regard, there are different visions, depending on the person's socioeconomic status. One of the characteristics of income distribution in Mexico is the increasing gap between high-income individuals and the rest of the population: using current family income, the ratio of decile 10 to decile 1 is 18.3. With a Gini coefficient of around 0.5, only 3% of those born in the bottom quintile will rise to the top, and only 2% of the top quintile will end up at the bottom, with minor change over time in the last few years. This social rigidity leads to "opportunity hoarding": those who start from a disadvantaged position will have fewer opportunities to succeed, while those born into privilege will continue to accumulate more advantages throughout their lives, which they can later pass on to their children (Campos-Vázquez et al., 2022).

Population growth in Mexico, measured as a percentage change, was about +3% between 1950 and 1976 ( Fig. 2). Between 1977 and 1995, change was +2%, and from 1996 to 2019, change has been reduced to just +1% ().

According to the most recent Population and Housing Census of 2020 (), 126 014 024 people live in Mexico, which ranks 11th among the most populated nations in the world. Between 1950 and 2020, the population in Mexico has grown more than four times. In 1950, there were 25.8 million people, while in 2020 there were just over 126 million. From 2010 to 2020 the population increased by 14 million inhabitants. The most populated entities are the State of Mexico (16 992 418), Mexico City (9 209 944), and Jalisco (8 348 151) ( Fig. 3).

In 2020, the population pyramid showed that:

Estimated data from the Consejo Nacional de Población (National Population Council, CONAPO) (CONAPO, 2023) show that in Mexico, the midyear population by 2030 will be about 138 070 271 inhabitants, 9.6% more than in 2020, of which 51.1% will be women and 48.9% men ( Fig. 5).

By 2050, most of the population will be between 44 and 50 years old. By 2100, it is estimated that the Mexican population will decrease from 127 million in 2022 to 116 million. This decrease is due to the fact that the fertility rate decreased from 6.7 to 1.8 percent between 1950 and 2022, whereas this indicator must exceed 2.1 to ensure the replacement of the population (World Bank, 2023).

3. Results

As a summary of different calculations made in this section (medium-term projection and energy and mass balance), Table I shows carbon emissions by mitigation component in 2018 and 2030. It also shows the percentage variation caused by population growth, displaying that under a business-as-usual scenario, just the transport sector could contribute to reducing carbon emissions. In the case of transportation, the reduction in emissions results from the reduction in fuel consumption per kilometer traveled. In the residential and waste sectors, there is a direct relationship between population growth and carbon emissions generated.

*Methane production from sewage sludge is not considered.

These results indicate that the population in general should be involved, firstly, in understanding that they are part of the problem and also of the solution through adequate public policies at the different levels of government. These policies promote the convergence of government, academia, industry, and society to define road maps that allow the achievement of the objectives and goals proposed for reducing carbon emissions.
3.1 On-road vehicles (automobiles, commercial buses, and motorcycles)
Travel behavior in cities will not reach a "new normal" post-coronavirus pandemic. Travel habits are still uncertain, and several other crises coincide with recovery from the pandemic. Many cities have addressed the connectivity challenge by promoting active modes of transport and micro-mobility. The freedom to work from home promoted several positive effects. However, fewer trips to the office can lead to more non-work commuting. It can also lead city dwellers to move to the suburbs, prolonging occasional trips and potentially increasing car dependency ().

In Mexico, the pandemic caused a reduction in the energy consumption of road transport but not in the number of automobiles, buses, and motorcycles ( Fig. 6). After an 8.4% increase in energy consumption between 2009 and 2018, in the period 2018-2020 the consumption of the transport sector fell by 29%, going from 2205.1 to 1576.11 PJ. In contrast, the growth in the number of automobiles, buses, and motorcycles showed a CAGR of 4.8%, 2.9%, and 14.4%, respectively ().

With an overall population of 125.3 million people, at the end of 2018, the transportation sector continued as the largest end consumer of energy in Mexico, with a share of more than 40% of total demand (). Energy consumption of the transport sector was 2454.7 PJ by 2018, of which 89.8% was consumed by road transport (). In the same year, automobiles consumed 49.5% of the energy demanded by road transport, showing a CAGR of 18.4 % from its energy consumption growth during the period 2009-2018 ( Table II).

By type of fuel, in 2018, gasoline-powered automobiles had the highest participation, with 99.2% of the 32.29 million total vehicles, showing a CAGR ₂₀₀₉₋₂₀₁₈ of 5.1%.

By 2020, the number of automobiles was 33 987 million, with a share of more than 99% of gasoline vehicles. During the 2009-2020 period, hybrid and electric cars and cars converted to compressed natural gas (CNG) had the highest CAGR, with 65.9 and 43.8%, respectively, although with a share below 0.15% each. The number of cars per capita in 2020 was 0.27.

Regarding buses, 444 000 vehicles circulated in 2018, of which 54.6% used diesel, 25.4% LP gas and CNG, and 20% used gasoline as fuel.

One of the internal combustion vehicles that has significantly increased its presence in Mexico is motorcycles, going from 1.2 million in 2009 to 4.08 million in 2018, almost a four-fold increase in nine years. By 2020, the number of motorcycles increased to 5.26 million, which stands for a CAGR ₂₀₀₉₋₂₀₂₀ of 14.4%, with a per capita value of 0.042 motorcycles per inhabitant.

To obtain the CO ₂ emissions generated by cars in 2018, the proposed method starts with the number of cars, by type of fuel, multiplying it by the average number of kilometers traveled, then multiplying the result by the average fuel efficiency (L km⁻¹), with which the liters of each fuel consumed are obtained. This value is multiplied by the emission factor of each type of fuel in units of kgCO ₂ L⁻¹ published by the Instituto Nacional de Ecología y Cambio Climático (National Institute of Ecology and Climate Change, INECC) (), with which the CO ₂ generated by each type of automobile is obtained (in Mt CO ₂) ( Table III).

CNG: compressed natural gas.

Given a correlation value of 0.985, 0.88, and 0.944 between the number of automobiles, buses, and motorcycles (respectively), and the population variation during the period 2009-2020, the carbon emissions projection exercise is carried out for 2030. First, the number of motor vehicles in 2018 was multiplied by a factor of 1.1017, which is the population variation from 2018 to 2030. Annually driven mileage (km year⁻¹) and fuel economy (L 100 km⁻¹) are adjusted according to their respective estimated CAGR over the same period.

In the case of automobiles, the short-term participation of hybrid and electric vehicles is still considered low. However, according to the sales forecasts made by the automotive consultancy JD Power (Alavez, 2022), it is expected to increase by 3% by 2030.

The calculations carried out show that automobile carbon emissions could be reduced from 74 to 56.1 Mt CO ₂ between 2018 and 2030 because of less distance traveled and an 8% decrease in fuel economy.

Regarding passenger buses, following the calculation procedure applied for automobiles and considering the number of buses using natural gas as LP gas due to a lack of information, a value of 9 Mt CO2 by 2030 is estimated ( Table IV).

Although there is an increase in the number of buses, they will travel 17% fewer kilometers, and their fuel economy will decrease by 1%, which could mean a reduction of 11 percentage points in reduction of carbon emissions between 2018 and 2030.

Concerning motorcycles, according to the data projection values obtained for 2030, resulting from a 10% increase in the number of motorcycles, a 66% increase in the distance traveled (as it is a low-cost mobility model), and a 5% decrease in fuel economy, the carbon emissions of this type of vehicle would increase 72% compared to 2018, with an estimated value of 2.96 Mt CO ₂ in 2030 ( Table V).
3.2 Residential
Data from the 2020 population and housing census show that in Mexico there were 35 219 141 inhabited private homes (3.6 inhabitants per home), of which 29% were between 11 and 20 years old. Of the inhabited private homes, 99% had electricity, 96% had drainage connected to the public network, and 78% had piped water inside the home ().

Regarding the type of internal services and amenities available in each dwelling, Table VI shows the percentage of inhabited private homes that had a refrigerator, washing machine, computer, TV service, air conditioning, and internet.

In 2020, the energy source most used for cooking was LP gas, which was used in 75.9% of homes. This was followed by biomass and natural gas, which were available in 13.8% and 8.7% of homes, respectively ( Fig. 7).

As for the use of renewable energy sources, only 10% of inhabited homes used solar heating, and less than 1% had solar panels in 2020 (Data México, 2023).

In 2018, the residential sector energy consumption was 760.5 PJ, of which 32.7% came from biomass combustion, 32.4% from LP gas combustion, 30% from electricity, and 4% from natural gas combustion ().

The increase in energy consumption in the residential sector was notorious by more than 50% during 2020 compared to 2018, caused by the reduction in mobility due to the coronavirus pandemic, where biomass consumption showed the greatest increase with 32.6 % ( Table VII).

In 2020, 13.8% of inhabited homes consumed biomass for cooking, that is about 4.86 million homes, where approximately 17.5 million people lived. This means that 14% of the Mexican population consumed 36% of the total residential sector energy requirement. By 2020, only 3.4% of homes had efficient stoves ().

From the information obtained previously, the per capita energy consumption for the residential sector can be estimated as being 6.01 and 7.19 GJ person⁻¹ in 2018 and 2020, respectively.

To estimate the carbon emissions emitted by each source of energy consumed by the residential sector, a quantitative analysis of the available information and the use of unit conversion factors were carried out.

For example, in the case of electricity, based on an annual publication of the Comisión Reguladora de Energía (Energy Regulatory Commission, CRE) (), it was obtained that the emission factor of the national electric sector for 2018 was 0.527 tCO ₂e MWh⁻¹, therefore, the 227.78 PJ were multiplied by the conversion factor of 277 800 MWh PJ⁻¹ and the resulting value was multiplied by the aforementioned emissions factor and divided by 1 × 10 ⁹ to convert from kilograms to megatons, obtaining 33.35 Mt CO ₂e as a final result. In this case, due to lack of information, CO ₂e emissions will be considered as CO ₂ emissions.

Since the conversion efficiency of natural and LP gas to energy or heat through combustion is less than 100%, the volumetric consumption values reported on the prospective studies published by SENER (, ) for the period 2018-2032 were consulted. Table VIII shows the main data used to estimate the value of carbon emissions by type of energy source during 2018.

To estimate carbon emissions by 2030, the CAGR ₂₀₀₉₋₂₀₁₈ from consumption by type of energy source was first estimated, and then the value of energy consumption was projected for the year 2030 ( Table IX).

To corroborate the trend values obtained by 2030, they were compared with information available from projections of volumetric consumption made by SENER in its prospective studies 2018-2032, which consider population variation and technological change.

Thus, in the case of LP Gas, SENER (2018b) projected that its consumption would decrease eight percentage points between 2018 and 2030, going from 157.8 to 145.5 thousand barrels per day (TBD). This decrease is derived from various effects that affect demand, such as an improvement in equipment performance for heating water and cooking food, a greater introduction of solar heaters, and the substitution of LP gas for natural gas.

The volumetric demand for natural gas during the same period would increase by 35%, associated with fuel distribution extension from different regions of the country and the expansion of gas pipeline infrastructure. The consumption of firewood will be reduced by 15% due to the estimated urbanization in rural localities, which will allow household access to other types of fuels (SENER, 2018b).

Therefore, the negative trend of the estimated energy consumption from LP gas and firewood could be corroborated, but not that of natural gas. Indeed, the natural gas volumetric demand for residential consumption estimated by SENER (2018a) would increase from 2.77 × 10 ⁶ to 3.7 × 10 ⁶ m ³ day⁻¹ between 2018 and 2030.

In the case of electricity, the prospective study carried out by SENER (2018c) for the consumption of the national electricity sector projected an average annual growth rate of 3.1% during the period 2018-2032.

Given the above, for the calculation of carbon emissions to 2030 the following assumptions were considered:

Applying the same procedure to obtain carbon emissions in 2018, the 2030 emissions resulting from the different residential sector energy sources are 78.56 Mt CO ₂ ( Table X), an increase of 4.15% compared to 2018.

Based on the results obtained in this section, Table XI shows the variation in the carbon emissions from the residential sector (Mt CO2) in 2018 and 2030.

Given the results obtained, as stated by the Inter-American Development Bank (), it is advisable to quantify the differentiated impact of climate change on the lives of women and diverse population groups, and subsequently evaluate the effectiveness of solutions that reduce the exposure of these groups to risk and vulnerability to climate change, enhancing their role as agents of climate action in terms of decarbonization and/or resilience of its effects, in addition to being participants on the job opportunities derived from the transition to an economy with zero net emissions.
3.3 Urban waste
The most recent National Census of Municipal Governments and Territorial Demarcations of Mexico City carried out in 2021, specifies that in Mexico, solid waste collection amounts to 106 523 t day⁻¹. This is 850 g of waste generated per person, and only 7% is recycled ( Fig. 8). In the country, there are 2338 final garbage disposal sites, of which 89.8% do not have a biogas control system (which is generated from biodegradation), and 84.26% lack a collection and concentration of leachate (residual liquids) (La Jornada, 2023).

Biogas production involves the decomposition of organic matter through the anaerobic digestion process. It is composed of 55 to 70% methane (CH ₄), 30 to 45% CO ₂, and traces of other gases (). CH ₄ is the main contributor to the formation of ozone at ground level, a dangerous air pollutant. It is also a powerful greenhouse gas. Over a period of 20 years, its heating capacity is 80 times more powerful than that of CO ₂. It is also responsible for about 30% of global warming since pre-industrial times and is spreading faster than ever since records began in the 1980s. According to data from the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Management Office, even as CO ₂ emissions slowed during the 2020 pandemic-related lockdowns, atmospheric CH ₄ increased. Therefore, it is essential to achieve its reduction to counteract climate change ().

At the country level, the produced municipal solid waste (MSW) typically consists of 51.6% organic waste, 28% potentially recyclable waste, and 19% non-usable waste (SEMARNAT, 2017). Currently, 47% of the solid waste produced is concentrated in six entities: Mexico City (14.05%), the State of Mexico (11.22%), Jalisco (7.21%), Veracruz (5.50%), Nuevo León (4.84%), and Guanajuato (4.28%) (La Jornada, 2023).

Data published in The biogas handbook (Wellinger et al., 2013) show that organic waste consists of 10% solid matter (SM) and 80% volatile solids (VS) as a percentage of SM ( Table XII).

Bong et al. (2018) determined that the biogas yield through the mono-digestion process of food residues is 0.27-0.642 m ³ CH ₄ kg⁻¹ VS and for the co-digestion of food waste with other substrates it is 0.272-0.859 m ³ CH ₄ kg⁻¹ VS, concluding that the variation in the characteristics of food waste, in terms of physical and biochemical properties, can affect the efficiency of the applied treatment.

In Mexico, during 2018, an average of 107 056 tons of garbage was collected daily, that is, 854 g per person, and it was produced in ():

Therefore, by effectively managing the 39.08 Mt of solid waste produced in 2018, 20.16 Mt of organic waste could be obtained. Considering the mono-digestion processes, 10% SM content, and VS = SM × 0.8, this could generate between 435.52 × 10 ⁶ m ³ and 1035.57 × 10 ⁶ m ³ of biomethane annually.

According to data projected by SENER (2018c), the residential sector's natural gas requirement in 2018 would be 958 × 10 ⁶ m ³, so the biomethane generation potential in the same year could supply between 45 and 108% of the demand.

Assuming the daily 2021 per capita waste production is constant until 2030 (0.85 kg per person), by 2030, approximately 42.84 Mt of total solid waste will be produced, of which 22.146 Mt would be organic waste. This amount of organic waste would have an annual biomethane generation potential of 478.36 × 10 ⁶ to 1137.44 × 10 ⁶ m ³.

In section 3.2, it was estimated that the residential sector would consume 1293.7 × 10 ⁶ m ³ of natural gas by 2030. Therefore, the potential for generating biomethane from organic waste could supply between 37 and 88% of the natural gas consumption in the medium term.

Regarding wastewater sludge, target 6.3 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) of the 2030 Agenda aims to halve the proportion of untreated wastewater discharged into bodies of water. In Mexico, 4357.56 ´ 10 ⁶ m ³ of household wastewater was produced in 2020, of which only 2543.65 ´ 10 ⁶ m ³ (58.4%) were safely treated (UN-Habitat/WHO, 2021).

During 2016, there were 3516 wastewater treatment plants, but only 72% were active, of which 18.32% reused some volume of water. Even though just one in four treatment plants is inactive, they represent 10% of the treatment capacity. This means that most inactive plants have low treatment capacity and they usually belong to small municipalities (Cáñez-Cota, 2022).

Considering a conversion factor of 0.000096 t of sludge for each cubic meter of municipal wastewater (Rojas and Mendoza, 2012), in 2020, the treated water in Mexico would have the potential to generate 242 975.5 t of sludge. The numerical value of sludge obtained is multiplied by one thousand to convert it to kilograms, then multiplied by 3.75% to obtain the sludge volume (SV) in kilograms, and, finally, the result is multiplied by 0.4 to obtain cubic meters of biomethane, obtaining a value of 3.64 × 10 ⁶ m ³ of CH ₄.

To obtain the potential of biomethane production by 2030, the value obtained from 2020 is multiplied by 1.095673851 (the population increase factor between 2020 and 2030), and the result is multiplied by 1.36 to consider the goal of the 2030 Agenda to halve the proportion of wastewater without treatment, obtaining a value of 5.43 × 10 ⁶ m ³ of biomethane, which could contribute to cover 0.42% of the near future demand of natural gas for residential use.

Mexico requires investments, both centralized and decentralized, in wastewater transportation and treatment systems to minimize direct discharges into the environment and to guarantee that the collected flows are adequately treated before being dumped or reused. Thus, a shift towards a circular economy in which wastewater is considered a valuable resource will be promoted (UN Habitat/WHO, 2021).

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Population growth in Mexico and its impact on mitigation components of nationally determined contributions

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1. Introduction Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) countries are in the middle of the established period to achieve the sustainable development goals (SDGs) of the 2030 agenda for sustainable development.

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https://youtu.be/Is5fi1rzyBg?si=IgfIkOXgFjvtamQA

Video about sinking Mexico City

Kathy

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Mexico City is sinking! | DW Documentary

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Motherhood abroad — and motherhood as an expat in Mexico — tends to be more solitary, with less help from family and friends.

DongJun LEE

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Motherhood abroad: Between solitude and cultural diversity

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The truth about motherhood in Mexico, with all its ups, downs and inbetweens - plus tips on how to make the move as smooth as possible.

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Exploring Northwestern Mexico: Baja California & Pacific Coastal Lowlands

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Exploring Northwestern Mexico: Baja California & Pacific Coastal Lowlands

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https://www.britannica.com/place/Baja-California-peninsula-Mexico

https://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Coastal-Lowlands

changjun park

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The Mexican Riviera, which got its name from a promotional stunt by cruise liners to be named after the more famous and objectively worse French Riviera, refers to a stretch of coastline along the Pacific Ocean known for beautiful beaches, resorts, and various cultural experiences. It is a popular cruise and vacation destination, covering several cities starting from the state of Baja California down to Oaxca.

Some of the Stops (From North to South) on the French Riviera include

1. Cabo San Lucas & San José del Cabo (Los Cabos) Famous for El Arco, which is a rock formation at Land’s End. is also popular for whale watching

2. Mazatlán: Known as the pearl of the Pacific

3. Puerto Vallarta: Offers jungle and waterfall trips

4. Manzanillo: Known as Mexico's Sailfish Capital

5. Ixtapa & Zihuatanejo: Ixtapa is a high-end modern resort town while Zihuatanejo is more authentic

6. Acapulco: One of Mexico’s oldest resort destinations and formerly a hot spot for Celebrity vacations. famous for its Cliff Divers at La Quebrada, does have some safety concerns but is the most recognizable of any of the cities on the Mexican Riviera

7. Huatulco offers coffee plant tours

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Bringing Pets to Mexico City in Mexico The Mexican Riviera is located on the west side of the nation and generally encompasses the major cruise ship s

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Spelt how it sounds, The Isthmus of Tehuantepec connects the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico which for Republicans is the Gulf of America. The isthmus goes through parts of Oaxca and Veracruz and is approximately 137 miles (220km) wide. the key geological positions inside the Isthmus are the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca, Tehuantepec Gap, Laguna Superior, as well as other flat and fetile low lands. The isthmus was historically used for navigating between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans before the Panama Canal.

Currently, the isthmus is a cultural hotbed for the indigenous Zapotec and Mixe Cultures who have managed to preserve their indigenous languages in the region. The Zapotec are historically more matriarchial then european societies, and also recognize a third gender Muxe people which is where men live as women.

Economically speaking, while it's not as crucial as it was before the Panama Canal, there is currently an effort to revitalize the route as a viable alternative to the Panama Canal.

The Tehuano winds are caused by high-pressure systems over North America, which push air through the Chivela Pass, there exists the tehuano wind, which are caused by high pressure systems over North America which push air through the Chivela Pass with the winds reaching from 60-100Mph (which is how fast a Cheetah runs to a MLB pitcher fastball) which makes it perfect for wind farms, and it is the location of one of Latin America's' isthmus one, ma and its small s of the windiest places on earths biggest wind energy projects.

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17. Hiking guides Cordillera Neo-Volcánica

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17. Hiking guides Cordillera Neo-Volcánica

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1. Interactive 3D Map: The website offers an interactive 3D map of the Cordillera Neovolcanica, allowing users to virtually explore the mountain range.

2. Comprehensive Peak Information: It provides details on 9,180 named mountains within the range, including their elevations and prominence.

3. Highest Peak: The website identifies Pico de Orizaba as the highest and most prominent peak in the range, standing at 5,636m (18,491ft).

4. Geographical Coverage: The site describes the range's extent, spanning 1,000km (600mi) across south-central Mexico.

5. Geological Information: It explains the volcanic origins of the range and its formation through plate subduction.

6. Ecological Data: The website includes information on the range's ecosystems, particularly the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt pine-oak forest ecoregion.

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Known for its snow-covered peaks and rugged terrain, the Cordillera Neovolcánica is a large mountain range located in south-central Mexico. The range contains 9,180 named mountains, the highest and most prominent of which is Pico de Orizaba (5,636m/18,491ft), the highest in Mexico.

Geography

Also known as the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, the Transvolcanic Belt, the Eje Volcánico Transversal, and the Sierra Nevada, the Cordillera Neovolcánica is one of the largest mountain ranges in Mexico, covering some 1,000km (600mi) of terrain in the south-central part of the country.

The range stretches across Mexico, from the Pacific Ocean to the Bay of Campeche in the Atlantic Ocean. It is located in parts of the states of Jalisco, Colima, Guanajuato, Querétaro, Hidalgo, Veracruz, Tlaxcala, Puebla, Guerrero, Morelos, México, Michoacán, and Mexico City.

Due to its location and orientation, the Cordillera Neovolcánica acts as a natural barrier between mountain ranges to the north and those to the south.

To the north of the range is the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Mexican Plateau, and the Mexican West Coast Ranges. Meanwhile, the Cordillera Neovolcánica is bordered to the south by the Sierra Madre del Sur and the Chiapas Ranges (Sierra Madre de Chiapas).

Geology

The Cordillera Neovolcánica is characterized by extensive volcanism. The range formed through the subduction of the Cocos and Rivera plates below the North American plate. This subduction eventually wormed the Trans-Mexican volcanic Belt, which is home to a number of large volcanoes, many of which are still active today.

There are many theories regarding the specifics of the range's formation, though its volcanic origins are clear. Within the range, there are many major volcanic features, including lava domes, calderas, and shield volcanoes.

The range contains a number of major peaks, including Pico de Orizaba, Nevado de Colima, Paricutín, Nevado de Toluca, Popocatépetl, Iztaccíhuatl, Cofre de Perote, and Sierra Negra.

Many of the peaks in the Cordillera Neovolcánica crest the 4,000m (13,123ft) mark, and a handful are taller than 5,000m (16,404ft). This makes the range the highest in Mexico, and one of the highest in North America, alongside the Sierra Nevada, the Saint Elias Mountains, the Canadian Coast Mountains, the Canadian Rockies, and the Southern Rocky Mountains.

Ecology

Much of the Cordillera Neovolcánica is included within the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt pine-oak forest ecoregion, which covers an area of some 91,800 square kilometers (35,400 sq. mi) of land across the south central part of Mexico.

It is considered a sub-ecoregion of the Mesoamerican pine-oak forest composite ecoregion, which includes the many subtropical forests in the Sierra Madre mountain system.

Within this ecoregion, the landscape is dominated mostly by pine forests and pine-oak forests, though the specific communities in a given location vary based on both elevation and rainfall patterns.

At the lower elevations of the range, the landscape is predominantly pine forests, particularly between 2,275m and 2,600m (7,460-8,530ft). These forests feature mostly Montezuma pine (Pinus montezumae), smooth-bark Mexican pine (Pinus pseudostrobus), Hartweg's pine (Pinus hartwegii), and teocote pine (Pinus teocote).

Moving higher in elevation, the landscape transitions into pine-oak forests and then pine-cedar forests until about 3,000m (9,840ft). Above 3,000m (9,840ft), the land is almost all pine-fir forest until reaching treeline. Within these pine-fir forests, the trees are almost entirely sacred fir (Abies religiosa) and Hartweg's pine (Pinus hartwegii).

The region is also home to hundreds of endemic species, particularly birds. Important endemic species include the volcano rabbit (Romerolagus diazi) and the Mexican volcano mouse (Neotomodon alstoni). Other notable species include the mountain lion, Mexican cottontail, grey fox, and the bobcat.

Moreover, the lower slopes of the Cordillera Neovolcánica are a well-known winter habitat of the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus), particularly in the western part of the range in and around Michoacán.

Human History

The Cordillera Neovolcánica has been home to humans for thousands of years and the peaks in the region, especially Pico de Orizaba, are of significance to many of the region's Indigenous cultures. Many groups inhabited the region long before the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century, including the Aztecs, Totonacs, Hñähñu (Otomi), Purépecha, Pame, and Huasteco/Teenek, among countless others.

Looking out to Volcan Popocatapetl from a hill in the city of Puebla

Hernán Cortés notably travelled through the foothills of the range during the Spanish Conquest, though the rugged terrain slowed down his journey.

As a result, during the 17th century, the Spanish financed a number of roads throughout the region to create trade routes between Mexico City and the major ports on the coast, especially Veracruz. Many of these roads also connected to settlements located at the base of Pico de Orizaba, which later became an important battleground during the Mexican War of Independence.

Many of the peaks in the range are particularly popular among mountaineers, with Pico de Orizaba perhaps being the most notable. One of the first Europeans to venture up to the peak's highest slopes was likely Henri Galeotti in the late 1830s, though it wasn't until the late 1840s, that two people made the first-known summit of the mountain.

In 1936, Pico de Orizaba National Park was established around the base of Pico de Orizaba to protect it from further development. There are a number of national parks based around the major peaks in the region that still exist to this day.

Main Hiking Areas

Many of the tallest peaks in the Cordillera Neovolcánica require basic mountaineering skills to summit, though climbing in the range is very popular. Here are some of the best places to visit in the range:

Pico de Orizaba National Park

Pico de Orizaba National Park protects some 19,750 ha (48,800 acres) of land around the tallest peak in Mexico - Pico de Orizaba. It is one of the most popular climbing destinations in the country, particularly among international visitors.

The peak has many climbing routes, though the most frequented starts at a refugio at the base and heads up the Jamapa Glacier.

Most people attempt to summit Pico de Orizaba between October and March when the weather conditions in the region tend to be the most favorable for climbing. While the peak's location in the tropics means that seasonal temperatures don't vary much, the months between April and September tend to bring a lot of rainfall.

Cofre de Perote National Park

Cofre de Perote National Park protects an area of about 11,700ha (28,911 acres) around Cofre de Perote (Nāuhpa-Tēuctēpetl) in the eastern part of the Cordillera Neovolcánica. The mountain itself is an inactive volcano and is located near the border between the Cordillera Neovolcánica and the Sierra Madre Oriental.

Due to its status as a shield volcano, rather than a stratovolcano, Cofre de Perote has a very different shape than the nearby Pico de Orizaba. However, Cofre de Perote is the 8th tallest mountain in Mexico.

Cofre de Perote makes for a nice day hike, and though there is a road that goes most of the way to the top. From the summit, the peak offers some of the best views of Pico de Orizaba.

Izta-Popo Zoquiapan National Park

Izta-Popo Zoquiapan National Park (Parque Nacional Iztaccíhuatl-Popocatépetl) covers some 39,819 ha (98,395 acres) around the base of the second and third highest peaks in Mexico - Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl. The park is about 70km (43mi) to the southeast of Mexico City.

Popocatépetl is a very active volcano, so it is no longer frequently climbed, though it was summited fairly often in the 1980s and early 1990s when it was considered "dormant." A number of major eruptions have happened since then, including some very violent eruptions involving sizable amounts of ejected lava and large columns of ash.

Iztaccíhuatl, however, is considered to be an extinct volcano and is very popular among international and domestic climbers. The standard route up the mountain is known as La Arista del Sol (the edge/ridge of the sun) isn't technically challenging, though the high elevation of the peak warrants proper acclimatization.

Major Cities

The Cordillera Neovolcánica is located in one of the most populous areas of Mexico. Here are some of the best places to stay in the region:

Mexico City

Mexico City is the capital and largest city in Mexico as well as the largest city in North America by population with over 8.84 million residents. The city is one of the most important financial and cultural centers in the world and it has a metropolitan area with over 21.3 million people, which makes it the second largest in the western hemisphere behind São Paulo in Brazil.

Mexico City has a long and storied history that dates back at least as far as the 1300s. To this day, it serves a vital role as a transportation hub for the country, as it is home to Mexico City International Airport, the busiest in Latin America. It offers daily flights around the world, throughout the Americas, Europe, and Asia.

Veracruz

Veracruz is a port city located in the eastern part of the Cordillera Neovolcánica along the Gulf of Mexico. It is the most populous city in Veracruz with some 550,000 residents. The city was formally founded by Hernán Cortés when he arrived in 1519 and has played an important role in modern and contemporary Mexican history.

The port of Veracruz is one of the oldest and most important in Mexico, serving a vital role in the country's economy, particularly in the shipment of automobiles. Moreover, Veracruz has an international airport with regular flights around Mexico and service to Houston.

Guadalajara

The city of Guadalajara is located in the northwestern portion of the Cordillera Neovolcánica in the state of Jalisco. Guadalajara is home to some 1.4 million people and has a metropolitan area of over 5 million people, making it the second largest metropolitan area - and the second most population dense area -in the country.

It is considered a hub for culture, business, arts, tech, and education in Mexico. The city contains a number of important landmarks, including the Guadalajara Cathedral, the Teatro Degollado, and the San Juan de Dios Market, the latter of which is one of the largest indoor marketplaces in the region.

Guadalajara is connected by a handful of large highways as well as the Guadalajara International AIrport, which is the third busiest in the country.

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Known for its snow-covered peaks and rugged terrain, the Cordillera Neovolcánica is a large mountain range located in south-central Mexico. The range contains 9,180 named mountains, the highest and most prominent of which is Pico de Orizaba (5,636m/18...

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3.  In states such as Oaxaca or Chiapas, small communal villages remain where indigenous peasants live much as their ancestors 

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3.  In states such as Oaxaca or Chiapas, small communal villages remain where indigenous peasants live much as their ancestors 

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https://youtu.be/0sgy5LhZBkI

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Life in Oaxaca’s Poorest Villages: Meeting the Indigenous Zapotec