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A slave revolt took place on September 9th 1739, in the colony of South Carolina . It was the largest slave rebellion in the Southern Colonies , with 25 colonists and 35 to 50 Africans killed. The uprising was led by native Africans who were likely from the Central African Kingdom of Kongo , as the rebels were Catholic and some spoke Portuguese. The immediate factors that sparked the uprising remain in doubt. A malaria epidemic in Charlestown, which caused general confusion throughout Carolina, may have influenced the timing of the Rebellion.  The recent (August 1739) passage of the Security Act by the South Carolina Colonial Assembly may also have played a role. The act required all white men to carry firearms to church on Sunday. Thus the enslaved leaders of the rebellion knew their best chance for success would be during the time of the church services when armed white males were away from the plantations.

Video Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pND-9KhM1Xw

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Ex-slaves sitting in front of a cabin in 1862

Early on the morning of Sunday, September 9, 1739, 20 black slaves met in secret near the Stono River in South Carolina to plan their escape to freedom. Minutes later, they burst into Hutcheson's store at Stono's bridge, killed the two storekeepers, and stole the guns and powder inside. Stono's Rebellion
September 9, 1739

The group of slaves grew in number as they headed south. Stono's Rebellion, the largest slave uprising in the Colonies prior to the American Revolution, was under way.

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Ex-slaves sitting in front of a cabin in 1862 Early on the morning of Sunday, September 9, 1739, 20 black slaves met in secret near the Stono River in South Carolina to plan their escape to freedom. Minutes later, they burst into Hutcheson's store at Stono's bridge, killed the two storekeepers, and stole the guns and powder inside.

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Sojourner Truth was born into slavery in 1797 in Swartekill NY. After she escaped in 1826 with her infant daughter, she recruited  soldiers to fight for the union. Also, after going to court to recover her son in from being illegally sold into slavery in 1828, she became the first black woman to win such a case against a white man. She was an outspoken advocate for abolition, temperance, and civil and women's rights. Leading her to earn an invitation to meet President Lincoln in 1864. She died of old age in 1883 in Battle Creek, Michigan.
Source: https://www.womenshistory.org/exhibits/sojourner-truth

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May 31, 1921 - June 1st, 1921 Black Wall Street (Sofia Maza) 

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May 31, 1921 - June 1st, 1921 Black Wall Street (Sofia Maza) 

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The Historical even, The Black Wall Street also known as the Tulsa Race Massacre which took place in Tulsa, Oklahoma, US. The Tulsa Race Massacre took place on May 31st to June 1st in where mobs of white residents attacked Black residents and destroyed homes and businesses. Some of these white residents were even given weapons by city officials which just show how they were supporting this actions and even going out of their way to make it more violent. All of this started because Dick Rowland who was a black man was reported attempting to rape a white woman Sarah Page. Due to this white people in the area refused to wait for the trial and proceeded to start this 2 day violence towards Black people in the neighborhood. This lead to 35 city blocks going up in flames, 300 people died, and 800 were injured. The aftermath of all this was extremely bad especially for Black people, the economic status of the area went down terribly since almost everything was damaged. As for punishments, Black people were left broke and having to build all of their homes and businesses again. And not a single white person was arrested for this event.

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In 1921, Tulsa, Oklahoma's Greenwood District, known as Black Wall Street, was one of the most prosperous African-American communities in the United States. But on May 31 of that year, the Tulsa Tribune reported that a black man, Dick Rowland, attempted to rape a white woman, Sarah Page. Whites in the area refused to wait for the investigative process to play out, sparking two days of unprecedented racial violence. Thirty-five city blocks went up in flames, 300 people died, and 800 were injured. Defense of white female virtue was the expressed motivation for the collective racial violence.

Accounts vary on what happened between Page and Rowland in the elevator of the Drexel Building. Yet as a result of the Tulsa Tribune 's racially inflammatory report, black and white armed mobs arrived at the courthouse. Scuffles broke out, and shots were fired. Since the blacks were outnumbered, they headed back to Greenwood. But the enraged whites were not far behind, looting and burning businesses and homes along the way.

The state of Oklahoma had only two airports, yet six black families owned their own planes.

Nine thousand people became homeless, Josie Pickens writes in Ebony. This "modern, majestic, sophisticated, and unapologetically black" community boasted of "banks, hotels, cafés, clothiers, movie theaters, and contemporary homes." Not to mention luxuries, such as "indoor plumbing and a remarkable school system that superiorly educated black children." Undoubtedly, less fortunate white neighbors resented their upper-class lifestyle. As a result of a jealous desire "to put progressive, high-achieving African-Americans in their place," a wave of domestic white terrorism caused black dispossession.

The creation of the powerful black community known as Black Wall Street was intentional. "In 1906, O.W. Gurley, a wealthy African-American from Arkansas, moved to Tulsa and purchased over 40 acres of land that he made sure was only sold to other African-Americans," writes Christina Montford in the Atlanta Black Star. Gurley provided an opportunity for those migrating "from the harsh oppression of Mississippi." The average income of black families in the area exceeded "what minimum wage is today." As a result of segregation, a "dollar circulated 36 to 100 times" and remained in Greenwood "almost a year before leaving." Even more impressive, at that time, the "state of Oklahoma had only two airports," yet "six black families owned their own planes."

These African-Americans' economic status could not save them from the racial hostility of their day. Greenwood survivors recount disturbing details about what really happened that night. Eyewitnesses claim "the area was bombed with kerosene and/or nitroglycerin," causing the inferno to rage more aggressively. Official accounts state that private planes "were on reconnaissance missions, they were surveying the area to see what happened."

Despite all of the economic damage, Hannibal Johnson, author of Black Wall Street: From Riot to Renaissance in Tulsa's Historic Greenwood District, explains that neither the survivors nor their families ever received the reparations suggested by the Tulsa Race Riot Commission. The commission recommended reparations for "people who lost property" and proposed "the establishment of a scholarship fund-that did happen, for a limited time." The commission also proposed initiatives for the economic revitalization of the Greenwood community. Despite the tragic events, these grand ideas never manifested into a tangible reality.

Underlying Causes of the Massacre

In "The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921: Toward an Integrative Theory of Collective Violence," the sociologist Chris M. Messer explores the underlying causes of the massacre. As a result of mass migrations to the area, driven in part by increased job opportunities, Tulsa became the city with the most African-Americans in the state. With a boom in the black population and their demands for equality, "perceptions of discrimination and shared experience among African-Americans...allowed for little time for adaptation among whites." Tulsa's rapid change in racial demographics made the city ripe for a riot motivated by white animosity against black economic progress. Whites of the era equated improvements in "wages and working conditions" as communistic threats. In essence, whites were resentful that blacks no longer passively accepted second-class citizenship in their own homeland.

Another structural factor that played a vital role in the Tulsa race riot was segregation. Ironically, black businesses benefited from self-sufficiency, which held both benefits and drawbacks for entrepreneurship. "Through maintenance of the legal separation of race in sociality, business, education, and residential areas, the structure of segregation encouraged initiative, but also placed parameters by restricting African-American opportunities," Messer writes. In other words, since it was against the law for blacks to shop at white-owned stores, black businesses flourished. However, even though black businesses profited from how segregation reduced competition for black patrons, segregation also limited blacks' mobility and opportunities to achieve outside their community.

The police disregarded due process, arresting blacks and interning them in detention camps; meanwhile, no whites were arrested.

According to Messer, the police force also contributed to the riot. Due to their ineffective leadership, they allowed mobs to gather at the courthouse for hours before seeking additional assistance. Furthermore, they actively participated in the riot by deputizing whites without discretion, arming them with guns to multiply the police force overnight. The police disregarded due process, arresting blacks and interning them in detention camps; meanwhile, no whites were arrested during the riot.

Both politicians and the media falsely framed the Tulsa riot as an uprising started by lawless blacks. Tulsa newspapers regularly referred to the Greenwood district as "Little Africa" and "n--town." African-Americans in the district were labeled "bad n--s" who drank booze, took dope, and ran around with guns. Perhaps as a result of government officials' stereotyping rhetoric and the media's biased reporting, whites and blacks interpreted the racial violence differently. Generally, white politicians and residents perceived the black community "as predisposed to crime and in need of social control," Messer explains. In other words, due to assumptions of black criminality, whites justified deadly violence on Black Wall Street, because blacks needed to be subjugated.

The Tulsa World newspaper inflamed the tensions between blacks and whites by suggesting that the Ku Klux Klan could "restore order in the community." Since the KKK asserted white superiority with terroristic acts, such as lynchings, the mere suggestion from a mainstream newspaper that the KKK should intervene demonstrates how white supremacy was not only legitimized but also promoted with legal impunity. In the early 1900s, there was a rise in Black Nationalist organizations that refused to cower in the face of KKK violence or submit to societal subordination.

Whites responded to black pride and demands for equality with "social control, including segregation, lynchings, and pogroms," Messer writes. In "Mass Media and Governmental Framing of Riots: The Case of Tulsa, 1921," Messer and his colleague Patricia A. Bell offer further detail about how the media framed the riot, igniting tensions. In essence, blacks' desire for socioeconomic progress and assertion of their rights was seen as a grave threat to white hegemony. Portraying all blacks as criminals served the black inferiority narrative, maintained Jim Crow segregation, and promoted the violent enforcement of racist ideology.

For instance, the racial framing of blacks as criminals legitimized whites' congregation "at the courthouse and the subsequent destruction of the Greenwood area." Consequently, it's no surprise that blacks perceived the riot started by whites "as a massacre of their community." The massacre of Black Wall Street primarily occurred due to whites "generalized perception that African-Americans were 'out of line'" and needed to be put "back in their place."

The Greenwood district offered proof that black entrepreneurs were capable of creating vast wealth.

Despite racial discrimination and Jim Crow segregation, the Greenwood district offered proof that black entrepreneurs were capable of creating vast wealth. Based on critical analysis of the events, Messer asserts "there is evidence that whites perceived African-Americans as an economic threat to the city." For those who supported black subjugation, witnessing blacks thrive and defy the stereotypes of black inferiority was too much.

Soon after the riot, Walter F. White of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) visited Tulsa. According to him, black economic prosperity contributed to the destruction of the Greenwood District. White reported in The Nation how the city prospered under the oil boom. He stated that the town had grown from a population of 18,182 in 1910 to somewhere "between 90,000 to 100,000" residents by 1920. White claimed that the sudden wealth of the townspeople rivaled the "forty-niners" in California. However, when blacks experienced wealth, lower-class whites resented their success.

Many whites believed they were "members of a divinely ordered superior race." Despite their inflated perceptions of themselves, there were three blacks in Oklahoma "worth a million dollars each." A man named J.W. Thompson was worth $500,000. There were "a number of men and women worth $100,000; and many whose possessions" were "valued at $25,000 and $50,000 each. This was particularly true of Tulsa, where there were two colored men worth $150,000 each; two worth $100,000; three $50,000; and four who were assessed at $25,000."

White concluded that many of the white pioneers in Oklahoma were former residents of "Mississippi, Georgia, Tennessee, [and] Texas." Unfortunately, they failed to leave their "anti-Negro prejudices" behind in the Deep South. White had no positive words for Oklahoman whites. He considered them "[l]ethargic and unprogressive by nature, it sorely irks them to see Negroes making greater progress than they themselves are achieving." In one instance, a white worker burned and demolished his black boss's "printing plant with $25,000 worth of printing machinery in it." In the process of leading the destructive mob, this disgruntled white employee was killed at the site.

The government and private industry worked in concert to bring down land prices and maintain white dominance in the Tulsa area.

The destruction of this successful African-American community was no accident. Messer asserts that "[t]he destruction of the community was rationalized as a necessary and natural response to put them back in their place." Evidently, private industry and the state stood to benefit economically from the destruction. Two days after the riot, the mayor wasted no time in establishing the Reconstruction Committee to redesign the Greenwood District for industrial purposes. Blacks were offered below market value for their property. White men who offered "almost any price for their property" perceived survivors as desperate and destitute.

In essence, African-Americans posed a "geographical problem because their community was situated in an ideal location for business expansion." The government and private industry worked in concert to bring down land prices and maintain white dominance in the Tulsa area. Poor whites' resentment of successful, landowning blacks allowed elite whites to use them as pawns to obtain more land, wealth, and prosperity. Judging by the legal impunity granted to whites by law enforcement, the state endorsed and, in fact, supported the Tulsa riot for self-serving, capitalistic gains.

Historically, American capitalism has thrived with an elite few maintaining power and wealth. When blacks gain a strong foothold in a community or industry, they have the power to effect meaningful change. Thus, the socioeconomic progress of African-Americans on Black Wall Street threatened the power structure of white-dominated American capitalism. When white people destroyed black business establishments and homes, the façade of white superiority was maintained.

By the 1940s, the Greenwood District was rebuilt, but due to integration during the Civil Rights era, never regained as much prominence. The fate of Black Wall Street illustrates that as long as power remains in the hands of elite, mainly white families, America's socioeconomic system can be marshalled to support and advance the tenets of white supremacy. Regardless of the progress made by prominent African-Americans, American capitalism is structured to keep a white segment of society ahead of the remaining marginalized many.
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The Devastation of Black Wall Street - JSTOR Daily

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In 1921, Tulsa, Oklahoma's Greenwood District, known as Black Wall Street, was one of the most prosperous African-American communities in the United States. But on May 31 of that year, the Tulsa Tribune reported that a black man, Dick Rowland, attempted to rape a white woman, Sarah Page.

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Medgar Evers was a civil rights activist , Medgar Evers bravely stood out against racism. He campaigned against Jim Crow legislation, protested segregation in schools, and began an investigation into the lynching of Emmett Till. He was the NAACP's first field officer in Mississippi, in addition to having a part in the civil rights movement. When him and five friends  were turned away from a municipal poll at gunpoint, he became a civil rights activist. He had recently returned from World War II's Battle of Normandy and found that fighting for his nation did not protect him from racism or provide him with equal rights. He attended college at the historically black Alcorn State University in Mississippi, Evers became president of the Regional Council of Negro Leadership (RCNL) after taking a job selling life insurance in the mostly Black town of Mound Bayou. After being rejected from the University of Mississippi Law School due to his skin color, Evers focused his attention on desegregation. Brown v. Board of Education, a 1954 Supreme Court decision, declared school segregation unlawful. Evers founded new local chapters, conducted voter registration drives, and helped lead protests to desegregate public primary schools, parks, and Mississippi Gold Coast beaches as the NAACP's first field officer in Mississippi. After becoming involved in two high-profile Mississippi trials, Evers garnered recognition among white supremacists. White supremacists attempted to kill Evers many years before getting him June 12, 1963. Evers was shot in the back after coming into his driveway and exiting his car, and died less than an hour later at the hospital. He was murdered just hours after President John F. Kennedy presented a civil rights speech on national television.

source: https://naacp.org/find-resources/history-explained/civil-rights-leaders/medgar-evers

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Billie Holiday-1915-1959 Strange Fruit (Gael Morales)

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Billie Holiday-1915-1959 Strange Fruit (Gael Morales)

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Billie Holiday infamous strange fruit song was so constoversial for those who never knew the pain and injustice that color people went through.This brought so much light to the injustice and even physical pain.She was able to bring her people together with this song and was even sung at protest and rallies.This suppressed song show how her people where just as suppressed   as her people shinning light on the neglect they faced “Southern trees bear a strange fruit/ Blood on the leaves and blood at the root/ Black bodies swingin’ in the Southern breeze/ Strange fruit hangin’ from the poplar trees…”.This was f the police by NWA before f the police was it show that pashine of these people to stand up against neglect and injustice.
https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/the-story-behind-billie-holidays-strange-fruit/17738/

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Black Panther Breakfast Program - 1969 (Hiram Gonzalez) 

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Black Panther Breakfast Program - 1969 (Hiram Gonzalez) 

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Video Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A1cRiogMUNA

The Black Panther Party in 1969 were providing free meals at school to children because the government wasn't. The goal of this breakfast program was to promote the survival of black people and end police brutality. It led to free breakfast programs that are available today. The BPP have been seen as dangerous and radical because of the drastic steps they took in their movements. At first many were in fear of the group because of how they were portrayed in the media and on the news but when the Black Panther Party started serving free meals, people started focusing on their helpfulness to the community. But the FBI did not agree with the BPP's methods, and they started lying to parents about the organization, telling them that the food the BPP served was infected and that the party would teach children racism. One female Panther said, "...the Chicago police broke into the church and mashed up all the food and urinated on it." The FBI dismantled the BPP and the USDA made their own breakfast program in the 1970's and now helps to feed over 14.57 million children before school. The BPP is what allowed those programs to be created.

Article Link:
https://www.history.com/news/free-school-breakfast-black-panther-party

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Black Student Movement 1960-1970 (Brayan Delmonte)

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Black Student Movement 1960-1970 (Brayan Delmonte)

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In 1960 the students of UW-Madison University band together after the death of Martin Luther King. These Black students fought for black power and for these schools to actually teach them about African American history. These Universities barely taught about African American history barely representing the major population of black kids and badly representing these black students heritage and community. In 1967 to stop these riots police started to use tear gas to stop the College Students and the many strikes the students had orchestrated. 94 students who followed these protests were expelled by the school and that only enraged the students/protesters. Thirteen demands were demanded by these students, most of  these demands ask for black teachers to teach the students.

Video:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EgmieHf3gzg

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Rev. Jesse Jackson was the second black presidential candidate to compete at the national level. During his candidacy, he lay claim to fighting for the rights of a “Rainbow Coalition” of diverse Americans. This included many groups of people such as Blacks, whites, Latinos, Native Americans, and Asian Americans; men and women; straight and LGBTQ. While he failed to win the election, he gained a historic level of support.
When he was a teenager he had gotten involved in the civil rights movement and even marched with Martin Luther King and others at Selma to demand Black voting rights.
what pushed him to run for president was Harold Washington, who became the first black mayor of Chicago, and how leaders in the Democratic Party began to argue that the time was right for a Black presidential candidate.
The National Rainbow Coalition, which grew out of Jackson's first presidential campaign, drew inspiration from King’s Poor People’s Campaign.
Overall, Jackson's vision helped pave the way for more POC and female political figures to make a stand.
How Jesse Jackson's Rainbow Coalition Championed Diversity - HISTORY

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1945-1992 Marsha P. Johnson (Adrianna Soto)

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1945-1992 Marsha P. Johnson (Adrianna Soto)

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Marsha P. Johnson was born on August 24, 1945, in Elizabeth, New Jersey. She then moved to New York City from her hometown with nothing but $15 in her pocket. She was a black transgender woman, she became a central figure in the gay liberation movement. Johnson played a key role in the uprising that began on June 28, 1969, at the Stonewall Inn in New York’s Greenwich Village after police raided the gay bar and patrons fought back. Protests followed over the next six days. The first anniversary of the protests prompted the first gay pride parade in 1970. Marsha and one of her friends Sylvia helped found the group Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries (STAR), which offered housing to homeless and transgender youth. They created the first LGBT youth shelter in North America and the first organization in the United States led by trans women of color. She was center of New York City’s gay liberation movement for nearly 25 years, but that wasn't her only cause she was supporting. She was also on the front lines of protests against oppressive policing. She helped found one of the country’s first safe spaces for transgender and homeless youth. And she advocated tirelessly on behalf of sex workers, prisoners and people with HIV/AIDS until she died.

https://www.cnn.com/2019/06/26/us/marsha-p-johnson-biography/index.html

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May 4, 1961 – Dec 10, 1961, Freedom Riders (Gisel Procopio)

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May 4, 1961 – Dec 10, 1961, Freedom Riders (Gisel Procopio)

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The freedom riders were a civil rights action between white and African American people they were both segregated from being close to one another in public places like restaurants, public transportation, bathrooms, etc. African Americans began a protest by fighting over their rights in bus transportation in 1961 they took action in the supreme court but the judge was against this law and didn’t manage to pass this law over. The 13 original groups of freedom riders had made a plan to travel around the country and change the way African Americans and whites were being segregated but they didn’t achieve success and got violently attacked.

https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/freedom-rides

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The Orangeburg Massacre - February 8, 1968 (Melanie Azpeitia)

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The Orangeburg Massacre - February 8, 1968 (Melanie Azpeitia)

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The Orangeburg Massacre occurred on Feb. 8, 1968, when multiple South Carolina Highway Patrol officers opened fire at 200 unarmed black students on South Carolina State University. The students had been involved in protests over segregation of black patrons at a nearby bowling alley. Three students were killed; Samuel Hammond, Delano Middleton and Henry Smith. 27 other students were injured. Several students milled around a bonfire on the S.C state's campus when a officer tried to put it out, but failed when a student from the crowd had thrown an object at him; The officer shot his gun up into the air in attempt to calm the students but other officers assumed that the officer was being harmed. They then opened fire into the crowd killing and injuring these unarmed students. The nine officers were charged who admitted shooting that night, being held responsible, as well as Cleveland Sellers, being charged and sent to prison for "inciting the riot" that led to the massacre.

Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MDzoZDNZGnw

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The Orangeburg Massacre took place in Orangeburg, South Carolina at South Carolina State University on February 8, 1968. This horrific incident ended with three young men killed, Samuel Hammond, Henry Smith, and Delano Middleton, and twenty-seven other students wounded. It was the worst example of violence on a college campus in South Carolina's history.

The incident began when approximately 200 students gathered on February 6 to protest the segregation of black patrons at the nearby All Star Bowling Lanes. The first demonstration proceeded without incident. The following night many of the students returned to resume the protest, but, in this instance, fifteen of them were arrested. The third night, February 8, tensions were already running high on both sides from the previous night's arrests.

The students gathered on the South Carolina State University campus instead of at the bowling alley. They built a bonfire which a law enforcement officer attempted to put out. In the process, he was injured by a piece of a banister thrown from the crowd. A highway patrolman then fired his gun into the air in an attempt to calm the crowd. Upon hearing the shot, other officers, thinking they were being fired upon, opened fire into the crowd of students.

Hammond and Smith, who were South Carolina State University students. and Middleton, a 17-year-old high school student, were killed and 27 other students were wounded. The high death and injury totals came in part because officers used shotguns with buckshot when they fired into the crowd. Many of the victims were shot in their backs or through the soles of their feet as they ran. None of the students were armed.

Nine officers were held responsible for the shootings and were brought to trial on charges of excessive force at a campus protest. All nine were acquitted of all charges. The only person who was charged and sent to prison as a result of this incident was Cleveland Sellers, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) representative who was convicted of inciting the riot that had led to the shootings. Sellers was later pardoned for his role in the incident.

The day after the shootings Governor Robert E. McNair spoke of this as "one of the saddest days in the history of South Carolina."

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The Orangeburg Massacre took place in Orangeburg, South Carolina at South Carolina State University on February 8, 1968. This horrific incident ended with three young men killed, Samuel Hammond, Henry Smith, and Delano Middleton, and twenty-seven other students wounded. It was the worst example of ... Read MoreOrangeburg Massacre (1968)

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Freedom Riders -1961(Jorge Blue Adamson)

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Freedom Riders -1961(Jorge Blue Adamson)

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Freedom Riders were groups of white and African American civil rights activists who participated in Freedom Rides, bus trips through the American South in 1961 to protest segregated bus terminals. Freedom Riders tried to use “whites-only” restrooms and lunch counters at bus stations in Alabama, South Carolina and other Southern states. The groups were confronted by arresting police officers as well as horrific violence from white protestors—along their routes, but also drew international attention to the civil rights movement. They were fearless and persevered through the harassment of both police and racist angry pedestrians and customers when stopping at restaurants.
On May 14, 1961, the Greyhound bus was the first to arrive in Anniston, Alabama. There, an angry mob of about 200 white people surrounded the bus, causing the driver to continue past the bus station.

On May 14, 1961, the Greyhound bus was the first to arrive in Anniston,Alabama. There, an angry mob of about 200 white people surrounded the bus, causing the driver to continue past the bus station.
The mob followed the bus in automobiles, and when the tires on the bus blew out, someone threw a bomb into the bus. The Freedom Riders escaped the bus as it burst into flames, only to be brutally beaten by members of the surrounding mob. The second bus, a Trail-ways vehicle, traveled to Birmingham, Alabama, and those riders were also beaten by an angry white mob, many of whom brandished metal pipes.

Photographs of the burning Greyhound bus and the bloodied riders appeared on the front pages of newspapers throughout the country and around the world the next day, drawing international attention to the Freedom Riders’ cause and the state of race relations in the United States.

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Civil Rights Activists Test Supreme Court Decision

The 1961 Freedom Rides, organized by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), were modeled after the organization's 1947 Journey of Reconciliation. During the 1947 action, African American and white bus riders tested the 1946 U.S. Supreme Court decision in Morgan v. Virginia that found segregated bus seating was unconstitutional.

The 1961 Freedom Rides sought to test a 1960 decision by the Supreme Court in Boynton v. Virginia that segregation of interstate transportation facilities, including bus terminals, was unconstitutional as well. A big difference between the 1947 Journey of Reconciliation and the 1961 Freedom Rides was the inclusion of women in the later initiative.

In both actions, Black riders traveled to the Jim Crow South-where segregation continued to occur-and attempted to use whites-only restrooms, lunch counters and waiting rooms.

John Lewis

The original group of 13 Freedom Riders-seven African Americans and six whites-left Washington, D.C., on a Greyhound bus on May 4, 1961. Their plan was to reach New Orleans, Louisiana, on May 17 to commemorate the seventh anniversary of the Supreme Court's Brown v. Board of Education decision, which ruled that segregation of the nation's public schools was unconstitutional.

The group traveled through Virginia and North Carolina, drawing little public notice. The first violent incident occurred on May 12 in Rock Hill, South Carolina. John Lewis, an African American seminary student and member of the SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee), white Freedom Rider and World War II veteran Albert Bigelow and another Black rider were viciously attacked as they attempted to enter a whites-only waiting area.

The next day, the group reached Atlanta, Georgia, where some of the riders split off onto a Trailways bus.

Did you know? John Lewis, one of the original group of 13 Freedom Riders, was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in November 1986. Lewis, a Democrat, continued to represent Georgia's 5th Congressional District, which includes Atlanta, until his death in 2020.

Freedom Riders Face Bloodshed in Alabama

On May 14, 1961, the Greyhound bus was the first to arrive in Anniston, Alabama. There, an angry mob of about 200 white people surrounded the bus, causing the driver to continue past the bus station.

The mob followed the bus in automobiles, and when the tires on the bus blew out, someone threw a bomb into the bus. The Freedom Riders escaped the bus as it burst into flames, only to be brutally beaten by members of the surrounding mob.

The second bus, a Trailways vehicle, traveled to Birmingham, Alabama, and those riders were also beaten by an angry white mob, many of whom brandished metal pipes. Birmingham Public Safety Commissioner Bull Connor stated that, although he knew the Freedom Riders were arriving and violence awaited them, he posted no police protection at the station because it was Mother's Day.

Photographs of the burning Greyhound bus and the bloodied riders appeared on the front pages of newspapers throughout the country and around the world the next day, drawing international attention to the Freedom Riders' cause and the state of race relations in the United States.

Following the widespread violence, CORE officials could not find a bus driver who would agree to transport the integrated group, and they decided to abandon the Freedom Rides. However, Diane Nash, an activist from the SNCC, organized a group of 10 students from Nashville, Tennessee, to continue the rides.

U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, brother of President John F. Kennedy, began negotiating with Governor John Patterson of Alabama and the bus companies to secure a driver and state protection for the new group of Freedom Riders. The rides finally resumed, on a Greyhound bus departing Birmingham under police escort, on May 20.

Federal Marshals Called In

The violence toward the Freedom Riders was not quelled-rather, the police abandoned the Greyhound bus just before it arrived at the Montgomery, Alabama, terminal, where a white mob attacked the riders with baseball bats and clubs as they disembarked. Attorney General Kennedy sent 600 federal marshals to the city to stop the violence.

The following night, civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. led a service at the First Baptist Church in Montgomery, which was attended by more than one thousand supporters of the Freedom Riders. A riot ensued outside the church, and King called Robert Kennedy to ask for protection.

Kennedy summoned the federal marshals, who used tear gas to disperse the white mob. Patterson declared martial law in the city and dispatched the National Guard to restore order.

Kennedy Urges 'Cooling Off' Period

On May 24, 1961, a group of Freedom Riders departed Montgomery for Jackson, Mississippi. There, several hundred supporters greeted the riders. However, those who attempted to use the whites-only facilities were arrested for trespassing and taken to the maximum-security penitentiary in Parchman, Mississippi.

That same day, U.S. Attorney General Kennedy issued a statement urging a "cooling off" period in the face of the growing violence:

"A very difficult condition exists now in the states of Mississippi and Alabama. Besides the groups of 'Freedom Riders' traveling through these states, there are curiosity seekers, publicity seekers and others who are seeking to serve their own causes, as well as many persons who are traveling because they must use the interstate carriers to reach their destination.

In this confused situation, there is increasingly possibility that innocent persons may be injured. A mob asks no questions.

A cooling off period is needed. It would be wise for those traveling through these two Sites to delay their trips until the present state of confusion and danger has passed and an atmosphere of reason and normalcy has been restored."

During the Mississippi hearings, the judge turned and looked at the wall rather than listen to the Freedom Riders' defense-as had been the case when sit-in participants were arrested for protesting segregated lunch counters in Tennessee. He sentenced the riders to 30 days in jail.

Attorneys from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP), a civil rights organization, appealed the convictions all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court, which reversed them.

Desegregating Travel

The violence and arrests continued to garner national and international attention, and drew hundreds of new Freedom Riders to the cause.

The rides continued over the next several months, and in the fall of 1961, under pressure from the Kennedy administration, the Interstate Commerce Commission issued regulations prohibiting segregation in interstate transit terminals.

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Freedom Riders - Facts, Timeline & Significance | HISTORY

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Freedom Riders were groups of white and African American civil rights activists who participated in Freedom Rides, bus trips through the American South in 1961 to protest segregated bus terminals.

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Black Arts Movements - 1960s - 1970s (Araseli Crespo)

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Black Arts Movements - 1960s - 1970s (Araseli Crespo)

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Black Arts Movement was given the name to a group of politically motivated black poets, artists, dramatists, musicians, and writers who emerged in the wake of the Black Power Movement. The Black Arts Movement was officially formed in 1965 when Baraka opened the Black Arts Repertory Theater in Harlem. The movement had its greatest impact in theater and poetry. It began in the New York/Newark area, it soon spread to Chicago, Illinois, Detroit, Michigan, and San Francisco, California. In Chicago, Hoyt Fuller and John Johnson edited and published Negro Digest (later Black World, which promoted the work of new black literary artists. In Chicago, Third World Press published black writers and poets. In Detroit, Lotus Press and Broadside Press republished older works of black poetry. These Midwestern publishing houses brought recognition to edgy, experimental poets. New black theater groups were also established. In 1969, Robert Chrisman and Nathan Hare established The black Scholar, which was the first scholarly journal to promote black studies within academia. The Black Arts Movement helped lay the foundation for modern-day spoken word and Hip Hop.

Article Link: https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/black-arts-movement-1965-1975/

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1966 Black Panther Party 12 Point Platform (Jeniah Williams)

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1966 Black Panther Party 12 Point Platform (Jeniah Williams)

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On October 15th 1966, Huey Newton and Bobby Seale wrote the Black panther 10 point program. It described the goals of the black panther party for stopping police brutality in black communities and teaching them self defense. They also listed what needs to be done in order to ensure that black people are seen as equal as well not only to society but to the government as well.

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Freedom House Ambulance Service - 1967 (Nancy)

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Freedom House Ambulance Service - 1967 (Nancy)

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The Freedom House Ambulance was a form of prehospital care that was staffed with black women and men from the inner city of Pittsburgh. The program drafted unemployed individuals and trained them as paramedics to deliver better emergency medical care to their unresourced community. Due to institutional racism that was very rampant, when black residents of Pittsburgh made emergency calls they were either unanswered or there were delays. Phillip Hallen—a former ambulance driver who headed the Pittsburgh-based Maurice Falk Medical Fund—acknowledged that Pittsburgh’s primarily Black neighborhoods weren’t getting adequate emergency transportation. Hallen had the idea to combine the ambulance survice and a program to train unemployed black men and women in medicine. That brought him to Freedom House Enterprises, a social service agency in the Hill District that did everything from organizing voter registration drives and holding NAACP. Dr. Peter Safar, an anesthesiologist and distinguished professor of resuscitation medicine at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, heard about the effort and offered his expertise. Along side with Dr. Nancy Caroline.

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The legacy of Freedom House Ambulance Service

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In the late 1960s, John Moon remembers seeing the Freedom House Ambulance Service vehicles rushing by with their sirens flashing and feeling called to...

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Otis Boykin   1920-1982   Ashley Martinez

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Otis Boykin   1920-1982   Ashley Martinez

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Boykin was an inventor and an engineer. He was interested in resistors. His mother died from heart failure (which is also how he dies) when he was 1 year old. He contributed in the invention called the pacemaker. His inventions opened ideas for more technology used in the medical field and specifically to help the heart. He went and graduated from Fisk University in 1941. His achievements led him to work as a consultant in the United States. He died because of heart failure in 1982.

Sources:
https://www.medicaldesignandoutsourcing.com/black-history-month-this-inventor-laid-the-foundation-for-todays-pacemakers/
https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/otis-boykin

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Most people in medtech know of Earl Bakken's contributions to pacemakers and cardiac rhythm devices. But without Otis Boykin, pacemakers wouldn't have the pacing technology they do today.

An African-American inventor and engineer, Otis Boykin had a special interest in resistors. His mother died from heart failure when he was 1 year old. Thirty-one years later, he filed a patent for a resistor that paved the way for his most notable invention, the pacemaker control unit.

While working at Lisle, Ill.-based CTS Corp., Boykin filed a patent ( U.S. Patent No. 2972726A) for a high-precision, wire-type electrical resistor that could be readily adapted to different space requirements and configurations. According to the patent, the resistor was designed to combine minimum inductive properties with minimum capacitive effects. It could also provide tolerances as low as required and could withstand "relatively great accelerations and shocks and great temperature changes" without breaking the fine resistance wire or causing other detrimental effects.

In the patent filing, which lists CTS as the assignee, Boykin said the resistor was made of lengths of resistance wire between 0.0006 in. and 0.010 in. in diameter and had resistance values of 0.05 ohm to several megohms. The patent also says the resistor could be made cheaply and quickly without wire strain. Most importantly, the high-precision, wire-type electrical resistor could enable pacemakers to have a time base - the repeated sending of uniform signals - at a much smaller scale.

Pacemakers are small devices that help the heart beat regularly by delivering a small electric stimulation that controls the heartbeat. The control units help identify the number of pulses per minute needed for each individual patient and the pulses become the number of beats per minute for the paced heart.

"Essentially, it helps to control a patient's heart rate," Gabriel Mouchawar, divisional VP of product development at Abbott, told Medical Design & Outsourcing. "The invention of the resistor and later the capacitor was essential in setting the time base for electronic devices, so the work of Otis Boykin was incredibly important to advance the technology."

The earliest pacemaker devices were external and needed to be plugged into a wall while patients used them. By 1957, Medtronic founder Earl Bakken, an electrical engineer by trade, developed the first battery-operated wearable pacemaker. Dr. Walton Lillehei, a pioneer of open-heart surgery, asked Bakken to build the pacemaker after a child who was connected to an AC-powered pacemaker died during a power failure.

The first pacemaker implantation surgery took place in Sweden in 1958. Innovations continued, many of them enabled by Boykin's contribution.

"Pacemakers today are powerful devices with a number of benefits for patients. Many have computing power similar to early personal computers and can last more than 10 years on their internal battery," Mouchawar said. "But all technology starts somewhere, and Otis Boykin's work set the technology on a path that led us to where we find ourselves today."

Boykin graduated from a Dallas high school as valedictorian in 1938. He went on to attend Fisk University and worked as a laboratory assistant in an aerospace lab, the National Inventors Hall of Fame reported. There, Boykin started to work on aircraft controls and various electronic resistors and became familiar with electrical components. He later moved to Chicago and worked in the P.J. Nilsen Research Lab where he eventually met Hal Fruth, with whom he would later start his Boykin-Fruth business, according to the Lemelson Program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

In 1952, Boykin-Fruth filed a patent with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office related to a non-adjustable metal resistor made of wire or ribbon that could be coiled woven or formed as grids arranged to reduce self-induction, capacitance or variation with frequency, according to the patent filing. It was the start to a line of as many as 27 electrical device patents and eventually the resistor that would become a part of the pacemaker's control unit.

"Otis's work was instrumental in making the components of the pacemaker longer-lasting and manufacturable at a lower cost, which in turn helped increase access to the therapy to improve patient care. For companies like Abbott, the devices we offer today stand on a foundation built by people like Otis who made a remarkable impact on the field," Mouchawar said.

Abbott (St. Jude Medical), Boston Scientific and Medtronic lead the way in pacemaker development today. Abbott has a number of cardiac rhythm management devices in its portfolio, including pacemakers, insertable cardiac monitors, quadripolar LV leads and CRT-Ds. Medtronic has four pacemakers in its current offerings with seven others in its past and Boston Scientific has five of its own pacemakers on the market.

"Boykin's work was critical to developing a pacemaker generator that was efficient, compact and resilient over time. Several decades of iteration on his foundational work have brought us rate-adaptive pacing, the ability to track the atrium and address complete heart block and rate responsiveness features that augment heart rate commensurate with physical activity," a spokesperson at Boston Scientific told MDO.

Because of Boykin's invention, companies like Boston Scientific have also been able to develop leadless pacemakers, which are less invasive and 90% smaller than transvenous pacemakers, according to the American College of Cardiology. While leadless pacemakers only provide single-chamber ventricular pacing and lack defibrillation capacity, they eliminate complications that arise with transvenous pacemakers and leads, including pocket infections, hematoma, lead dislodgment and lead fracture.

Pacemakers are getting smaller and less invasive and the future of the device is on track to becoming even smaller with new power options and remote monitoring. Boston Scientific projects that there will be more opportunities in the future for modular rhythm management with multiple device communicating with one another. Pacemakers could also be implanted at different time intervals as a patient's condition changes. Moreover, the company predicts that pacemakers could become energy-harvesting, meaning that instead of relying on batteries to power, they could use the motion of the heart or blood chemicals as a power source.

Mouchawar at Abbott thinks the next generation of pacemakers offered to patients will be smaller, last longer and offer new remote monitoring capabilities through Bluetooth connections to a patient's smartphone. "How the devices deliver care will offer one set of advancement, while new ways for patients to stay connected to their hospital or clinic will offer another avenue for companies like Abbott to continue improving outcomes."

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Black History Month: This inventor laid the foundation for today's pacemakers | Medical Design and Outsourcing

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Most people in medtech know of Earl Bakken's contributions to pacemakers and cardiac rhythm devices. But without Otis Boykin, pacemakers wouldn't have the pacing technology they do today. An African-American inventor and engineer, Otis Boykin had a special interest in resistors. His mother died from heart failure when he was 1 year old.

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Clinton Desegregation Crisis, 1956 - 1957

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Clinton Desegregation Crisis, 1956 - 1957

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Brown v. Board of Education called for all public schools to be desegregated. On August 26th, 1956, 12 African-American students attended Clinton High School in Tennessee, there were originally no issues when they were at school for the first day. Later on, the 12 students were threatened and white people were protesting due to the fact that they were against desegregation. From September 1st to the 2nd of 1956, white people were violent and breaking windows, telling the Mayor that they'd blow up their house. White people kept trying to taunt civil leaders and teachers, the Clinton 12 homes were constantly being attacked and dynamite was thrown at their homes. Eventually, the 12 students were taken out of Clinton High School because of the amount of threats and violence that they encountered. December 4th, 1956, a white baptist, Rev. Paul and two black men, Sidney David and Leo Burnett helped take the 12 students back to Clinton High School. After they were escorted, Paul Turner ended up beaten up by a group of white people. Clinton High School had shut down after the attack on Paul Turner, but the Clinton 12 remained learning. Bobby Cain graduated, becoming the first African-American man to graduate from a desegregated school. On October 5th, 1958, Clinton High School was bombed but was rebuilt without any other incidents after.

Source: https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/the-clinton-desegregation-crisis-1956/

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tvOJRQPKmE4

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bell hooks - 1980s - 2000s (Sincere Coffer Banks)

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bell hooks - 1980s - 2000s (Sincere Coffer Banks)

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Bell Hooks was born September 25, 1952 in Hopkinsville, Kentucky and was known for her writings on race, feminism, and class. When Bell turned 19 she starting writing her first full-length book, I Ain't I a Woman: Black women and Feminism, which was published in 1981. She developed her writing skills at Stanford University, the University of Wisconsin, and the University of California where she studied English Literature. Bell preferred to to spell her name in all lowercase letters to focus attention on her message rather than herself. In the 1980s hooks established a support group for Black women called the Sisters of the Yam, which she later used as the title of a book, published in 1993, celebrating Black sisterhood. Her other writings included Feminist Theory from Margin to Center (1984), Talking Back: Thinking Feminist, Thinking Black (1989), Black Looks: Race and Representation (1992), Killing Rage: Ending Racism (1995), Reel to Real: Race, Sex, and Class at the Movies (1996), Remembered Rapture: The Writer at Work (1999), Where We Stand: Class Matters (2000), Communion: The Female Search for Love (2002), and the companion books We Real Cool: Black Men and Masculinity (2003) and The Will to Change: Men, Masculinity, and Love (2004).

Website Link: https://www.britannica.com/topic/University-of-Wisconsin

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Jane Matilda Bolin ( 1908 - 2007 ) - Jessanny Roman

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Jane Matilda Bolin ( 1908 - 2007 ) - Jessanny Roman

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Jane Matilda Bolin was born on April 11th 1908 in Poughkeepsie, New York. From the start, she wanted to be an attorney, inspired by her fathers law firm. She was the first black women graduate of Yale Law School and the first black judge in the U.S. In 1928 she graduated from Wellesley College and received her law degree from Yale Law School. In 1934 she married attorney Ralph E. Moseley and together contributed to opening up there own practice in New York City. Bolin was named Assistant Corporation Counsel for the City Of New York, working for the Domestic Relation Court and in 1939, Mayor Fiorello Laguardia Made her Judge of the Domestic Relations Court where she served for about 40 years. During her time, she made many achievements. One being the assignment of probation officers to cases without regard for race and religion and a obligation that publicly funded private child care agencies accept children without regard to ethnic background. In 1979, Jane retired after reaching age for retirement. In 2007, in New York City, She passed.

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Black Feminist Movement ( Sidney Valentin ) 

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Black Feminist Movement ( Sidney Valentin ) 

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The black feminist movement is about being black and a women, so there's many ways you can view it from both perspective, but at its core it's about being both and having both be equal. A few foundational principles include:

Black women’s experience of racism, sexism, and classism are inseparable.

Their needs and worldviews are distinct from those of black men and white women.

There is no contradiction between the struggle against racism, sexism, and all other-isms. All must be addressed simultaneously.

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William Julius Wilson -1935 (Gisel procopio)

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William Julius Wilson -1935 (Gisel procopio)

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William Julius Wilson is an american sociologist and a professor at Harvard university he was born in December 20,1935.He studied in two different universities which were Wilberforce University and Bowling green state university.He also attended the university of Chicago in 1972 he became a professor and led the center of the study of  urban inequality.While being a professor he maintained class divisions and global economic changes in which he created a large African american underclass.He addressed urban poverty towards African Americans his view was to help the U.S public policy and their academic speech and wanted this to become a success and reality.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Julius-Wilson

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August 21, 1831 - October 1831               Nat Turner's Rebellion (Amy Gonzalez)

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August 21, 1831 - October 1831               Nat Turner's Rebellion (Amy Gonzalez)

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Nat Turner (1800-1831) was an enslaved man who was born in Virginia. He lived in the plantation of Benjamin Turner, there he was able to advance and start reading, writing and religion. Throughout his childhood he was sold 3 times and was hired out to John Travis in his mid 20's. In Benjamin Turner's plantation and his Southampton County neighborhood he would preach about him being chosen by god to free them from slavery and by so he became the leader of enslaved Africans. In 1831, there was an eclipse that Nat believed was the sign to start the rebellion because he believed in signs and hearing divine voices. In August 21, 1831 Nat and 6 others killed John Travis and his family. They got in hold of weapons, horses and influenced 75 other enslaves to join them. There was around 55 white people dead. Shortly after Nat fled and stood hidden for 6 weeks before getting captured. Mean while 56 Black people were accused of participating in Nat's rebellion and executed, more than 200 were beaten by angry mobs and white militias( they were armed paramilitary groups with an anti-government ). Nat Turner and 16 of his followers were executed by being hanged at Jerusalem, Virginia. In result of the rebellion, it ended organized emancipation movement in that region, put more fear in the heart of Southerners, the government made harsher laws towards enslaved people and made the racial conflict even worst.
Source link: https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/nat-turner

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Bayard Rustin was a civil rights activist who was born in west Pennsylvania on march 17 1912, 1 of 12 children raised by his grandparent's. Rustin was a well known adviser of Martin Luther king and was a main organizer of the march on Washington. The Washington was a march that more than 200,000 demonstrators took part in the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in the nation's capital. Rustin was openly gay at a young age because he believed in being his authentic self. Rustin held odd jobs, traveled widely, and obtained five years of university schooling at the City College of New York and other institutions without taking a degree. Rustin also worked for the Fellowship of Reconciliation, a nondenominational religious organization. He was an intelligent and creative person who played a big role in all of the movements he participated in. Rustin was arrested after he was caught having sex with another man and was sentenced to up to 50 days in jail. Even though he was less likely to hold a political job because of his sexual orientation Bayard still influential in the civil rights movement. Then later he was declared chief architect during the march on Washington. When Bayard was discovered as homosexual he would try and limit how often he spoke to try and avoid the negativity against him. After Rustin  served as president of the A. Philip Randolph Institute, a civil rights organization in New York City he became involved in the gay rights movement. He was later awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

Source:https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bayard-Rustin
https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/rustin-bayard

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Karine Jean-Pierre is the current Press Secretary for the White House and an activist for reproductive freedom. She is the first Black person and openly lesbian to be in this position in the White House. Born on August 13, 1974 in Fort-de-France, Martinique, Karine studied at the New York Institute of Technology, School of International and Public Affairs, and Columbia University. Before being appointed to the role of Press Secretary, Karine taught a course at the School of International and Public Affairs. Due to institutional racism, there has never been a person of color as the Press Secretary before Karine received that role. Despite what she may have faced as a Black and lesbian woman going into politics, she persevered since her days learning at Columbia University to get the role she received today.

Sources:
http://www.karinejean-pierre.com/
https://www.cbsnews.com/newyork/news/karine-jean-pierre-white-house-press-secretary-from-long-island/

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Fred Hampton (August 30, 1948 - December 4, 1969)-Nicholas P-

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Fred Hampton (August 30, 1948 - December 4, 1969)-Nicholas P-

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Fred Hampton was an active leader in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), leading their Youth Council of the organization’s West but later joined the black panthers in November 1969. Within the organization, Fred climbed the ranks at a fast pace and became a leader who brought peace between rival gangs, started a breakfast program, and Organized rallies. As a rising leader in the BPP, Hampton became the focus of an FBI investigation. On December 4, 1969, Hampton, along with fellow Black Panther Mark Clark, was murdered. William O’Neal, an FBI agent infiltrated the BPP and put a very powerful sleeping drug into  Fred's drink then left to later call officers to raid Fred Hampton's apartment. The rest of the seven Panthers who were not killed were all arrested and indicted by a grand jury on charges of attempted murder, armed violence, and a variety of weapons charges. These charges were eventually dropped when during a later investigation, it was discovered that Chicago Police fired ninety-nine shots while the Panthers only shot once.

source: Fred Hampton

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Dorothy I Height was a civil rights leader born on March 24th, 1912 in Richmond, Virginia she excelled in school and eventually received a scholarship to Barnard College but wasn't allowed to go to the school because no African Americans were admitted there. She, later on graduated from NYU where she got her bachelor's degree in education and master in psychology. Height got her first job in New York and joined the staff of the YWCA, she became the leader of this group and created diverse programs that pushed the organization to integrate YWCA facilities nationwide. Eventually Height became inspired by this African American leader Mary McLeod Bethune and she began working for the National Council of Negro Women (NCNW). In this group Height focused on ending the lynching of African Americans and restructuring the criminal justice system. In 1957 she became the president of the (NCNW) where she stayed for 40 years.

www.womenshistory.org

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John lewis (february 21, 1940-july 17, 2020)                                                           Elijah m.

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John lewis (february 21, 1940-july 17, 2020)                                                           Elijah m.

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John Robert Lewis was an american politician and Civil rights activist who served in the United States house of representatives for Georgia's 5th congressional district from 1987 until his death in 2020. He was the chairman of the student nonviolent coordinating committee  (SNCC) from 1963 to 1966. Lewis was one of the "Big Six " leaders of groups who organized the 1963 March on Washington. He fulfilled many key roles in the Civil Rights Movement  and its actions to end legalized Racial segregation in the United States. Also A member of the Democratic Party, Lewis was first elected to Congress in 1986 and served 17 terms in the U.S. House of Representatives. The district he represented included most of Atlanta

Source:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Lewis-American-civil-rights-leader-and-politician

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Buffalo Soldiers (1866 - 1951) - carla clarke 

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Buffalo Soldiers (1866 - 1951) - carla clarke 

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On September 21, 1866, Buffalo shoulders were formed. They were originally members of the 10th Cavalry regiment of the United States Army. During the Indian wars in the western United States, this regiment served and trained as a combat unit. In relation to this, the Native American tribes who fought in the Indian war gave the colored Calvary the nickname Buffalo soldiers. The Indians admired and avoided African-American cavalrymen, referring to them as "Buffalo Soldiers" for their toughness and fighting capabilities. They also admired their dark, curly hair, which resembled a buffalo's coat, and their fierce fighting nature. The primary mission of the Buffalo Soldiers was to aid the nation's westward expansion by protecting settlers, constructing roads and other infrastructure, and guarding the US mail. The African-American infantry divisions fought in the American-Indian Wars, apprehended cattle rustlers, and even worked as park rangers. The Buffalo Soldiers faced indescribable hardships while working in these locations. This can range from the scorching heat of the desert to the bitter cold of the plains in the winter. Many black soldiers were killed by disease as a result of unsanitary conditions and inadequate provisions.

source: https://www.history.com/news/who-were-the-buffalo-soldiers

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On September 30th, 1919, black sharecroppers gathered late at night to discuss the racial disparities of their unfair low wages in a local black church. Under the cover of the night, a group of local white men opened fire into the church, shots were returned and one white man died. The black farmers were suspected of organizing an insurrection to kill the white residents, and as a result, white locals, vigilantes, and law enforcement banded together and murdered up to 200 black people. 5 white men died in the midst of this mass murder and someone had to be held responsible, for years the supreme court would sanction injustices against African Americans. White residents also saw black soldiers returning from WW1 as a threat to emphasizing their rights. The media also portrayed the narrative that African Americans were plotting against whites which caused even more violence against African Americans in Elaine.

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/death-hundreds-elaine-massacre-led-supreme-court-take-major-step-toward-equal-justice-african-americans-180969863/

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Vivien Thomas August 29, 1910- November 10, 1985     -Jennifer Gonzalez

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Vivien Thomas August 29, 1910- November 10, 1985     -Jennifer Gonzalez

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Vivien Thomas was a inspiring african american that lead the world to new heart surgery techniques. What makes him so remarkable is how he had no formal medical training before working in a private infermity to raise money for collage. He ended up losing all his money due to a bank crash making him have to drop out as a premedical student at Tennessee Agricultural and Industrial College. This did not stop him from pursuing his medical carrer. A year after the crash he decided to  work at Vanderbilt University as a laboratory assistant with Alfred Blalock. This later helped him gain reconisioin for how skilled he skilled he was in surgery and he was moved to john hopkins where he developed the prosedure used for "blue baby" symdrome. He tought many at john hompkins nessasary presedues for heart and lung operations. His legacy lives on through his impact
Article link-https://www.msm.edu/Prospective_Students/admissions/PipelinePrograms/VivienThomas/commhealth_trainingprograms_vivien_bio.php

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"The pivotal event of the civil rights movement opened the eyes of the nation through the courageous activism of its youngest citizens."

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Birmingham Children's crusade (May 2-3 1963)-Adrianna V

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Birmingham Children's crusade (May 2-3 1963)-Adrianna V

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The "Children's Crusade were non-violent demonstration. this is their way of doing something about these inequities that they were experiencing, they were basically protesting in a less violent way. They called it D-Day. Most children who participated in the protest were kind of already use to it by seeing their parents involvement. Most parents and civil rights leaders were cautious about involving young people in the protests, and in the end it turned out that the brave actions of these children helped make lasting change in Birmingham at a key turning point in the movement. the goal of the protest was to talk to the mayor of Birmingham about segregation in their city.
https://www.biography.com/news/black-history-birmingham-childrens-crusade-1963

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Henrietta Lacks (1920-1951) , Juleini Martinez 

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Henrietta Lacks (1920-1951) , Juleini Martinez 

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Henrietta Lacks was born on August 1, 1920, and died in 1951 at The Johns Hopkins University after being diagnosed with fatal cervical cancer. They had collected her cancer cells and kept them without her permission and consent before she died. They experimented with them and created the world's first cloned human cells. Researchers have utilized them in a variety of "treatments," including the Covid-19 vaccination.The Hernitta Lacks Estate, on the other hand, is attempting to sue the corporation for stealing Hernitta's cells.

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Mississippi Black Codes 1865-1866 (Kevin Aguilera) 

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Mississippi Black Codes 1865-1866 (Kevin Aguilera) 

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The Mississippi black codes was to recognize certain rights for former slaves during 1865-1866 after the official passing of the 13th Amendment to officially abolish slavery. Although almost instantly government officials opposed these new rights to reinstate white supremacy. Freedmen (Former Black Slaves) were given access to the legal system, marriage, own property and seek and gain employment but were restricted heavily to these rights. Freemen were still exploited with improper pay within the states, they were limited as witnesses within the judicial system, cross racial marriage was prohibited between whites and nonwhites and punishable by life imprisonment, owning property was only allowed outside the cities and Freedmen were to engage in their own farming and land ownership. If a Freeman was to not gain employment within 2 weeks of 'the new year' in 1866 they are to be fined, if this fine was not payed they would be forced into jail and given unpaid labor. Although in 1868 and 1870 Congress passed the 14th and 15th Amendments which guaranteed Freedmen equal protection under the law and the right to vote.
https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/events-african-american-history/mississippi-black-codes-1865-1866/

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BLA was a low profile black revolutoonary group. This organization was operated in 1970-1981. The reason for this organization was because they wanted to stand up for liberty. This organization was made up of members from the black panters (BPP) and the republic new afrika (RNA). In this group they carried out with mass robberies, killings, prison breaks and even bombings.  The reason for this is because they wanted justice for themselves and self determination of black people. They were anti-racist anti- sexist, they wanted everyone to be equal but before anyone else could be equal they wanted their liberation. They wanted black people to have their own control over their lives and their destiny.They wanted to show the struggle since that is what the people seen them as the "armed struggle".

https://militaryhistory.fandom.com/wiki/Black_Liberation_Army

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The Black Liberation Army (BLA) was an underground, black nationalist militant organization that operated in the United States from 1970 to 1981. Composed largely of former Black Panthers (BPP), the organization’s program was one of “armed struggle”, and its stated goal was to “take up arms for the…

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National Action Network 1991 (Isaiah Planas)

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National Action Network 1991 (Isaiah Planas)

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The National Action Network, or NAN for short, was initially created to engage and confront the social vices of police misconduct and abuse, gun violence, official assaults on voting rights, workers’ rights, affirmative action, inequities in education and employment opportunities, access to capital, health care and discrimination motivated by race, class, gender, sexual orientation or status, religion and national origin. It was even supported by and had the help of government officials such as, Board Chairman Reverend Dr. W. Franklyn Richardson. This network was a large step towards having black voices heard in America. They also work to financially aid anyone who is a victim of any of those
Source: https://nationalactionnetwork.net/about/history/#:~:text=Founded%20in%20New%20York%20City,a%20champion%20for%20the%20dispossessed.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WNgutuM82rM                                   https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/paul-robeson-about-the-actor/66/       

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Paul Robeson was born in 1898 in Princeton, New Jersey. He was an actor, singer, athlete, and political activist whose  father was a freed slave while his mother was from a successful Philadelphia family.At a young age he was given a scholarship to Rutgers University, where he received an uncommon twelve major letters in four years and was his class valedictorian. After graduating Robeson went on to Columbia University Law School and later took a job with a New York law firm. Many racial issues ended his career as a lawyer early so he then went to find work as an actor with his love of public speaking.As an actor, Robeson become a good singer and was one of the first black men to play serious roles in a primarily white American theater.At the height of Robeson's popularity, Robeson was a nationwide symbol and a cultural leader in the war against fascism abroad and racism at home. While his several talents and his outspoken defense of civil liberties brought him many friends it also made him enemies. Even with his contributions as an entertainer to the Allied forces during World War II, Robeson was singled out as a major threat to American democracy. Every attempt was made to silence and discredit Robeson him, and in 1950 the persecution reached its max when his passport was revoked. He could no longer travel abroad to perform, and his career was at a weak point. After 8 years when his passport was reinstated he tried to progress but the years of hardship took their toll. When Robeson returned to the U.S.in 1963, he was misdiagnosed several times and treated for several physical and psychological problems. Realizing that he was no longer the powerful singer or powerful public speaker of his prime days he decided to step out of the public eye. He then retired to Philadelphia and lived in seclusion until his death in 1976.

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Doris 'Dorie' Miller WWII (Sherlyn Soriano)

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Doris 'Dorie' Miller WWII (Sherlyn Soriano)

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Doris Miller was born on December 12, 1919 in Waco, Texas. He attended Moore High school and worked on his father's farm in Waco before joining the U.S Navy at Dallas, Texas, on September 16, 1939. During an attack, Japanese aircraft left battleship West Virginia (BB-48) heavily damaged leaving 130 killed and 52 wounded out of the 1,541 men. During the battle however, as an effort to fight back, Miller was described firing a machine gun and shooting down a Japanese aircraft heading for the ship without being trained to operate one. Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, the commander in chief, awarded Miller with the Navy Cross and went on to say Miller was the first of his race to achieve such accomplishment from his tribute. Which was a huge honor at the time. By the end of his career at the Navy he was awarded many medals such as the Navy Cross; Purple Heart Medal; the American Defense Service Medal, Fleet Clasp; the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal; and the World War II Victory Medal. In addition, on 30 June 1973, USS Miller (FF-1091) was named after Miller in his honor.

Source: Navel History and Heritage Command/Miller Doris https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/biographies-list/bios-m/miller-doris.html