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Burkina Faso is a landlocked country located in West Africa. It shares borders with six neighboring countries: Mali to the northwest, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana to the south, and the Ivory Coast to the southwest. Covering an area of 274,223 square kilometers (105,878 square miles), Burkina Faso sits in the heart of the West African region, with a mix of savanna and Sahel landscapes.

As of 2024, the estimated population of Burkina Faso is approximately 23.3 million people. The country has a young and growing population, with the majority engaged in agriculture and informal economic activities. Despite facing challenges such as political instability and security threats, Burkina Faso remains a culturally rich nation with diverse ethnic groups and languages.

Approximately 63.8% of the population practices Islam, while 26.3% follows Christianity. The country also includes communities that practice traditional indigenous beliefs. Burkina Faso recognizes four official languages: Mooré, Bissa, Dyula, and Fula, with Mooré being the most widely spoken—it is used by over half of the population.

Originally named the Republic of Upper Volta, the country adopted the name Burkina Faso in 1984 under the leadership of President Thomas Sankara. The new name, meaning "Land of Upright People" in local languages, was part of Sankara’s broader efforts to promote national identity and self-reliance. Citizens of the country are known as Burkinabes.

The capital and largest city of Burkina Faso is Ouagadougou. It serves as the political, cultural, and economic center of the country. Known for its vibrant music and arts scene, Ouagadougou plays a central role in West African cultural life and hosts major festivals such as FESPACO, the Pan-African Film and Television Festival.

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The earliest known inhabitants of the region now called Burkina Faso include the Bobo, Lobi, and Gurunsi peoples, who settled the area long before the arrival of centralized states. In the 15th century CE, horse-mounted invaders entered the region from the south and established two major kingdoms: the Gurma in the east and the Mossi in the central regions.

Over time, several Mossi states emerged, with Ouagadougou becoming the most powerful. This kingdom was ruled by an emperor known as the morho naba, or “great lord.” Under his leadership, the Mossi successfully resisted invasions from powerful neighboring empires such as the Songhai and Fulani. Despite their military strength, the Mossi also maintained strong commercial relationships with key West African trading powers, including the Dyula, Hausa, and Asante, positioning themselves as important players in the regional economy.

Source:

https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Burkina-Faso

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mossi_people

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The Mossi (or Mole, Mosse, sing. Moaaga) are a Gur ethnic group native to modern Burkina Faso, primarily the Volta River basin. The Mossi are the largest ethnic group in Burkina Faso, constituting 52% of the population, or about 11.1 million people. The other 48% of Burkina Faso's population is composed of more than 60 ethnic groups, mainly the Gurunsi, Senufo, Lobi, Bobo and Fulani. The Mossi speak the Mòoré language.

The Mossi people originated in Burkina Faso, although significant numbers of Mossi live in neighboring countries, including Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Mali, and Togo. In 1996, the estimated population of Burkina Faso was 10,623,323. Five to six million are probably Mossi; another 1.2 million Mossi live in Côte d'Ivoire.

According to tradition, the Mossi come from the marriage of a Mamprusi princess and Mandé hunter.

Yennenga was a warrior princess, daughter of a Mamprusi king in upper east Ghana. While exploring her kingdom on horseback, she lost her way and was rescued by Rialé, a solitary Mandé hunter. They got married and gave birth to the first authentic Mossi, Ouedraogo, who is recognised as the father of Mossi people.

The Mossi are directly descended from the Mamprusi people and similarly live in upper east Ghana with a capital of Bawku/Nalerigu. These legendary origins apply only to the Nakomse (sing. Nakoambga), or the ruling class.

The Tengabisi and other Mossi peoples do not share these origin myths.

As the Mossi people's history has been kept by oral tradition, it is impossible to assign precise dates for the period before colonization. Nevertheless, historians assign the beginning of their existence as a state to the 15th century.[citation needed ] The Mossi were able to conquer a vast amounts of territory thanks to their mastering of the horse, created a prosperous empire, and kept peace in the region until the beginning of colonialism. The expansion of the Mossi empire was stopped in the 19th century with the initiation of intensive colonisation by the French.

French rule affected Mossi society and weakened the power of the Mossi emperor, the Mogho Naaba. Despite colonization, the Mogho Naaba was given some authority over the Mossi during the French colonial period. He is consulted today for crucial decisions, especially those affecting the destiny of society. Two great events have affected the status of the Mogho Naaba during colonization:

During the initial phase of the French invasion, he retired to the Mamprusi kingdom with which the Mossi have always kept brotherly relations.

In 1896, the Mogho accepted the French protectorate.

Mossi and several other peoples played a significant role in France's military during World War II. They constituted part of the corps in the military troops of French West Africa, known in French as the Tirailleurs Sénégalais.

The Mossi people have organised their society in an original hierarchic process in which family and state are the key elements. The Mossi people are very heterogeneous. When horsemen invaded from the south they created a political or ruling class, called Nakomse (sing. Nakoambga), and a spiritual class called Tengabisi. All chiefs come from the ruling class. The Tengabisi include Saya (smiths), Nyonyose (farmers), Yarse (weavers and merchants), and others.

The origins of the Nyonyose are diverse: In the north their ancestors were Dogon and Kurumba, in the southwest their ancestors were Lela, Nuna, Sisala and others, and in the far east they were Gurmantche. These people were united into a new ethnicity called Mossi in about 1500.

It is a mistake to describe a "Nyonyosé tribe" or the "art of the Nyonyosé" because the Nyonyose do not exist outside Mossi society. All Nyonyosé are Mossi. At the same time, it is a mistake to assume that all segments of Mossi society are culturally identical, for the differences between the Nakomsé and the Tengabisi are striking; only the Tengabisi use masks, and only the Nakomsé use figures in the context of political celebrations. The Nakomse are the political class, and the Tengabisi are the spiritual class.

The highest position in Mossi society is that of the Emperor, who is given executive power. The Emperor's role is to rule the entire population and to protect the kingdom. Today, he lives in Ouagadougou, the historical and present capital of Burkina Faso. Though the political dynamic of the country has changed, the Mogho Naaba (Emperor) is recognised by his people and has substantial authority.

Second to the Emperor come the nobles, Nakomse ("people of power"; sing. Nakoambga), who all are from the family of the Emperor, whether they be brothers, sisters, cousins, or otherwise. All dignitaries come from the Emperor's family. The Nakomse are often assigned territories in the kingdom as governorships and rule in the name of the Mogho Naaba. As in the past, the Emperor needs the support of the "ancient ones", his Nyon-nyonse (or gnon-gnon-sse) subjects to fully exercise his power. The Nyon-nyonse are the peoples who lived in Mossi-controlled regions before the Mossi.

Mossi society is divided vertically into two major segments: the descendants of the horsemen who conquered the peoples on the Mossi plateau are called the Nakomse, and all Mossi chiefs come exclusively from the Nakomse class. These people use figures as political art to validate their rule over the peoples they conquered. The descendants of the ancient farming peoples who had occupied the land from the beginning of time and who, by right of first occupation, were and are the owners of the land are called the Tengabisi ("people of the earth"). These Tengabisi can be further divided into groups of smiths ( Saya), groups of traders () and, most important, groups of farmers ( Nyonyose). Generally the smiths and the traders do not use masks, but the Nyonyose are the principal makers and users of masks in Mossi society.

They constitute the larger part of the population and are all subjects of the emperor. These two groups are generally fused but have internal subdivisions, each one having its own ruling family; they perform ceremonies and other important events. Mossi people often identify with groups; hence, at all levels, there is a hierarchy in Mossi society. In everyday life, the family hierarchy is most important, and family is often directly associated with the notion of hierarchy for the Mossi.

'Mogonaba' was what Leo Frobenius was told was the appropriate term for the emperor of Mossi at Wagadugu when he visited the country in 1904-6. His is one of the few disinterested reports as he was an anthropologist and not a missionary, representative of a European company, or military. He describes a court much like a European one (he may have an anti-aristocratic bias) with nobles in intrigues over commerce, power and industry. This report alone caused disbelief in Europe as no European source had ever considered Africans to be socially like Europeans. The lack of racism in Frobenius' report and his discovery of an industrious people and what some would describe as a glorious past interested W.E.B. Du Bois in Frobenius' other writings on Africa. Rudolf Blind's translation in English of the Voice of Africa, published by Hutchinson & Co., produced some racist comments he thought necessary to conform with English sensitivities - otherwise he believed no Englishman would consider the book realistic.

An important contribution was made in the 1960s by the historian Elliott P. Skinner, who wrote at length about the sophistication of Mossi political systems in The Mossi of the Upper Volta: The Political Development of a Sudanese People. This was at a time when many African countries were gaining independence, and Skinner strongly made the point that African peoples were very clearly qualified to govern themselves.

Group identity and values within the Mossi and contrasted against other ethnic groups are tied first and foremost to language.

The Mossi speak the More language, of the Western Oti-Volta group of languages, northwestern sub-group. It is spoken in Burkina Faso, Ghana, and Ivory Coast. This language group is part of a larger grouping, Gur languages belonging to the Niger-Congo family. In the language there are a few dialects based mainly on region. For example, there is a dialect spoken in Yatenga ( Ouahigouya), another distinct dialect in the northern region, a third in the southeast in Koupela, different from a fourth dialect in the same region called Tenkodogo. Despite these regional differences, the dialects are mutually intelligible.[citation needed ]

According to the explanations of Marie Tapsoba, the former Cultural Counsellor at Burkina Embassy in Senegal and Mossi herself, Mossi culture can be divided into four main values characteristic of the ethnic group.

Ancestors are believed to have reached a better world from which they can influence life on earth. They can help or punish their descendants depending on their behavior. Ancestors are also the judges that have the power to allow a descendant to enter the "pantheon of the ancestors". If an ancestor chooses to deny entrance, the soul of the disavowed one is condemned to run at random for all eternity. Because of these beliefs, Mossi swear by their ancestors or by the land; when they do so (which only occurs in extreme situations), it is more than symbolic - it is a call to imminent justice.

Land is related to the ancestors, being a path by which one can access the ancestors. Even today, this notion gives a unique value to land in Mossi thought. Land is considered to be much more than simple dust and has a spiritual dimension to it. A Mossi's life depends on his/her land, and it is essential for the family settlement.

Family is an essential cultural element of the Mossi, who hold collectivism in high regard. Individualism does not exist in traditional Mossi culture: one's actions and behaviors are always taken to be characteristics of one's family. They must always ask an elder in order to do something. As a result, all are expected to act in their family's name; thus, the family is the smallest entity in the Mossi society. Heritage is patrilineal, passed down from a father to his sons. However, when a man has no sons, women can inherit from their husbands and even from their father.

Hierarchy is a fundamental concept for the Mossi and pervasive in their culture. The family is organised like a kingdom with its king - the husband and father, his advisor - the wife, and the people - the children. Aunts and uncles play a role by helping in the education and raising of children.

Ceremonies and celebrations pace the life of Mossi people, with each celebration having its particulars. Through them the community expresses joy or suffering, or simply fulfills duties to the memory of the ancestors.

The Friday Mogho Naaba court ceremony derives from an event when the Moro Naba's sister fled north to the land of Yadega, the kingdom called Yatenga. As she fled north, she carried all of the amulets of power, or nam, with her. The Moro Naba had to decide whether to follow her and retrieve his sacred power objects or to remain behind to rule over his people. Three times he left his palace to mount a white horse, and three times he returned to the palace. In the end he did not pursue his sister, and to this day the kings of Yatenga claim that they hold the power of Mossi rule.

The political segment of Mossi society, the Nakomse (sing. Nakoambga), use art to validate their rule. Bridles, saddles, stirrups and other objects associated with the horse are very important. In addition, Mossi chiefs use carved wooden figures to represent their royal ancestors. These figures are displayed each year at royal festivals called na possum, when the heads of each household in the community reaffirm their allegiance and loyalty to the chief.

The Nyonyose (the ancient farmers and spiritual segment of Mossi society) use masks in their religious observances and rituals. The Nakomse (chief class) do not use masks. Masks in initiations and funerals is typical of all the Voltaic or Gur-speaking peoples, including the Nyonyose, Lela, Winiama, Nouna, Bwaba, and Dogon. Masks appear at burials to observe on behalf of the ancestors that proper procedures are carried out. They appear at funeral or memorial services held at regular intervals over the few years after an elder has died. Masks attend to honor the deceased and to verify that the spirit of the deceased merits admission into the world of ancestors. Without a proper funeral, the spirit remains near the home and causes trouble for his/her descendants.

Masks are carved of the wood of the Ceiba pentandra, the faux kapokier. They are carved in three major styles that correspond to the styles of the ancient people who were conquered in 1500 by the invading Nakomse and integrated into a new Mossi society:

In the north masks are vertical planks with a round concave or convex face.

In the southwest masks represent animals such as antelope, bush buffalo, and strange creatures, and are painted red, white and black.

In the east, around Boulsa, masks have tall posts above the face to which fiber is attached.

Female masks have two pairs of round mirrors for eyes; small masks, representing Yali ("the child") have two vertical horns. All Nyonyose masks are worn with thick costumes made of the fiber of the wild hemp, Hibiscus cannabinus. In the old days only the northern Nyonyose in Yatenga and Kaya, and the eastern people around Boulsa allowed their masks to be photographed. The people in the southwest forbade photography because it did not conform to the yaaba soore, the path of the ancestors.

Mask characters include Balinga, the Fulani woman; katre, the hyena; nyaka, the small antelope; Wan pelega, the large antelope, and many others. Masks from all three areas appear at annual public festivals such as International Art & Craft Fair ( Salon international de l'Artisanat de Ouagadougou or SIAO), Week of the Culture, and the Atypical Nights of Koudougou ( Les Nuits Atypiques de Koudougou). Each Nyonyose family has its own mask, and they are charged with protecting the masks to this day. Masks are very sacred and are a link to the spirits of ancestors and of nature.

Roy, Christopher D. Art of the Upper Volta Rivers. Meudon: Chaffin, 1987 [1]

Roy, Christopher D. Land of the Flying Masks. Munich: Prestel, 2007.

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The Mossi (or Mole, Mosse, sing. Moaaga) are a Gur ethnic group native to modern Burkina Faso, primarily the Volta River basin. The Mossi are the largest ethnic group in Burkina Faso, constituting 52% of the population, or about 11.1 million people.

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The Lobi people migrated from the Ghana side of the Black Volta (Mouhoun) River in the late 18th century, seeking more suitable land and resources. The name "Lobi" was not documented until the late 19th century, and while the region was known for gold, evidence of pre-colonial mining and trade is limited. The Lobi were known for their traditional animist beliefs, fortress-like homes, and warrior culture, often resisting other groups through warfare and raids, a characteristic that made them difficult for the French to subdue during the colonial era.

Sources:

https://www.encyclopedia.com

https://joshuaproject.net

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Lobi-Dagarti Peoples
Orientation and Ethnonyms
The group known to French writers, following the usage of Labourer (1931) and Père (1988), as the “Lobi” are found distributed between 9

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The Mossi Kingdoms were a dominant political force in pre-colonial Burkina Faso, comprising five major kingdoms: Ouagadougou, Tenkodogo, Fada N'gourma, Zondoma, and Boussouma. While each kingdom operated independently in domestic affairs, they shared common family ties, military alliances, and rituals. Their political systems included kings, ministers, and other officials, structured similarly across the kingdoms.

The Mossi excelled in horse mastery, which allowed them to maintain order across their vast territories and build a powerful empire. From the 15th century, they engaged in warfare with powerful neighbors such as the Mali Empire, Songhai Empire, and later the Sokoto Caliphate, while resisting Arab and European slave raids up until the 1800s.

According to oral tradition, the Mossi trace their origin to Princess Yennenga, a warrior daughter of Mamprusi king Naa Gbewaa, and Rialé, a Mandé hunter. Their son, Ouedraogo, is considered the ancestor of the Mossi people.

Though much of Mossi history is preserved orally, historians date their state formation to around the 11th century. The Ouagadougou kingdom, led by the morho naba ("great lord"), became the most powerful, successfully defending against invasions and maintaining trade ties with regional powers such as the Dyula, Hausa, and Asante. Mossi expansion ended in the 19th century with the onset of French colonization.

Sources:

https://our-ancestories.com/blogs/news/the-rise-fall-of-the-powerful-mossi-kingdoms

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mossi_people

https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Burkina-Faso

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The Bobo people established large agricultural villages in the region, likely migrating from an earlier Mande homeland to the north. Their society was organized around independent clans and farming communities. Starting in the 18th century, they were influenced by the trading empire of Watara to the south. The Bobo developed a structured yet relatively egalitarian society, cultivating crops such as millet and sorghum, and practicing polytheistic religions that existed before the arrival of Islam.

Sources:

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bobo

https://www.101lasttribes.com/tribes/bobo

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Bobo | African-American, Civil Rights & Activist | Britannica

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Bobo, people of Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta), who speak a language of the Gur branch of the Niger-Congo family. The Bobo are a sedentary agricultural people growing such staples as millet and sorghum and a wide variety of other crops. Crop rotation and some irrigation are utilized, and small

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According to oral traditions, the Gurunsi people migrated from the western Sudan, passing through the Sahel. Although the exact timing of this migration is uncertain, it is believed that the Gurunsi were settled in their present location in southern Burkina Faso by around 1100 AD.

During the 15th century, following the formation of the Mossi states to the north, Mossi horsemen frequently raided Gurunsi territories in search of slaves. However, they were never able to fully subjugate the Gurunsi, who managed to retain their independence.

Dr. Salif Titamba Lankoandé, in his work Noms de famille (Patronymes) au Burkina Faso, explains that the name "Gurunsi" comes from the Djerma (Zarma) language term "Guru-si," meaning "iron does not penetrate." This phrase became widely associated with the Gurunsi during the Djerma invasions of the late 19th century, when the jihadist leader Babatu recruited local warriors who were believed to be protected by traditional medicines that made them immune to iron weapons. Babatu’s campaigns led to the creation of the Zabarima Emirate in parts of what is now northern Ghana and southern Burkina Faso.

Sources:

Wikipedia (Guinea Pidgin) – Gurunsi People – Pre-colonial history den origins
https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurunsi_people

Dr. Salif Titamba Lankoandé, Noms de famille (Patronymes) au Burkina Faso (Ouagadougou: Editions Sankofa, 1997)

Gurunsi

https://www.101lasttribes.com/tribes/gurunsi.html

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AFRICA | 101 Last Tribes - Gurunsi people

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By the 1890s, Burkina Faso was invaded by France that resulted in the territory becoming part of the French colonial empire. During this time, French administrative policies were created for the sole purpose of benefiting France via resource extraction, which lead to increased poverty and underdevelopment of local areas and population. Other changes to Burkina Faso due to European colonization include the exploitation of natural resources, the introduction of new borders and European languages, a change in the education system, and the manipulation of political and economical systems in the pursuit of benefiting the colonizers.

Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Faso

https://afrodiscovery.com/country/burkina-faso/burkina-faso-history/the-colonial-legacy-understanding-burkina-fasos-past/?utm_source=chatgpt.com

https://www.globalstudies.it/en/the-complex-relationship-between-france-and-burkina-faso-from-the-critical-review-of-colonialism-to-the-unknowns-of-the-present/?utm_source=chatgpt.com

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The Volta-Bani war occurred against the backdrop of World War I in what would later become the High Volta colony. The French faced a numerical disadvantage against Germany. Thus, it was proposed that individuals from the French colonial empire, especially North and Sub-Saharan Africa, could be used as a reservoir for the French army.

The villages in what is today modern Burkina Faso formed coalitions to rebel against the French recruiters, triggering the Volta-Bani war. The rebellion ended in 1919, during which the French conducted a disarmament campaign and tried the rebel leaders.

This event has strong themes of colonialism - The population was exploited and forced into conflicts occurring in Europe. They were treated as sources of manpower for the French. Another theme tied to this event is identity. The formation of a coalition to fight the French recuiters demonstrated the ability of their community to assert their auatomy against colonialsit French control.

Citation:

Vennes, T. (2017, December 5). Africa’s war: Anti-colonial movements and repression in First World War french West Africa. Active History. https://activehistory.ca/blog/2017/12/05/africas-war-anti-colonial-movements-and-repression-in-first-world-war-french-west-africa/

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Dissolution (1932) and Reconstitution of the Upper Volta

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Dissolution (1932) and Reconstitution of the Upper Volta

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In 1932, the colony of the Upper Volta was abolished because it was causing financial/economical issues. The territories that were part of the Upper Volta ended up being divided with the colonies of Cote d' lvoire, Niger, and French Sudan. After the second world war, in September 4 1947, the Upper Volta was reestablished, along with the previous borders being restored. By 1958, the colony was reconstituted to become the Repubic of the Upper Volta and after 2 years achieved independence. And 24 years later, the name changed to what we now know as Burkina Faso.

Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Upper_Volta?utm

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(1983 - 1987): Coupe and Reforms Brought by Thomas Sankara

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(1983 - 1987): Coupe and Reforms Brought by Thomas Sankara

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Thomas Sankara was a military officer and a proponent of Pan-Africanism. He was the president of Upper Volta in 1983, following a military coup. He held the term until 1987, when he was assassinated during another coup.

Sankara was born in 1949 in the Upper Volta. In the 1970s and 1980s, he underwent military training. During this era, he was exposed to Marxist and anti-colonial ideology.

On August 4, 1983, Sankara led a military coup in the capital, Ouagadougou, after which he was installed as president.

During his term, many of these policies had themes surrounding anti-imperialism, national sovereignty, and anti-colonialism.

His platform focused on “democratic and popular revolution”. He proposed policies concerning the eradication of corruption, reducing environmental degradation, empowering women, and increasing availability of health care and education. He implemented programs that increased literacy, reduced infant mortality, and increased female participation in the government (Ray, n.d.). These reforms demonstrate a kind of self-reliance and national empowerment. The country was no longer dependent on external aid or French colonialist administration for improving the quality of life of its citizens.

One year after his coup, Sankara altered the country's name from Upper Volta to Burkina Faso. This specific name translated roughly to Land of the upwright people in Mossi and Dyula, which are the two most spoken languages in the country (Ray, n.d.). One theme surrounding this event would have been national sovereignty and identity. Changing the name of the country is a symbolic gesture of moving away from its French colonist identity. The new country's name symbolizes Burkina Faso's ability to reclaim its culture, language, and independence.

Citation:

Ray, C. (n.d.). Thomas Sankara. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Sankara

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(2022): "Traore officially appointed as president of Burkina Faso after coup"

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(2022): "Traore officially appointed as president of Burkina Faso after coup"

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Captain Ibrahim Traore was appointed as the president of Burkina Faso after leading a second coup in Burkina Faso. He replaced Lieutenant-Colonel Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba, who seized power in January 2022. He fled to Togo after a two-day standoff. The coup was triggered by a seven-year-old jihadist campaign in Burkina Faso, which has claimed thousands of lives, forced 2 million people to flee their homes, and has left a third of the country outside government control. The Economic Community of West African States held meetings with religious leaders, traditional leaders, and Traore.

Anti-French protests erupted. Demonstrators waved Russian flags and shouted slogans including "France get out", "No to ECOWAS interference", and "Long live Russia-Burkina cooperation". There is speculation that Traoré may align himself with Russia at the expense of France (France 24, 2022).

One theme that surrounds this event is colonization. An element that played a role in triggering this event was the speculation that Damiba was supported by France, Burkina Faso's former coloniser. It was believed that he had taken refuge in Kamboinsin, a French base, during the coup (Al Jazeera, 2022). These articles demonstrate that Burkina Faso maintains ties to France, even after achieving independence. France continues to exert significant military and political influence on the country. There is also a shift in alliances within the country to distance themselves away from France. The country hoped to establish connections with Russia. All of these events together can be interpreted as a postcolonial desire for sovereignty.

References:

Al Jazeera. (2022a, October 2). Burkina coup-makers accuse France of supporting counterattack. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/10/1/burkina-putschists-accuse-france-of-supporting-counterattack

France 24. (2022b, October 6). Traore officially appointed as president of Burkina Faso after Coup. https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20221006-traore-officially-appointed-as-president-of-burkina-faso-after-coup