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Attention to detail
Religious symbolism
Naturalism
Oil paint: subtle effects of light and dark, modeling, greater details, glowing colors
Art can be owned by middle class (especially prints)
Mostly religious, also portraiture
Details of modern life (cityscapes, interiors, etc.)
Fantastical creatures/demons (Bosch, Schongauer)

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📚 Art History Study Guide Terms

Book of Hours

Personal prayer book used by Christians (especially in the Middle Ages)

Included prayers, psalms, and calendar of feast days

Often richly illuminated and customized for the owner

Diptych

Artwork made of two hinged panels

Used for altarpieces or private devotion

Could be painted, carved, or in relief

Triptych

Artwork with three panels (center and two wings)

Common in Christian altarpieces

Wings could be closed over the central image

Polyptych

Artwork with four or more panels

Often used for large, complex altarpieces

Could include many scenes or saints

Donors / Patrons

People who commissioned the artwork

Often shown in the artwork (kneeling or observing)

Wanted to show piety and gain spiritual benefits

Grisaille

Painting done in shades of gray to look like sculpture

Used in manuscripts and on outside panels of altarpieces

Sometimes served as underpainting

Intaglio

Printmaking technique where lines are cut into metal

Ink fills the grooves, and paper presses the ink out

Includes engraving, etching, and drypoint

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Ekkehard and Uta, Naumburg cathedral. ca. 1249–55

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Ekkehard and Uta, Naumburg cathedral. ca. 1249–55

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Ekkehard II and Uta were secular nobility (Margrave and Margravine of Meissen)

Lived in the 11th century, but were sculpted over a century later

Part of a group of 12 donor figures (patrons/founders) depicted in the cathedral

Highly individualized faces — rare for medieval sculpture

Naturalistic posture and detailed clothing (folded, weighty drapery)

Uta:

Famous for her lifelike, dignified expression and elegant gesture

Cloak drawn up around her face — a subtle, graceful gesture

Ekkehard:

Depicted holding a sword and shield, standing confidently

Both are shown in courtly Gothic dress, not biblical attire

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Chapel of Henry VII, Westminster Abbey, London. 1503-19

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Chapel of Henry VII, Westminster Abbey, London. 1503-19

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Salisbury Cathedral, ca. 1320-30 (exterior, plan, and nave)

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Salisbury Cathedral, ca. 1320-30 (exterior, plan, and nave)

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Virgin of Paris. Early 14th century. Stone. Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris

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Virgin of Paris. Early 14th century. Stone. Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris

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Melchizedek and Abraham, from the Psalter of St. Louis. 1253–70  

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Melchizedek and Abraham, from the Psalter of St. Louis. 1253–70  

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Scene: Depicts the biblical meeting between Melchizedek, the priest-king of Salem, and Abraham

Melchizedek offers bread and wine (a prefiguration of the Eucharist)

Abraham pays tithes to Melchizedek

Symbolism:

Emphasizes Old Testament foreshadowing of the Christian Eucharist

Shows the authority of priesthood and divine kingship

Reflects the ideal of the Christian monarch (like Louis IX)

Gothic style:

Elongated, elegant figures

Rich use of gold leaf, especially in the background

Architectural framing around the figures, resembling church structures

Stylized drapery and expressive gestures convey reverence and hierarchy

Narrative clarity typical of Gothic illuminated manuscripts

Produced during the Capetian dynasty, when Louis IX was promoting piety and crusading ideals

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Over 2,300 statues

Famous for the "Smiling Angel" statue on the façade — an iconic piece of Gothic sculpture

Rich narrative sculptures depicting biblical stories, the Last Judgment, and kings

Stained glass: 13th-century originals + modern glass by Marc Chagall in 1974

Coronation site for French kings from the 11th to 19th centuries

Most famously, Charles VII was crowned here in 1429 with Joan of Arc in attendance

Reims was seen as the spiritual birthplace of the French monarchy

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Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, ca. 1200-50 

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Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, ca. 1200-50 

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Construction Dates: Began in 1163, mostly completed by 1260, with additions and restorations continuing afterward

Pointed Arches: Classic Gothic style for height and stability

Ribbed Vaults: Allowed for taller ceilings and more light

Flying Buttresses: Exterior supports added later to prevent collapse and allow thinner walls and bigger windows

Rose Windows: Large circular stained glass windows depicting biblical scenes

Sculpture: Detailed carvings on portals (entrances), including Last Judgment and kings of Judah

Gargoyles: Decorative waterspouts, often shaped like monsters, used to drain water

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all of these from this cathedral are early gothic

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West portal (Royal Portal) of cathedral of Notre-Dame, Chartres. 

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West portal (Royal Portal) of cathedral of Notre-Dame, Chartres. 

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ca. 1145–50

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Jamb statues, west portal of cathedral of Notre-Dame, Chartres

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Jamb statues, west portal of cathedral of Notre-Dame, Chartres

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Nave and choir of cathedral of Notre-Dame, Chartres. ca. 1194–1220

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Nave and choir of cathedral of Notre-Dame, Chartres. ca. 1194–1220

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Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Chartres, France. ca. 1145–1220 outside

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Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Chartres, France. ca. 1145–1220 outside

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Chartres Cathedral is a High Gothic masterpiece, completed mostly in a single building campaign after 1194, making it unusually unified in style.

It houses the Sancta Camisia, believed to be the Virgin Mary’s tunic, making it a major pilgrimage site.

It features innovative flying buttresses, allowing for huge stained-glass windows that transform the interior into a space of colored light.

The Royal Portal (west entrance) includes early Gothic sculpture, showing a shift toward more naturalistic, human-like figures.

It was one of the first cathedrals to use the three-part elevation, increasing height and light within the church.

Chartres became a model for later Gothic cathedrals in structure, sculpture, and symbolic program.

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The Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, redesigned under Abbot Suger around 1140, is considered the first true Gothic structure, emphasizing light, verticality, and sacred geometry—features that became the foundation of Gothic cathedral design.

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Abbey church of Saint-Denis, France. 1140–44 plan

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Abbey church of Saint-Denis, France. 1140–44 plan

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Abbey church of Saint-Denis, France. 1140–44 

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Abbey church of Saint-Denis, France. 1140–44 

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early gothic

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Marks the shift from medieval to early Renaissance art—artists began focusing more on naturalism and emotion.

Mixture of Byzantine, Gothic, and Classical Influences

Byzantine: Gold backgrounds, frontal figures, spiritual symbolism.

Gothic: More emotional expression, elegant lines, and elongated forms.

Classical: Realistic bodies, perspective, and influence from ancient Roman and Greek art.

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 Jan van Eyck. Man in a Red Turban (Self-Portrait?). 1433

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 Jan van Eyck. Man in a Red Turban (Self-Portrait?). 1433

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Hubert and Jan van Eyck. Ghent Altarpiece (open and closed), 1432

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Hubert and Jan van Eyck. Ghent Altarpiece (open and closed), 1432

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polyptych=many panels

grisaille= using only values of grey, black and white

outside of alter.

stolen many many times. it contains a very large scope of the plan of salvation, or the plan of God

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Hubert and Jan van Eyck. Ghent Altarpiece (open and closed), 1432 

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Hubert and Jan van Eyck. Ghent Altarpiece (open and closed), 1432 

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stolen by the nazis!

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 Rogier van der Weyden. Descent from the Cross . ca. 1435 

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 Rogier van der Weyden. Descent from the Cross . ca. 1435 

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introduction of oil painting!

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Hieronymus Bosch, The Last Judgment, c. 1482

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Hieronymus Bosch, The Last Judgment, c. 1482

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Artist: Hieronymus Bosch

Title: The Last Judgment

Date: c. 1482

Medium: Oil on wood panel

Type: Triptych (three-panel altarpiece)

Location: Multiple versions exist — one is in the Academy of Fine Arts, Vienna; another is in Bruges

includes the seven deadly sins and their punishments.

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 Martin Schongauer, St. Anthony Tormented by Demons, c. 1480-90

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 Martin Schongauer, St. Anthony Tormented by Demons, c. 1480-90

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Artist: Martin Schongauer

Date: c. 1480–1490

Medium: Engraving on paper using a copper printing plate

Location: German regions during the Northern Renaissance

Type of Printmaking: Intaglio (engraving) — design carved into a copper plate, inked, then pressed onto paper

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 Robert Campin and workshop. The annunciation . ca. 1425–30

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 Robert Campin and workshop. The annunciation . ca. 1425–30

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Private alterpiece for a home

triptych=religious panels with one central panel and two side ones that can be closed.

lots of symbolism, lilies to symbolize christ, candle to symbolize christ...

mouse trap= saint augustine wrote that the mousetrap was the cross, because the cross trapped satan and his plan. This is forshadowing what christ will do in this painting.

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(bridge between Gothic and Renaissance)

some Gothic characteristics
new naturalism
rich colors, materials
symbolism
many small details
aristocratic patrons, tastes
elegant figures, expensive dress
patterns, repetition

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made for king richard the 2nd

looks similar to byzantine, but the delicate lines and patterns make it gothic

Symbols: The stag, every angel in heaven has the stag. This shows the support that the heavens had for king Richard

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Limbourg Brothers. January, Les Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. 1413–16

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Limbourg Brothers. January, Les Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. 1413–16

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calendar page, january.

this was made for the wealthy, iconography shows off the kings wealth.

rest of the calendar goes back and forth from peasants to royalty

before this was finished, the three brothers who worked on this dies of the plague

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Claus Sluter. The Well of Moses, 1395–1406  

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Claus Sluter. The Well of Moses, 1395–1406  

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Location: Charterhouse of Champmol, Dijon, France

Commissioned by: Duke Philip the Bold of Burgundy

Medium: Stone sculpture, originally painted (polychromed)

Style: Northern Gothic — highly naturalistic, emotional, and detailed

Subject Matter:

Depicts Old Testament prophets including Moses, David, Daniel, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Zechariah

Figures are holding scrolls or books with Latin prophecies referencing the coming of Christ

Above them (now missing) was a crucifixion scene, forming a symbolic "fountain of life" from the sacrifice of Christ

Symbolism:

Represents the foundation of Christianity with prophets foretelling the arrival of Jesus

Originally placed at the center of a monastery's cloister — a place for reflection and spiritual renewal

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Ambrogio Lorenzetti. Allegory of Good and Bad Government, Palazzo Pubblico, Siena. 1338–40

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Ambrogio Lorenzetti. Allegory of Good and Bad Government, Palazzo Pubblico, Siena. 1338–40

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Council of the 9=members of the community that would rule to together for 3 months to avoid bad government.

This was painted to remind them of things that they needed for a good government so the city can prosper.

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It was Giotto's students that painted this! vase of lilies= purity and chastity of mary.

olive branch= announcement of the coming of christ.

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Duccio, Annunciation of the Death of the Virgin, from the Maestà Altar.      Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Siena 1308-10

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Duccio, Annunciation of the Death of the Virgin, from the Maestà Altar.      Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Siena 1308-10

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doesn't follow the rules of linnear perspective

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Duccio. Madonna Enthroned, center of the Maesta Altar. 1308-11

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Duccio. Madonna Enthroned, center of the Maesta Altar. 1308-11

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More story telling like giotto

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Franciscan Order

A Catholic religious order founded by St. Francis of Assisi in the 1200s

Emphasized poverty, humility, and service to the poor

Inspired emotional and human-centered religious art

Apron Scene

Small narrative images surrounding a central figure in an altarpiece

Often show scenes from the life of a saint (especially St. Francis)

Used to teach religious stories visually

Painted Altarpieces

Large paintings placed behind or above the altar in a church

Often show the Virgin Mary, Christ, or saints

Include narrative scenes to inspire devotion and educate viewers

Tempera

A painting medium made from pigment mixed with egg yolk

Dries quickly and produces bright colors and fine detail

Commonly used in medieval and early Renaissance panel paintings

Fresco

A wall painting technique using water-based paint on wet plaster

Durable and good for large murals and narrative scenes

Used by Giotto and others in chapels and churches

Pulpit

A raised platform in a church used for preaching

Often decorated with biblical reliefs or sculptures

A focal point for delivering religious messages

Tau Cross of St. Francis

A T-shaped cross symbol associated with St. Francis

Represents humility, poverty, and faith

A visual symbol of the Franciscan Order

Republics vs. Duchies

Republics (e.g., Florence): governed by elected leaders or merchant families

Duchies (e.g., Milan): ruled by dukes or hereditary nobles

Affected art patronage—Republics supported civic virtue, Duchies emphasized power

Annunciation

Biblical scene where the Angel Gabriel tells Mary she will bear Jesus

Symbol of the Incarnation (God becoming human)

Often shown in altarpieces and frescoes with Gabriel, Mary, and symbols like lilies

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Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel, Padua. 1305–06 (and fresco paintings by Giotto) 

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Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel, Padua. 1305–06 (and fresco paintings by Giotto) 

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Story of Mary's parents from a medieval book, fictional from the 1200

Life of the Virgin Mary
Scenes include:

Joachim and Anna (Mary’s parents)

Meeting at the Golden Gate

Birth of the Virgin

Presentation of Mary in the Temple

Annunciation (transition point to Christ’s life

ife and Ministry of Christ
Scenes include:

Nativity

Adoration of the Magi

Flight into Egypt

Baptism of Christ

Wedding at Cana

Raising of Lazarus

Entry into Jerusalem

Passion of Christ (His suffering and death)
Scenes include:

Last Supper

Arrest of Christ (Kiss of Judas)

Trial before Caiaphas

Flagellation

Crucifixion

Lamentation (Mourning over Christ’s body)

Resurrection and Ascension

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Giotto's work was revolutionary—he reintroduced the human figure with weight, emotion, and naturalism, making him a forerunner of Renaissance art.

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12 feet tall! gold leaf and tempura paint.

lots of gold and hieratic scale, reminds me of byzantine art. I think that there is some classical influence there in the fabric folds and the dimention.

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Andrea Pisano. South doors, baptistery of San Giovanni, Florence. 1330–36

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Andrea Pisano. South doors, baptistery of San Giovanni, Florence. 1330–36

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Arnolfo di Cambio. Florence Cathedral. Begun ca. 1294 

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Arnolfo di Cambio. Florence Cathedral. Begun ca. 1294 

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lots of greek and roman inspiration, hercules is even on there! a lot of the iconography is very clearly classicaly inspired.

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basically the female version of St Francis

Artist: Attributed to the Master of Santa Chiara (or a follower)

Date: ca. 1280s–1300

Medium: Tempera on wood

Location: Basilica of Santa Chiara, Assisi, Italy

Central figure of St. Clare, in the Franciscan nun’s habit.

Scenes from her life include:

Miracles during the defense of Assisi

Her spiritual visions

Her relationship with St. Francis

Surrounded by narrative episodes, similar to St. Francis altarpiece.

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Bonaventura Belinghieri Altarpiece of St. Francis of Assisini 1235

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Bonaventura Belinghieri Altarpiece of St. Francis of Assisini 1235

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Artist: Bonaventura Berlinghieri

Date: 1235

Medium: Tempera on wood

Location: Church of San Francesco, Pescia, Italy

Central figure of St. Francis in iconic pose (with stigmata visible).

Scenes from his life include:

Renouncing worldly goods

Preaching to the birds

Receiving the stigmata

Performing miracles

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1. Pointed Arches
A defining Gothic feature, these arches distribute weight more efficiently than round ones, allowing for taller buildings and larger windows.

2. Ribbed Groin Vaults
Intersecting barrel vaults with ribs added for structural support and decorative effect.

3. Flying Buttresses
External stone supports that transfer roof weight away from the walls, enabling higher ceilings and more stained glass.

4. Nave
The central, long aisle of a church where the congregation gathers.

5. Transept
The arm of the church that crosses the nave, forming a cruciform (cross) shape.

6. Crossing
Where the nave and transept intersect, often beneath a dome or tower.

7. Aisles
Passageways flanking the nave, separated by columns or piers.

8. Ambulatory
A walkway around the apse (eastern end) of a church, often used by pilgrims to visit relic chapels.

9. Nave Arcade
A row of arches that separate the nave from the aisles.

10. Gallery
A second-level passage above the nave arcade, sometimes used for overflow seating.

11. Triforium
A shallow gallery or arcade above the nave arcade and below the clerestory, often decorative.

12. Clerestory
The highest part of the nave wall, filled with windows that let in light.

13. Compound Piers
Large piers with multiple engaged shafts or columns, often used to support arches and vaults.

14. Westwork
The monumental western front of a church, often with towers and a grand entrance.

🗿 Sculpture & Symbolism

15. Jamb Statues
Figures carved into the door jambs (sides of the portal), often prophets, saints, or kings.

16. Cult of Mary
Increased veneration of the Virgin Mary in the Gothic period, influencing art, architecture, and church dedications.

17. Gothic “Sway”
The elegant, subtle S-curve posture seen in Gothic sculpture, giving figures a graceful, lifelike quality.

🎨 Light & Decoration

18. Stained Glass
Colored glass used in windows to depict biblical scenes and saints, creating a heavenly interior light.

19. Tracery Windows
Decorative stone frameworks that hold stained glass in place; can be simple or highly intricate.

🏰 Styles within Gothic Architecture

20. Rayonnant (Court Style)
A later Gothic style marked by radiating tracery, soaring height, and lots of glass—seen in Sainte-Chapelle in Paris.

21. Flamboyant Style
Late Gothic, especially in France; named for flame-like tracery and ornate decoration.

22. Fan Vaulting (England)
A type of vault where ribs spread out like a fan; characteristic of English Gothic, seen in King's College Chapel.

Let me know if y

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Plan of abbey church of Saint-Étienne, Caen, France. Begun 1068

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Plan of abbey church of Saint-Étienne, Caen, France. Begun 1068

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Transverse section of Durham cathedral (after Acland)

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Transverse section of Durham cathedral (after Acland)

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Trumeau and jambs, south portal, church of Saint-Pierre, Moissac

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Trumeau and jambs, south portal, church of Saint-Pierre, Moissac

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St. Etienne, Caen, France.  façade, plan, nave

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St. Etienne, Caen, France.  façade, plan, nave

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Twin towers rise in tiers, giving a vertical emphasis.

Originally simple Romanesque forms, later Gothic spires were added in the 13th century.

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Begun in 1067, largely completed by the early 12th century

Patron: William the Conqueror (it was his burial church)

Combines Romanesque solidity with Gothic innovation.

It was a model for later churches in both Normandy and England (especially after the Norman Conquest).

Closely linked with Durham Cathedral—they share architectural DNA (ribs, tribunes, proportions).

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Built by the Normans after the conquest of England (1066).

Designed to house the shrine of St. Cuthbert, a beloved Anglo-Saxon saint.

A masterpiece of Norman (Romanesque) architecture, and one of the first major buildings in the world to use ribbed groin vaults.

Durham is often seen as a bridge between Romanesque and Gothic:

Uses rounded arches and thick walls typical of Romanesque.

But also introduces ribbed vaulting and more complex structural ideas that lead into Gothic style.

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Cruciform (cross-shaped) layout, typical of Romanesque churches.

Main sections:

Nave (long central space for congregation)

Aisles on either side of the nave

Transept (the “arms” of the cross layout)

Choir (where monks would chant prayers)

Apse and radiating chapels (not as pronounced as on the continent)

Central crossing tower at the intersection of nave and transept

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Not technically a tapestry (which is woven), but an embroidered cloth.

Measures about 230 feet (70 meters) long and 20 inches (50 cm) tall.

Created in the late 11th century, likely in England, around 1070–1080 CE.

The Bayeux Tapestry tells the story of the Norman conquest of England in 1066.

Edward the Confessor, King of England, has no heir.

He allegedly promises the throne to William, Duke of Normandy.

Edward sends Harold Godwinson, an English noble, to Normandy.

Harold is captured, but William rescues him.

Harold swears an oath to support William's claim to the throne.

Back in England, Edward dies, and Harold takes the crown instead.

William feels betrayed and prepares for war.

William sails to England with an army.

At the Battle of Hastings, William defeats Harold.

Harold is killed, and William becomes King of England.

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Speyer cathedral, ca. 103-61; vaulted ca. 1080-1106 (interior) 

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Speyer cathedral, ca. 103-61; vaulted ca. 1080-1106 (interior) 

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used to be a flat wooden roof so that they could add windows, but it didnt look romanesque, so they made big groin vaults to support the structure

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Baptistery of San Giovanni, Florence, Italy. Ca. 1060-1150

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Baptistery of San Giovanni, Florence, Italy. Ca. 1060-1150

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I've been there!

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Baptistery, cathedral, and campanile. Pisa, Italy. 1053–1272 

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Baptistery, cathedral, and campanile. Pisa, Italy. 1053–1272 

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Campanile= bell tower

leaning tower of pisa

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Mouth of Hell, from the Winchester Psalter. Winchester, England. ca. 1150 

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Mouth of Hell, from the Winchester Psalter. Winchester, England. ca. 1150 

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the gates of hell! even royals are not exempt from hell

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St. John the Evangelist, from the Gospel Book of Abbot Wedricus. ca. 1147 

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St. John the Evangelist, from the Gospel Book of Abbot Wedricus. ca. 1147 

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Last Judgment portal by Gislebertus, cathedral of Saint-Lazare, Autun, France. Ca. 1120-35

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Last Judgment portal by Gislebertus, cathedral of Saint-Lazare, Autun, France. Ca. 1120-35

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✝️ Central Figure: Christ in Majesty

Christ sits enthroned in a mandorla (almond-shaped aureole), signifying divine glory and eternity.

He appears elongated, stylized, and commanding — a typical Romanesque trait emphasizing spiritual authority over naturalism.

⚖️ The Last Judgment Scene

Left side (Christ’s right): The saved are shown being led into heaven by angels.

Right side (Christ’s left): The damned are tortured and dragged by demons — grotesque and emotionally intense imagery used to instill fear and awe.

🧑‍⚖️ Weighing of Souls

A dramatic psychostasia (soul-weighing) scene is shown, with St. Michael and a demon in a tug-of-war over a soul’s fate.

This visual contrast symbolizes divine justice vs. temptation.

🙏 Pilgrims

At the lower left, a line of pilgrims, identifiable by their bags and shells (symbols of Santiago de Compostela), move toward salvation.

This is supposed to make you realize everything that Jesus Christ is and the power that he has. Create fear about the final judgment day to motivate people to come to church

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South portal with Second Coming of Christ on tympanum, church of Saint-Pierre, Moissac. ca. 1115-30

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South portal with Second Coming of Christ on tympanum, church of Saint-Pierre, Moissac. ca. 1115-30

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just illlustrating these scriptures

during this period, the goal was to inspire some fear.

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any door post is a jamb, even in our houses.

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Nave and choir, church of Sant Vicenc, Cardona, Spain. ca. 1029-1040

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Nave and choir, church of Sant Vicenc, Cardona, Spain. ca. 1029-1040

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Barrel Vault – spans the nave

Bays – divided by transverse arches

Compound Piers – support the vaults

Apse and Choir – liturgical east end

Romanesque Style – heavy, solid, rounded arches, minimal exterior decoration

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Plan of cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Spain.ca. 1075–1120 (after Dehio)

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Plan of cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Spain.ca. 1075–1120 (after Dehio)

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The goal is to make your way around the whole church through the aisles. you get to stop at the apsidioles to see the relics.

all of the aisle bays are the same size

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Schematic drawing of a generic Persian four-iwan mosque

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Schematic drawing of a generic Persian four-iwan mosque

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Schematic drawing of a generic Arab hypostyle mosque

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Schematic drawing of a generic Arab hypostyle mosque

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Cutaway drawing, Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem

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Cutaway drawing, Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem

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Hajj – Pilgrimage to Mecca; one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Every able Muslim is required to do it once in their lifetime.

Mihrab – A niche in the qibla wall of a mosque that shows the direction of Mecca.

Qibla Wall – The wall in a mosque that faces Mecca; contains the mihrab.

Kufic Script – An early angular form of Arabic calligraphy used in Qur’anic manuscripts and architectural decoration.

Minaret – A tower attached to a mosque, used to call Muslims to prayer.

Horseshoe Arches – Rounded arches that curve inward slightly at the base; common in Moorish and Umayyad architecture (e.g., Córdoba).

Hypostyle Hall – A large hall with a roof supported by many columns; used in early mosques.

Voussoirs – Wedge-shaped stones that form an arch. Alternating colored voussoirs (e.g., red and white) are decorative features in Islamic architecture.

Iwan – A vaulted hall with three closed sides and one open side, often facing a courtyard. Common in Persian/Islamic architecture.

Muqarnas – Decorative, honeycomb-like vaulting often found in domes and entrances; symbolizes heaven.

Madrasa – An Islamic school for learning theology, law, and sometimes science. Often attached to mosques.

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Date: Begun in 1632, completed around 1648 CE

Commissioned by: Shah Jahan, Mughal emperor (r. 1628–1658)

Purpose: A mausoleum for his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who died in childbirth in 1631

Architect: Attributed to Ustad Ahmad Lahauri and a team of architects and artisans from across the empire and beyond

Entirely faced in white marble, inlaid with semi-precious stones (pietra dura technique)

Surfaces decorated with floral motifs, geometric patterns, and calligraphy of Quranic verses

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Bichitr, Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings,1615-1618

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Bichitr, Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings,1615-1618

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Jahangir is at the top, surrounded by a large golden halo and a smaller white one — symbolizing his divine authority and enlightenment.

He is handing a book or perhaps a gift to the Sufi shaikh — placing spiritual over worldly power.

Below the Sufi:

The Ottoman sultan (Muslim ruler of the Islamic world).

King James I of England, identifiable by his European attire and features.

Bichitr himself, the painter, holding a miniature self-portrait (a daring act of self-insertion).

Putti (cherubs), derived from European Christian art, are seen below:

Two write on the base of the hourglass throne.

One covers his face in awe; another aims a bow — mixing Mughal, Christian, and classical references.

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Basawan and Chatar Muni, Akbar and the Elephant Hawai, from the Akbarnama, c. 1590

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Basawan and Chatar Muni, Akbar and the Elephant Hawai, from the Akbarnama, c. 1590

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The image glorifies Akbar as a brave, capable, and divinely guided ruler — someone who can bring order from chaos.

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Wine cup of Shah Jahan, from northern India. Mid-17th century

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Wine cup of Shah Jahan, from northern India. Mid-17th century

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Madrasa of Ulugh beg, Samarkand, Uzbekistan. ca. 1435

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Madrasa of Ulugh beg, Samarkand, Uzbekistan. ca. 1435

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A madrasa is an Islamic school or college for religious and scientific learning

Ulugh Beg founded this place, he was a prince

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Early Byzantine: 500 ad

Middle Byzantine: 900-1200 ad

Late Byzantine: 1300 ad

313 Constantine’s edict of Milan legalized Christianity
324 Constantine founded Constantinople (now Istanbul)
325 Constantine formed counsel of Niceae (Nicene
Creed)
337 Constantine died
380 Christianity became official religion of the empire
391 pagan religions banned
395 empire divided into east and west; also church
404 Honorius moved capitol to Ravenna
410 sack of Rome, decline in western empire

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The Harrowing of Hell (Anastasis), Chora Church, Istanbul, c. 1315-1321

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The Harrowing of Hell (Anastasis), Chora Church, Istanbul, c. 1315-1321

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This altarpiece marks a critical transition between the Byzantine tradition and the emerging naturalism of the Italian Proto-Renaissance

Medium: Tempera and gold on wood panel

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Christ Pantocrator, Church of the Dormition, Daphni, Greece

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Christ Pantocrator, Church of the Dormition, Daphni, Greece

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Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt. Late 6th century CE

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Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt. Late 6th century CE

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Virgin and Child Enthroned Between Saints and Angels, Monastery of St

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Virgin and Child Enthroned Between Saints and Angels, Monastery of St

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Medium: Encaustic on wood (wax-based pigment)

Hieratic scale: Mary and Christ are largest and most central.

Frontal, rigid poses: Reflect spiritual timelessness and transcendence.

Gold background (lost or implied): Symbolizes heavenly space, not earthly.

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Christ, Monastery of St. Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt. 6th century CE

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Christ, Monastery of St. Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt. 6th century CE

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Located at the base of Mount Sinai, believed to be the site where Moses received the Ten Commandments. Saint Catherine's cathedral

Reflects Byzantine theological ideas of Christ’s dual nature: fully God and fully man.

Medium: Encaustic on wood (paint mixed with hot wax)

Christ raises his right hand in a specific arrangement of fingers that forms a symbolic blessing:

The fingers spell out the Christogram ICXC:

I = Index finger (straight)

C = Middle finger (curved)

X = Crossed ring and index fingers

C = Thumb and pinky curved together

These letters are a Greek abbreviation for Jesus Christ

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Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey. 532–37 CE

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Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey. 532–37 CE

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Symbol of Imperial Power: Justinian sought to outdo Solomon’s Temple (“Solomon, I have outdone thee!”)

Location: Istanbul, Turkey

Date: 532–537 CE

Commissioned by: Emperor Justinian I

Architects: Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus

Original Function: Christian cathedral (Eastern Orthodox)

Revolutionary use of pendentives—curved triangular supports that allow the circular dome to rest over a square base.

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something that was important for them was going on a pilgrimage, they traveled because they wanted to.

they wanted to visit places that had reliques, like bones or things that important people touched.

the top three places were Jerusalem, Rome, and Santiago de Compestella

they wanted to express christian devotion, purify the soul and perhaps produce miraculos healing benefits, reduce time in purgatory, gain forgiveness over a sin or a crime, to travel and see some of the world

these cities, especially the one in spain, became wealthy because of tourism.

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🧭 Pilgrimage & Sacred Sites

Pilgrimage
A religious journey to a sacred site. In medieval Europe, pilgrims traveled to churches that housed relics for healing, forgiveness of sins, or spiritual merit.

Santiago de Compostela
A major pilgrimage destination in Spain, believed to hold the relics of St. James the Apostle. The church there was a key stop on the Way of St. James (Camino de Santiago).

Reliquary
A container for holy relics—bones, clothing, or objects associated with saints or Christ. Often made of precious metals and decorated lavishly to show veneration.

🏛️ Romanesque Church Architecture

Nave
The central aisle of a church where the congregation gathers. Runs west to east toward the altar.

Narthex
The entrance or vestibule at the west end of a church, just before entering the nave.

Transept
The arms of the cross-shaped (cruciform) church plan that run perpendicular to the nave.

Crossing
The square or circular area where the nave and transept intersect—often under a dome or tower.

Ambulatory
A curved walkway around the apse, allowing pilgrims to move around the high altar and visit apsidioles or chapels without disturbing the main liturgy.

Apsidiole (or Radiating Chapel)
A small apse-like chapel projecting from the main apse or the ambulatory—often housed reliquaries for pilgrims.

Cloister
A covered walkway around a central courtyard, often attached to monasteries or cathedrals. Used for meditation and reading.

🧱 Architectural Structures & Supports

Barrel Vault
A continuous semi-circular ceiling, like a tunnel. Common in Romanesque architecture; provides strength but limits window size.

Groin Vault
Created by the intersection of two barrel vaults at right angles. Allows for more open and light-filled spaces.

Bay
A unit of space in architecture, often marked by a repeating pattern of arches or vaults. Helps organize interior space visually.

Compound Piers
Large piers with attached columns or shafts used to support arches and vaults, especially in Romanesque and Gothic churches.

Campanile
A bell tower, often freestanding, associated with Italian churches (e.g., Leaning Tower of Pisa).

🎨 Sculptural Terms for Church Portals

Tympanum
The semi-circular space above the church door, filled with sculptural reliefs—commonly depicting the Last Judgment or Christ in Majesty.

Trumeau
The central supporting column between two doors beneath a tympanum. Often carved with saints or prophets.

Jamb
The vertical side posts of a doorway—frequently decorated with statues of saints or apostles.

✨ Symbolism & Decorative Techniques

Mandorla
An almond-shaped halo around the entire body of Christ or the Virgin Mary, symbolizing divine glory or heavenly realm.

Champlevé
An enameling technique where metal surfaces are carved out into cells, filled with colored glass paste, and fired. Common in reliquaries and decorative objects in Romanesque art.

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On the right: St. Matthew, from the Gospel Book of Charlemagne (Coronation Gospels). ca. 800-10

On the left: St. Matthew, from the Gospel Book of Archbishop Ebbo of Reims. Ca. 816-35

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very different that the lindau gosples, it shows that Christ did die and he did suffer