# data[].attributes.body
Sally Schroer was born February 8th, 1945, in St. Louis, Missouri. She is currently 80 years of age. She lives in Tucson, Arizona, where she has resided for the past 50 years.

# data[].attributes.body
Sally's favorite hobbies include reading, quilting, gardening, and cooking. She is part of a book club that meets every month. She is known for growing impressive herbs and flowers. Sally also makes dinner for her family every Sunday night.

# data[].attributes.body
Sally taught second grade at a local elementary school in Tucson for almost 40 years. After retiring, she returned to help tutor second graders and special needs students in reading and writing.

# data[].attributes.body
A huge cat lover, Sally currently owns one orange cat named Harry!

# data[].attributes.body
Sally's favorite book is To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee. She recommends that everyone reads this book because of its timeless and enduring messages.

# data[].attributes.body
Sally claimed that it's impossible to choose an all-time favorite recipe. However, one of her personal favorites is English Toffee, which she makes with her three granddaughters every Christmas. Another one of her favorite recipes is Gooey Butter Cake, which was her late husband's favorite dessert. Unfortunately, both recipes are family secrets.

# data[].attributes.body
The first important life event that Sally thought of was getting married to her husband Charles Dennis "Denny" Schroer in 1965. The two were married for around 40 years and share two children. She said that most of her fondest memories are spending time and going on adventures with Denny.

# data[].attributes.body
Her second most important life event was the birth of her first child, a daughter named Stephanie in 1966. Sally described being overjoyed at the birth of her first child. Stephanie shares her love of cooking, quilting, and teaching. Although she now lives in Oregon, Sally and Stephanie still spend time together on FaceTime cooking old recipes and making new quilts.

# data[].attributes.body
Sally's next most important event in her life was the birth of her second child, a son named Brett in 1968. She was extremely happy when her son was born. Her son continues to live close to her in Tucson and spends a lot of time with her. The two share a love of reading, gardening, birding, doing puzzles, and playing tennis.

# data[].attributes.body
Although not a single event, Sally claims that the next important event in her life was the birth of her three grandchildren. Her first grandchild was born in 1999 to her son Brett and his wife, a daughter named Jamie. Her second grandchild was born in 2002 to her daughter Stephanie and her husband, a daughter named London. Lastly, her third grandchild was born in 2004 to her son Brett and his wife, a daughter named Aubrey. She played an extensive role in helping raise her three granddaughters. Sally says that spending time with her three granddaughters is one of her greatest sources of joy.

# data[].attributes.body
In 2004, Sally's husband Denny passed away. Sally said that she has continuously struggled with the grief of losing her husband. She said that people often do not fully understand grief until they experience it. To this day, small reminders of him still cause feelings of sadness to resurface. However, these feelings of sadness are overcome by the amount of happiness that the two shared together for around 45 years.

Sally has remained loyal to her husband for her entire life and he has remained, to this day, the love of her life. His memory continues to be honored through the stories and memories of their adventures together, as well as through both of their children.

# data[].attributes.body
The first family photo that Sally chose is a picture of her with her entire family when she was young. The photo was taken in St. Louis and shows her father, mother, and her alongside her sisters. She said that she remembers them all being dressed in matching outfits and taking that photograph with her parents. This photo is framed and hangs inside her house today. She said that she chose this photo because it reminds her of when her entire family was together and brings back many childhood memories.

# data[].attributes.body
The second photo that she chose is a photograph of her with her entire family in 2003. The photograph includes (left to right) her son, daughter-in-law, daughter, son-in-law, husband (to her left), and two of her granddaughters. This photo was taken in Tucson, Arizona. She said that, for her birthday that year, she requested that the entire family go to the mall to get a family photograph taken. She also requested that everyone wear University of Arizona clothing. At the time, she had gone to school at the U of A, along with her son, daughter, daughter-in-law, and son-in-law. Later, one of her granddaughters would also attend the University of Arizona and another would work as a coach in the athletic department at the university as well. Therefore, this photo reminds her of her family, as well as the important role that the University of Arizona has played in her life and the life of her family.

# data[].attributes.body
The third photo that she chose is a photograph of her three granddaughters. The photograph shows (left to right) Aubrey, Jamie, and London. The photo was taken one year during Christmas. She said that she loves this picture because it shows her three granddaughters spending time together. The photo was taken while the granddaughters were playing a video game where you learned to play songs by The Beatles. Another reason why she loves this picture is because she always found it hilarious how seriously each of her granddaughters was taking this game. To this day, however, spending time with her three granddaughters is one of her favorite things to do.

# data[].attributes.body
One of the first stories that came to Sally's mind took place during Christmas in St. Louis when she was a little girl. One year, her mother didn't have time to wrap the Christmas presents that they bought for her and her siblings. Her mother asked her is she could wrap all the presents for them. She said that this was because her sisters would try to sneak into the area where the presents were hidden to peek at them before Christmas morning. However, she never tried to see her presents early because she wanted to be surprised. Knowing this, her mother put her in charge of wrapping the presents. She said that her siblings teased her about being a "goody-too-shoes." However, this memory makes her happy because she remembers always supporting and helping her mother growing up, as well as looking after her siblings to make sure that they were happy.

# data[].attributes.body
One of her favorite stories was that her father was a master craftsman, who worked for a well-known business in St. Louis. Her father would do anything from working on antiques to wood carving. When she was little, she was always fascinated by her father's job. She said that on some Saturdays, she would get to go work at the shop with her father. She was overjoyed every time that she got to go with him. She would get to help him carve different things out of wood, sweep up sawdust, look at antiques, and more. She said that the shop had an enormous wood elevator that would move you from one level to the next if you pulled on the rope and she loved going up and down it. She said that, during this time they spent together, her father taught her many useful skills about wood working and building that she continues to use today. This was also where she discovered her passion for antiques, which she has collected throughout her life and are still in her house today.

# data[].attributes.body
Another one of her favorite stories was when she was little, her parents and siblings would go to downtown St. Louis during Christmas time. Her family lived a little bit away from downtown St. Louis so this would be an exciting day trip for her entire family. They went there to look at the Christmas window displays at the department stores. She said that they were fabulous and she loved looking at each of the different windows. One of her favorite parts was going up a wooden escalator and going into the Toyland store. She would be super excited because they would give you a ticket when you entered the store and there was a small window where you gave them your ticket, and they would give you a present. She loved it! The windows were spectacular and it was one of her favorite childhood memories.

# data[].attributes.body
One of Sally's favorite stories was when she was young and she would sometimes go and stay with her grandparents. Her grandfather worked as a projectionist at a popular theater in downtown St. Louis. It was her grandfather's job to project the movie from a small window onto the screen for people to watch. She always found it funny that he had to wear a fancy tux while he was working. Her grandmother worked with him at the theater as a ticket taker as well. She loved going to the theater. She described the theater as being very ornate and having beautiful red curtains. Her favorite part was that she got to go up to the window where her grandfather projected the movie and watch it with him from up there. After the movie, she and her grandparents would take the streetcar and go eat at a restaurant together.

# data[].attributes.headline
"Family is the most important thing in your life." 

# data[].attributes.subject
"Family is the most important thing in your life." 

# data[].attributes.body
Sally's first piece of advice is to always remember that family is the most important thing in your life. Even though families are never perfect, while reflecting back on her own life, most of her favorite memories and stories all revolve around her family and the time that they spent together. It can be easy to lose sight of what is important. However, your family will always support you and help you when you need it.

# data[].attributes.headline
"Things, or possessions, are not the most important thing in your life." 

# data[].attributes.subject
"Things, or possessions, are not the most important thing in your life." 

# data[].attributes.body
Sally's second piece of advice is that things, or possessions, are not what matter most in life. She talked about seeing a lot of people caring about buying or getting new things, as well as people who try to hold on to as many things as possible. However, even though she keeps a few possessions from her past, she said that the memories she has are far more important to her. Also, it is important to focus less on trying to get new possessions and instead on having new experiences with people that you love.

# data[].attributes.headline
"Always fight for peace, equality, diversity, and non-violence." 

# data[].attributes.subject
"Always fight for peace, equality, diversity, and non-violence." 

# data[].attributes.body
Sally's third piece of advice is to always fight for peace, equality, diversity, and non-violence. Sally talked about always being a strong democrat and a firm believer in peace over violence. She says she has witnessed firsthand how increased peace, equality, and diversity have changed the world for the better. Throughout her lifetime, she has tirelessly fought and advocated for peace, equality, diversity, and non-violence, which she continues to do today.

# data[].attributes.body
Sally said that there have been both positive and negative changes in society that have impacted the aging process. The first positive change that she talked about was that women have been given more rights throughout her lifetime. Society has improved their view of women and have given women more opportunities to accomplish things and reach goals that were not always possible when she was growing up. She talked about, if she had been given the chance, she would have loved to learn how to be a master craftsman like her father. It is something that she loved learning about and doing when she was young. However, at the time, she was not allowed to pursue this career. Therefore, she said that women's voices and rights have gotten much stronger. These changes have allowed women to pursue many careers and be financially independent, which was not always the case. This has had a positive impact on the aging process of many. Another positive change that she has seen is that the government has implemented multiple programs that have helped people. She has seen more programs and institutions be put into place across her lifetime, such as improved healthcare. She said that healthcare has gotten a lot better, which has enabled her to stay healthy and have access to the healthcare support she needs. She has also seen changes in social security and other programs that have given her financial support, which wasn't always the case as well. Lastly, in terms of improved technology and electronics, she has been able to stay connected with her friends and family more. She uses her phone to talk to her daughter and sisters that live around the U.S. She was also able to stay connected to all of her family during the COVID-19 pandemic, which was a difficult event to go through on her own. Improved technology has also led to advancements in medicine, medical technology, and more. Overall, these are a few examples of the changes that she has seen that have had a positive impact on her life and the aging process.

However, she has also seen some negative changes in society. For example, she has had experiences with negative stereotypes regarding older adults. She has seen how views of aging have become increasingly more negative in advertisements, television, and more. She also remembered that, when she was young, it was important that you always showed respect to the older adults around you. Also, she thinks that the influence of technology has mostly been negative. Specifically, the influence of social media has increased people's focus on appearance and possessions. In addition, she talked about the relationship between increased technology and social isolation. When she was growing up, she said that they did not have the phones, movies, television shows, or social media that they have now. She remembers when parents used to sit outside on their porches in her neighborhood and the kids would all come outside to play with one another. She said that she does not see this as much anymore. A lot of people do not know their neighbors at all. There are a lot of pros to technology, however, she does not think that people interact with one another as much anymore, which she thinks is something that has had a negative impact on the aging process and health of people in general.

# data[].attributes.headline
Culture and Society Change Across Lifetime

# data[].attributes.subject
Culture and Society Change Across Lifetime

# data[].attributes.body
Overall, Sally said that she has seen culture and society change a lot across her lifetime. She mentioned that there has been a large increase in equality and diversity since her childhood. She mentioned that the first thing she noticed was, as technology improved, the ability to travel around the world became a lot easier. People started traveling more and, today, people can travel to many more places than when she was growing up. She said that this has helped increase the spread of different cultures, as well as increase diversity. For example, she has been able to travel to Europe three times later in her life, which has allowed her to explore new cultures. This is something that would have been very difficult to do when she was young. Sally also talked about her own experiences with seeing changes in diversity and culture, such as the start of desegregation in her neighborhood. She said that she grew up in Webster Groves, which is called the "city of fine homes." In her neighborhood growing up, she said that everyone was a W.A.S.P. (White Anglo-Saxon Protestant). She said that she grew up in a very segregated neighborhood. She recalled the day when her high school first became desegregated. The people in her neighborhood were shocked by what was happening. However, when she looks back on it now, she thinks that the people in her neighborhood were too comfortable being shut off from other people and cultures in the world. She has always believed that being shut off from other cultures and not experiencing diversity keeps people from learning new things and growing. Sally talked about being happy when she moved away from St. Louis after getting married. Her and her husband lived in many places and would often drive to different places across the U.S. She said that she learned many new things, and she was able to explore new cultures and talk to new people. She learned about ideas, cuisines, and more that she had never heard of during her childhood. She said that the more she learned about new cultures traveling around the U.S., the more she realized that Webster Groves seemed less like the real world and more like a secluded bubble. Part of the reason why she loves Tucson so much is because it is a blend of many different cultures and people. Reflecting on her life, Sally said that she is proud of how far she has come since the young girl she was when she was living in the suburbs of Webster Groves, as well as how much society has improved in terms of increasing culture and diversity. She has always believed that the increase of equality, diversity, and culture she has seen across her lifetime is critical for society to flourish.

# data[].attributes.body
Born a few months before the end of World War II, Sally does not remember the day that World War II ended. However, even though she was very young, Sally does remember how much the end of World War II impacted the start of her life, how she grew up, and the life of her family. She remembers early in her life seeing how much the end of this devastating war meant a change in the lifestyle of Americans. She remembers her uncles coming back from the army and telling stories about the war. She said that she remembered this new era where people did not have to live off of rations or live in fear. Instead, people were free to buy new things and almost live in a new way. Regardless of not being old enough to remember this event, Sally does remember the extensive impact that the war had on the start of her life and seeing the changes that took place once it ended.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The End of World War II 1945 | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Explore articles, web series, podcast episodes, live webinars and more from the Museum about the end of World War II.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy

# data[].attributes.subject
The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy

# data[].attributes.body
Sally says that she can clearly remember the day that President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in 1963. She described being in college at the time and she was sitting in a class when she heard about the news for the first time. After the news broke, she said that her class, as well as all classes at the college, got canceled and everyone stayed at home for the weekend. She recalls this event as being the "end of Camelot," or the end of a perfect and good time in the United States. She said that, as a democrat and during this time, President John F. Kennedy meant a lot to her and represented many important things. Therefore, hearing about his assassination was quite a shock and she believed that this event had a large impact on society.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
November 22, 1963: Death of the President | JFK Library

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Although he had not formally announced his candidacy, it was clear that JFK was going to run and he seemed confident—though not over-confident— about his chances for re-election. At the end of September, the President traveled west speaking in nine different states in less than a week. While the tri…

# data[].attributes.body
As a huge fan of music, Sally struggled with deciding her favorite songs. However, the first song that came to mind was "Love Me Tender" by Elvis Presley. Sally remains to this day a huge fan of all Elvis music. She said that he was her first musical crush. Elvis Presley had a large impact on society with his music when she was younger, and his songs have always meant a lot to her. She said that he stood for a lot of things when she was growing up. Therefore, she continues to connect to his music today.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Elvis Presley - Love Me Tender (Official Audio)

# data[].attributes.body
The next thing that came to her mind is the opera Madam Butterfly by Puccini. When she was younger, her father would always play opera music when he was home. She said that this explains her enjoyment of listening to opera music. Opera music always relaxes her and reminds her of her father. Her favorite opera music is Madam Butterfly by Puccini because she thinks it is very meaningful and emotional.

# data[].attributes.body
The next song that Sally chose was "Somewhere Over the Rainbow" by IZ. She said that this song has always been able to calm her down when she listens to it. She says that the sounds of the instruments are beautiful. The message of the song has also always resonated with her. She describes it as a "very hopeful and poignant song."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
OFFICIAL Somewhere over the Rainbow - Israel "IZ" Kamakawiwoʻole

# data[].attributes.body
Another one of her favorite stories was the tradition that her family had for decorating their Christmas tree. At her house in St. Louis, the Christmas tree was not decorated together by her family. Instead, during the night of Christmas Eve, the tree would get decorated while her and her siblings were asleep. She said that they always believed that Santa Claus decorated the tree while leaving them presents. On Christmas morning, her siblings would wait together on the stairs and, in order of age, would get to come downstairs when their father called their names. She said that she always loved walking down the stairs and being surprised by how beautiful and magical the decorated Christmas tree looked when she saw it for the first time.

# data[].attributes.body
Another one of her favorite stories was how much she loved Halloween when she was growing up. She talked about how different Halloween is now than when she was young. For Halloween, her entire neighborhood would have a bonfire, where everyone came together. There would be food and drinks. She said that the hot chocolate was always her favorite. She loved seeing how everyone dressed up. She talked about children who came to the door always used to have to do something to get a piece of candy, whether it was saying a riddle, telling a story, or doing a dance. Her favorite part of Halloween was her neighbor who worked for Golden Books. He used to give Golden Books to kids on Halloween, which fueled her love of reading.

# data[].attributes.body
Sally said that she has always been a strong advocate of peace, equality, diversity, and anti-violence. Therefore, she remembers the U.S. Anti-Vietnam War Protests extremely well. She remembers this event felt very important to her at the time. She has never believed in war and guns, as she has seen firsthand how a war can impact people. As a result, she said that she had no problem protesting what she thought of as a "stupid war." She said that her strong beliefs haven't always worked in her favor, and she met a lot of people who disagreed with her beliefs, and she has sometimes felt like she was on the outside of things. However, she has always stayed true to her beliefs. She said people can do a lot better without violence and there are many times where things would work better if there was less fighting. Therefore, Sally felt as though this historical event reinforced her belief in staying true to what she believed in and fighting for these beliefs, even when it seemed like many people were against her.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This conflict summary was commissioned by the International Center on Nonviolent Conflict (ICNC). We are an educational organization dedicated to developing and sharing knowledge related to nonviolent civil resistance movements for human rights, freedom, and justice around the world. Click here to access ICNC's homepage.
The US Anti-Vietnam War Movement (1964-1973)

Download English PDF Version
Descargar en Español la versión PDF
By: Stephen Zunes and Jesse Laird
January 2010

The U.S. war in Vietnam triggered the most tenacious anti-war movement in U.S. history, beginning with the start of the bombing of North Vietnam in 1964 and the introduction of combat troops the following year. Over the next decade, hundreds of thousands of young people become radicalized in a largely nonviolent, diverse and sometimes inchoate popular culture of war resistance, employing tactics ranging from comical street theatre to industrial sabotage. Students, government officials, labor unions, church groups and middle class families increasingly opposed the war as it climaxed in 1968, forcing a gradual withdrawal of U.S. forces. Anti-war activities, particularly large-scale resistance to military conscription, forced an end U.S. combat operations in Vietnam and a suspension of the draft by January 1973.

Political History

The origins of the Vietnam War are rooted in centuries of resistance by the Vietnamese from foreign control. Following periodic domination by the Chinese, the French colonized Vietnam and neighboring Laos and Cambodia in the mid-19th century. Sporadic resistance against the French colonialists continued until the Japanese invasion during World War II, resulting in a robust communist-led guerilla insurgency known led by the Viet Minh which gained widespread popular support. Resistance continued when the French, with U.S. support, attempted to re-conquer the country. The 1954 Geneva Agreement, which ended the colonial war and granted independence, temporarily divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel pending unifying elections in 1956. The United States, however, fearing a communist victory, blocked the elections from taking place. An armed rebellion led by the communist-led National Liberation Front (NLF), also called the "Viet Cong", in South Vietnam challenged the corrupt U.S.-backed dictatorship in Saigon, resulting in the Kennedy Administration sending increasing numbers of military advisors to the country. Citing North Vietnamese support for the NLF, President Johnson began a bombing campaign of the North in August 1964 and ordered American combat units into South Vietnam in 1965, which in turn led the North Vietnamese army to join the NLF fighting in the South.

Strategic Actions

While there had been a long history in the United States of popular resistance to foreign wars, such as the Anti-Imperialist League's campaign against the U.S. invasion of the Philippines in the early 20th century, the movement against the Vietnam War was unprecedented in scope. There already was a small peace movement prior to the escalation of U.S. involvement in Vietnam, based primarily on concerns around nuclear proliferation, particularly nuclear testing. This movement was led primarily by the Committee for Sane Nuclear Policy (SANE) established in 1957, but also included the pacifist Committee for Nonviolent Action (CNVA), founded that same year, and Women's Strike for Peace (WSP). The early opposition to the Vietnam War was largely restricted to pacifists and leftists empowered by the successful application of strategic nonviolent action in the U.S. Civil Rights Movement. Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) emerged in 1960, espousing a democratic socialist vision and opposition to militarism and soon became primarily focused on ending the war. The first major protests began in 1964 and quickly gained strength as the war escalated. Starting at the University of Michigan, "teach-ins" on the Vietnam War modeled after seminars raising consciousness in support of the Civil Rights Movement, brought in thousands of participants. In addition to national protests, which attracted tens of thousands to Washington, DC, there were acts of civil disobedience that became more widespread over time, including sit-ins on the steps of the Pentagon, draft induction centers, and railroad tracks transporting troops, as well as the public burning of draft cards.

Opposition increased in tandem with the escalation of the war, as body counts escalated, reports of atrocities against civilians circulated, draft calls increased, and prospects of a U.S. victory dissipated. In particular, military conscription began to impact a growing number of working and middle class families and helped mobilize college students, who faced the prospects of being sent to Vietnam soon after graduation. Recruiters for the military as well as companies associated with the war-such as Dow Chemical, the chief manufacturer of napalm-were increasingly met by protesters when they came to campuses. In 1967, 300,000 marched in New York City and 50,000 protesters descended on the Pentagon, with over 700 being arrested. A national organization of draft resisters is formed in 1967, calling itself the Resistance, as many thousands were jailed, fled to sanctuary in Canada, or went underground. Young people increasingly fused political opposition with cultural experimentation, defying traditional American norms. Surveillance, smear campaigns and staged support rallies were organized by government agencies to inhibit the growth of the movement and media coverage was largely unsympathetic, yet by the end of 1967, public support for the war dropped to barely one-third of the population.

U.S. troop levels in Vietnam peaked in 1968 at 540,000, with more than 300 Americans being killed every week. Despite this, an NLF/North Vietnamese offensive at the end of January underscored the unwinnability of the war. The nomination of pro-war candidates by the two major political parties despite widespread anti-war sentiments, combined with violent police actions against anti-war demonstrators at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago and elsewhere, served to further radicalize the anti-war movement. A countercultural group calling themselves the Yippies staged innovative actions and guerrilla theater, radical priests raided offices of draft boards destroying records, and prominent veterans of the civil rights struggle, including Martin Luther King, Jr., became increasingly outspoken against the war. The news media began to become more skeptical in its war coverage and mainstream churches and unions began to speak out more boldly. Blockades of thoroughfares and other forms of nonviolent direct action became increasingly common. These pressures forced the Johnson administration to begin peace talks with the North Vietnamese and NLF and to suspend the bombing of North Vietnam.

What cohesion existed in the anti-war movement declined in the coming years despite a popular wave of energy and support, as many activists embraced far left ideologies, countercultural lifestyles, or abandoned their commitment to nonviolent tactics. Still, three million people participated in demonstrations as part of the Moratorium on the War in October 1969 across the country and half a million protested in Washington, DC the following month.

President Nixon's hopes that the gradual withdrawal of troops and a concomitant decline in draft rolls would diminish the anti-war movement were shattered with the U.S. decision to invade Cambodia in the spring of 1970, which resulted in large-scale protests. Tensions between the anti-war movement and the U.S. government escalated further when six college students were killed and dozens wounded in anti-war demonstrations at Kent State University and Jackson State University. Hundreds of colleges and universities shut down from student strikes and occupations of campus buildings and other disruptions forced a withdrawal of U.S. ground forces from Cambodia less than eight weeks after the initial invasion.

Desertions and mutinies within the U.S. armed forces made prosecution of the war increasingly difficult. Three quarters of a million people marched on Washington in April of 1971, followed in early May by tens of thousands of protesters attempting to shut down government operations in the nation's capital in early May by blockading bridges and thoroughfares. Further revelations of massacres of Vietnamese civilians by U.S. troops, systematic deceptions of the public and Congress by the administration, torture of political prisoners in South Vietnam, and domestic spying on U.S. citizens alienated the U.S. public further from U.S. government policy. However, increasingly violent protests-while still representing only a small minority of the movement-ended up alienating most Americans from the anti-war cause as well. Government agents would routinely infiltrate anti-war groups, encouraging them to use violence in order to marginalize the movement further.

Despite a brief upsurge in protests following and resumption of the air war against North Vietnam in the spring of 1972, the factionalization of the movement and the withdrawal of most U.S. forces led to a decline in protests. Still, the anti-war movement did force the United States to sign a peace treaty, withdraw its remaining forces, and end the draft in early 1973. Continued U.S. support for the Thieu dictatorship in Saigon and the breakdown of the cease-fire led to small ongoing protests, leading Congress to finally refuse additional U.S. aid to the South Vietnamese regime as the final NLF/North Vietnamese offensive forced the regime's collapse in April of 1975. Vietnam was reunified under communist rule two years later.

By the end of the war, the U.S. anti-war movement had amassed an impressive record of nonviolent action. Over a decade of organizing, actions had included mass protests and vigils; sit-ins, occupations, and blockades; conscientious objection, draft resistance and desertion; guerrilla theater; obstruction of military recruiters, arms shipments and personnel; petitioning and letter-writing campaigns; destruction of draft files.

Ensuing Events

The power of strategic nonviolent action to force an end to an unpopular overseas war served as a deterrent for large-scale U.S. military interventions overseas for the next three decades, a phenomenon known by detractors as "the Vietnam Syndrome." Despite troop levels well below what many military strategists believe have been optimal levels for the U.S. wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, fears of massive nonviolent resistance have prevented the resumption of military conscription. As with the U.S. Civil Rights Movement, many individuals and organizations active in the anti-Vietnam War movement remained engaged during the 1980s to protest the controversial U.S. support for insurgency and counter-insurgency operations in Central America as well as the escalating nuclear arms race. Many of these anti-war groups and their successor organizations remain active to this day in opposition to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. The anti-Vietnam War movement, along with the Civil Rights struggle, also helped stimulate greater interest in strategic nonviolent action as an alternative to war and violence as well as a greater interest in the creation of alternative lifestyles and institutions.

For Further Reading

Cooney, R. and Michalowski, H. (ed.s.), The Power of the People: Active Nonviolence in the United States, New Society Publishers: Philadelphia, 1987

Gitlin, Todd, The Sixties: Days of Hope, Days of Rage, Bantam Books, 1993

Hixson, Walter L., ed., The Vietnam Antiwar Movement, New York: Garland, 2000

Lynd, S. & Lynd, A., Nonviolence in America: A Documentary History, Orbis Books: New York, 1995

About this Conflict Summary

This conflict summary was commissioned by the International Center on Nonviolent Conflict (ICNC). We are an educational organization dedicated to developing and sharing knowledge related to nonviolent civil resistance movements for human rights, freedom, and justice around the world. Learn more about our work here.

Hundreds of past and present cases of nonviolent civil resistance exist. To make these cases more accessible, ICNC compiled summaries of some of them between the years 2009-2011. You can find these summaries here. Each summary aims to provide a clear perspective on the role that nonviolent civil resistance has played or is playing in a particular case. They are authored by people who have expertise in a particular region of the world and/or expertise in the field of civil resistance. Each author speaks with his/her own voice, and conflict summaries do not necessarily reflect the views of ICNC.

For a wide range of resources on civil resistance, visit ICNC's Resource Library, which features resources on civil resistance in English and over 65 other languages.

To support scholars and educators who are designing curricula and teaching this subject, we also offer an Academic Online Curriculum (AOC), which is a free, extensive, and regularly updated online resource with over 40 different modules on civil resistance topics and case studies.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The US Anti-Vietnam War Movement (1964-1973) | ICNC

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Summary of the political history, nonviolent strategic actions, and ensuing events of the US Anti-Vietnam War Movement from 1964-73.

# data[].attributes.headline
"Unchained Melody" by the Righteous Brothers

# data[].attributes.subject
"Unchained Melody" by the Righteous Brothers

# data[].attributes.body
The fourth song that she selected was "Unchained Melody" by the Righteous Brothers. She said that this is a tear-jerker song. However, the melancholy and sorrowful meaning of the song is something that she relates and connects to. Even though it makes her sad when she listens to it, she still says that it is an incredible song that everyone should listen to at least once.

# data[].attributes.headline
"Love Is A Many-Splendored Thing" by The Four Aces

# data[].attributes.subject
"Love Is A Many-Splendored Thing" by The Four Aces

# data[].attributes.body
The fifth song that she chose is "Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing" by The Four Aces. She said that this song is one of her favorites because it was the first romance movie that she ever saw. She remembered hearing the song when she saw the movie in the theater and she loved it (both the song and the movie). She said that the song is very beautiful, and the message is a celebration of the importance of love.

# data[].attributes.body
The last song that she chose is "Midnight on the Water." This song is a fiddle tune. She said that the reason why this is one of her all-time favorite pieces of music is because her husband Denny used to play this song on the fiddle. Her husband was a very talented fiddle player, as well as a very skilled musician who could play multiple instruments. He used to play the fiddle on various stages wherever they traveled together. Therefore, every time she listens to this song, she is reminded of when he used to play it.