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Unit 4: What Are Perceptual Development Skills in Infants and Toddlers?

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Unit 4: What Are Perceptual Development Skills in Infants and Toddlers?

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This article briefly takes into account the perceptual development in infants and toddlers refers to how they use their senses in order to understand the world around them: sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell.

Further it explains how sensory experiences play a crucial role in helping children learn about objects, their environment, and how to interact with people. For instance, babies begin by focusing on faces, tracking objects, and differentiating sounds. As they grow, they also develop preferences and reactions to different textures, tastes, and smells. Engaging children in various sensory activities, such as tummy time, water play, and nature exploration, helps stimulate their brain and supports their cognitive, emotional, and social development. The process also involves reintroducing experiences to help children adapt to new sensory stimuli.

Type of licence of the resource: Article from Continued.

Jean Barbre, EdD. (2022, 21. January). What Are Perceptual Development Skills in Infants and Toddlers?. Continued Early Childhood Education. https://continued.com/early-childhood-education/ask-the-experts/what-perceptual-development-skills-in-23770

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What Are Perceptual Development Skills in Infants and Toddlers?

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description of perceptual development skills in infants and toddlers

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Three Major Perspectives in Sociology Symbolic Interactionist Functionalist and Conflict Perspective

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Reproductive System, Part 4 - Pregnancy & Development: Crash Course Anatomy & Physiology #43

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Sensory Play - how children learn through their senses

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Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development in Social Relationships

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Growth & Developmental Milestones | Pediatric Nursing Stages of Development

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Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

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This article explains development in children through several theories. Key characters related to the theories explained in the article are: Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Bowlby, Bandura, Vygotskji, Watson and Skinner.

Type of license of the resource: Article from Verywell Mind.

MSEd, K. C. (2023, 13. March). 7 main developmental theories. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/child-development-theories-2795068

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Child development theories focus on explaining how children change and grow over the course of childhood. These developmental theories center on various aspects of growth, including social, emotional, and cognitive development.

The study of human development is a rich and varied subject. We all have personal experience with development, but it is sometimes difficult to understand how and why people grow, learn, and act as they do.

Why do children behave in certain ways? Is their behavior related to their age, family relationships, or individual temperaments? Developmental psychologists strive to answer such questions as well as to understand, explain, and predict behaviors that occur throughout the lifespan.

In order to understand human development, a number of different theories of child development have arisen to explain various aspects of human growth.

History of Developmental Theories

Child development that occurs from birth to adulthood was largely ignored throughout much of human history. Children were often viewed simply as small versions of adults and little attention was paid to the many advances in cognitive abilities, language usage, and physical growth that occur during childhood and adolescence.

Interest in the field of child development finally began to emerge early in the 20th century, but it tended to focus on abnormal behavior. Eventually, researchers became increasingly interested in other topics including typical child development as well as the influences on development.

More recent theories outline the developmental stages of children and identify the typical ages at which these growth milestones occur.

Why Developmental Theories are Important

Developmental theories provide a framework for thinking about human growth and learning. But why do we study development? What can we learn from psychological theories of development? If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society.

An understanding of child development is essential because it allows us to fully appreciate the cognitive, emotional, physical, social, and educational growth that children go through from birth and into early adulthood.

Why is it important to study how children grow, learn, and change? An understanding of child development is essential because it allows us to fully appreciate the cognitive, emotional, physical, social, and educational growth that children go through from birth and into early adulthood.

7 Best-Known Developmental Theories

There are many child development theories that have been proposed by theorists and researchers. Some of the major theories of child development are known as grand theories; they attempt to describe every aspect of development, often using a stage approach. Others are known as mini-theories; they instead focus only on a fairly limited aspect of development such as cognitive or social growth.

Freud's Psychosexual Developmental Theory

Psychoanalytic theory originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. Through his clinical work with patients suffering from mental illness, Freud came to believe that childhood experiences and unconscious desires influenced behavior.

According to Freud, conflicts that occur during each of these stages can have a lifelong influence on personality and behavior. Freud proposed one of the best-known grand theories of child development.

According to Freud's psychosexual theory, child development occurs in a series of stages focused on different pleasure areas of the body. During each stage, the child encounters conflicts that play a significant role in the course of development.

His theory suggested that the energy of the libido was focused on different erogenous zones at specific stages. Failure to progress through a stage can result in fixation at that point in development, which Freud believed could have an influence on adult behavior.

So what happens as children complete each stage? And what might result if a child does poorly during a particular point in development? Successfully completing each stage leads to the development of a healthy adult personality.

Failing to resolve the conflicts of a particular stage can result in fixations that can then have an influence on adult behavior.

While some other child development theories suggest that personality continues to change and grow over the entire lifetime, Freud believed that it was early experiences that played the greatest role in shaping development. According to Freud, personality is largely set in stone by the age of five.

Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Theory

Psychoanalytic theory was an enormously influential force during the first half of the twentieth century. Those inspired and influenced by Freud went on to expand upon Freud's ideas and develop theories of their own. Of these neo-Freudians, Erik Erikson's ideas have become perhaps the best known.

Erikson's eight-stage theory of psychosocial development describes growth and change throughout life, focusing on social interaction and conflicts that arise during different stages of development.

While Erikson's theory of psychosocial development shared some similarities with Freud's, it is dramatically different in many ways. Rather than focusing on sexual interest as a driving force in development, Erikson believed that social interaction and experience played decisive roles.

His eight-stage theory of human development described this process from infancy through death. During each stage, people are faced with a developmental conflict that impacts later functioning and further growth.

Unlike many other developmental theories, Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory focuses on development across the entire lifespan. At each stage, children and adults face a developmental crisis that serves as a major turning point.

Successfully managing the challenges of each stage leads to the emergence of a lifelong psychological virtue.

Behavioral Child Development Theories

During the first half of the twentieth century, a new school of thought known as behaviorism rose to become a dominant force within psychology. Behaviorists believed that psychology needed to focus only on observable and quantifiable behaviors in order to become a more scientific discipline.

According to the behavioral perspective, all human behavior can be described in terms of environmental influences. Some behaviorists, such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, insisted that learning occurs purely through processes of association and reinforcement.

Behavioral theories of child development focus on how environmental interaction influences behavior and is based on the theories of theorists such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner. These theories deal only with observable behaviors. Development is considered a reaction to rewards, punishments, stimuli, and reinforcement.

This theory differs considerably from other child development theories because it gives no consideration to internal thoughts or feelings. Instead, it focuses purely on how experience shapes who we are.

Two important types of learning that emerged from this approach to development are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves learning by pairing a naturally occurring stimulus with a previously neutral stimulus. Operant conditioning utilizes reinforcement and punishment to modify behaviors.

Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory

Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought processes. It also looks at how these thought processes influence how we understand and interact with the world.

Theorist Jean Piaget proposed one of the most influential theories of cognitive development.

Piaget proposed an idea that seems obvious now, but helped revolutionize how we think about child development: Children think differently than adults.﻿﻿

His cognitive theory seeks to describe and explain the development of thought processes and mental states. It also looks at how these thought processes influence the way we understand and interact with the world.

Piaget then proposed a theory of cognitive development to account for the steps and sequence of children's intellectual development.

Sensorimotor Stage: A period of time between birth and age two during which an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.

Pre-Operational Stage: A period between ages 2 and 6 during which a child learns to use language. During this stage, children do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people.

Concrete Operational Stage: A period between ages 7 and 11 during which children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.

Formal Operational Stage: A period between age 12 to adulthood when people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage.

Bowlby's Attachment Theory

There is a great deal of research on the social development of children. John Bowbly proposed one of the earliest theories of social development. Bowlby believed that early relationships with caregivers play a major role in child development and continue to influence social relationships throughout life.

Bowlby's attachment theory suggested that children are born with an innate need to form attachments. Such attachments aid in survival by ensuring that the child receives care and protection. Not only that but these attachments are characterized by clear behavioral and motivational patterns.

In other words, both children and caregivers engage in behaviors designed to ensure proximity. Children strive to stay close and connected to their caregivers who in turn provide a safe haven and a secure base for exploration.

Researchers have also expanded upon Bowlby's original work and have suggested that a number of different attachment styles exist. Children who receive consistent support and care are more likely to develop a secure attachment style, while those who receive less reliable care may develop an ambivalent, avoidant, or disorganized style.

Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory is based on the work of psychologist Albert Bandura. Bandura believed that the conditioning and reinforcement process could not sufficiently explain all of human learning.

For example, how can the conditioning process account for learned behaviors that have not been reinforced through classical conditioning or operant conditioning According to social learning theory, behaviors can also be learned through observation and modeling.

By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children develop new skills and acquire new information.

Bandura's child development theory suggests that observation plays a critical role in learning, but this observation does not necessarily need to take the form of watching a live model.﻿﻿

Instead, people can also learn by listening to verbal instructions about how to perform a behavior as well as through observing either real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books or films.

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

Another psychologist named Lev Vygotsky proposed a seminal learning theory that has gone on to become very influential, especially in the field of education. Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children learn actively and through hands-on experiences.

His sociocultural theory also suggested that parents, caregivers, peers, and the culture at large were responsible for developing higher-order functions. In Vygotsky's view, learning is an inherently social process. Through interacting with others, learning becomes integrated into an individual's understanding of the world.

This child development theory also introduced the concept of the zone of proximal development, which is the gap between what a person can do with help and what they can do on their own. It is with the help of more knowledgeable others that people are able to progressively learn and increase their skills and scope of understanding.

A Word From Verywell

As you can see, some of psychology's best-known thinkers have developed theories to help explore and explain different aspects of child development. While not all of these theories are fully accepted today, they all had an important influence on our understanding of child development.

Today, contemporary psychologists often draw on a variety of theories and perspectives in order to understand how kids grow, behave, and think. These theories represent just a few of the different ways of thinking about child development.

In reality, fully understanding how children change and grow over the course of childhood requires looking at many different factors that influence physical and psychological growth. Genes, the environment, and the interactions between these two forces determine how kids grow physically as well as mentally.

Additional Reading

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Influential Theories About How Children Grow and Develop

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There are many development theories. Learn some of the best-known child development theories as offered by Freud, Erickson, Piaget, and other famous psychologists.

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The benefits of a bilingual brain - Mia Nacamulli

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Unit 3: Prenatal Development: What Babies Learn in the Womb

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Unit 3: Prenatal Development: What Babies Learn in the Womb

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The reference is a video explaining how humans develop from prenatal processes to birth. Its structure clearly explains how this development occurs through informative processes of stages and illustrative images.

Type of license of the resource: YouTube video from Sprouts.

Sprouts. (2018, 28. November). Prenatal Development: What Babies Learn in the Womb [Vídeo]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UA-Tk9qlG9A

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Prenatal Development: What Babies Learn in the Womb

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Unit 1: Developmental Stages of Social Emotional Development in Children

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Unit 1: Developmental Stages of Social Emotional Development in Children

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This resource dedicates information about developmental stages of social emotional development related to Unit 1.

The content focuses on the importance of understanding socio-emotional development through two different key areas: milestone competencies and ego-biological model. Further it discuss the significant of temperament and attachment in early socio-emotional development. Additionally, it outlines stages of socio-emotional development from infancy to early childhood, emphasising the role of caregivers, and how it influence behaviour and emotional regulation.

Type of license: article from National Library of Medicine.

Malik, F., & Marwaha, R. (2022, 18. September). Developmental Stages of Social Emotional Development in Children. StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534819/

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Continuing Education Activity

To apply knowledge regarding human growth and development, healthcare professionals need to be aware of 2 areas: (1) milestone competencies, for example, growth in the motor, cognitive, speech-language, and social-emotional domains, and (2) the eco-biological model of development, specifically, the interaction of environment and biology and their influence on development. This activity reviews the developmental stages of social-emotional development and discusses the role of the interprofessional team in educating parents on when they should expect children to achieve each milestone.

Objectives:

Describe milestone competencies in children.

Summarize the eco-biologic model of development in children.

Review social-emotional development in children.

Outline the developmental stages of social-emotional development and cover the role of the interprofessional team in educating parents on when they should expect children to achieve each milestone.

Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.
Introduction

To understand human growth and development, healthcare professionals need to understand and learn about 2 areas: (1) knowledge of milestone competencies, for example, growth in the motor, cognitive, speech-language, and social-emotional domains, and (2) the eco-biological model of development, specifically, the interaction of environment and biology and their influence on development.[1][2] This article reviews the developmental stages of social-emotional development and also discusses the role of the interprofessional team in identifying the cause of social-emotional problems and therefore, intervening effectively.

Social-emotional development covers 2 important concepts of development including the development of self or temperament and relationship to others or attachment. Clinicians will be able to identify and intervene to resolve social-emotional problems in early childhood if they have a better understanding of these concepts

Temperament

Temperament is an innate attribute that defines the child's approach to the world and his interaction with the environment across 9 dimensions which are activity level, distractibility, the intensity of emotions, regularity, sensory threshold, and the tendency to approach versus withdrawing, adaptability, persistence, and mood quality. We can define temperament as the child's "style" or "personality," and it is intrinsic to a child. It influences child behavior and interaction with others. Based on the above attributes that define temperament, researchers have categorized young children's temperament into 3 broad temperamental categories:

1. Easy or flexible: This category includes children who are friendly and easygoing, comply with routines such as sleep and mealtimes, adapt to changes, and have a calm disposition.

2. Active or feisty: Children who are fussy, do not follow routines and have irregular feeding and sleeping schedules, are apprehensive of a new environment and new people, have intense reactions, and get easily upset.

3. Slow to warm up or cautious: Children who may be less engaged or active, have a shy disposition to a new situation and new people, may withdraw or have a negative reaction. They become more comfortable and warm up with repeated exposure to a new environment or person.

This classification is for ease of discussion, and all temperaments will not fit into one or other categories exactly. Discussion about temperament with parents and caregivers can better identify the child's strengths and needs. Based on this, caregivers can adapt their management and caregiving styles to match the child's temperament. This can mold a child's behavior and facilitate the child's successful interaction with the environment, defined as "goodness of fit."[3]

Attachment

The social-emotional development begins with parental bonding with the child. This bonding allows the mother to respond to the child's needs timely and soothe their newborn. The consistent availability of the caregiver results in the development of "basic trust" and confidence in the infant for the caregiver during the first year of life. Basic trust is the first psychosocial stage described by Erickson. This allows the infant to seek for parents or the caregiver during times of stress, known as attachment.[4]

Even before acquiring language, babies learn to communicate through emotions. One may argue that learning emotional regulation and impulse control may determine later success in life more than IQ. There is a rapid growth in social and emotional areas of the brain during the first 18 months of life. The nonverbal parts of the right brain, including the amygdala and the limbic system, receives, processes and interprets stimulus from the environment that produce an emotional response and build emotional and stress regulatory systems of the body. The lower limbic system, outside the cortex, dictates most of our spontaneous, instinctive emotional responses, like fear resulting in a racing heart or weak knees. The upper limbic system part of the cerebral cortex, known as the limbic cortex, controls conscious awareness of emotions and refines the responses according to the environmental culture of the individual. The amygdala is an almond-shaped structure that lies at the junction of the cortex and subcortical areas of the brain and plays a pivotal role in sensing emotions and connects them both to higher and lower limbic structures. During the second half of infancy, emotional information from the lower limbic system moves up and becomes part of the babies' consciousness. Frontal lobe activity increases and myelination of the limbic pathways also begin during this time. With this gain in the limbic system, a caregiver's soothing and consistent response to the child's emotions develops into the child's attachment to the caregiver, usually the mother. Attachment is regarded as a pivotal event in a person's emotional development. It lays the foundation of a child's security, harbors self-esteem, and builds emotional regulation and self-control skills.

Function

In healthy children, social-emotional stages develop on an expected trajectory, and monitoring these milestones is an imperative part of preventative health supervision visits. The caregiver's sensitive and available supportive role is imperative to establish attachment and the skill set that follows.

Three distinct emotions are present from birth; anger, joy, and fear, revealed by universal facial expressions. Cognitive input is not required for emotional response at this stage. During the brief periods of alertness in the newborn period, the newborn may return a mother's gaze. Soon the infant explores her face. The first measurable social milestone is around one to two months of age, and it is the infant's social smile in response to parental high-pitched vocalizations or smiles. She recognizes the caregiver's smell and voice and responds to gentle touch. Infants can use a distinct facial expression to express emotions in an appropriate context after 2 months of age. In the first 2 to 3 months infant learns to regulate physiologically and needs smooth routines. She progressively learns to calm herself, gives a responsive smile, and responds to gentle calming.

Sensitive cooperative interaction with the caregiver helps the infant to learn how to manage tension. Around 4 months of age turn-taking conversation (vocalizations) begin. The infant learns to manipulate his environment. They let their caregiver know whether taking away his toy upsets them or if they are happy when held. A sensitive but firm response from the caregiver helps infants manage emotional stress. She can recognize the primary caregiver by sight at around 5 months of age. In between 6 to 12 months effective attachment relationships establish with a responsive caregiver. Stranger anxiety emerges as an infant distinguishes between the familiar and unfamiliar. The infant becomes mutually engaged in her interactions with the caregiver. The infant seeks a caregiver for comfort, help, and play. He shows distress upon separation.

Around 8 months of age, joint attention skills develop. An infant will look in the same direction as the caregiver and follow his gaze. Eventually, they will look back at the caregiver to show that they share the experience.

Between 12 to 18 months, the infant learns to explore his environment with support from a caregiver. By 12 months of age, proto-imperative pointing emerges, in other words, the infant requests by pointing at the object of interest and integrates it with eye contact between the object and the caregiver. Proto-declarative pointing follows at 16 months of age when the child points with eye gaze coordination to show interest. Around 18 months of age, the child brings the object to show or give it to the caregiver.

Around 12 months of age, the child takes part in interactive play like peek-a-boo and pat-a-cake. They use gestures to wave bye-bye and communicate his interests and needs. At around 15 months of age empathy and self-conscious emotions emerge. A child will react by looking upset when he sees someone cry or feel pride when applauded for doing a task. The child imitates his environment, helps with simple household tasks, and explores the environment more independently.

Between 18 and 30 months, individuation (autonomy) emerges. The confidence in the child-parent relationship and continued firm parenting helps the child face environmental challenges on his own more persistently and enthusiastically. The child's temperament manifests itself more, and they are aggressive and reserved or friendly and cooperating. Around 18 to 24 months they learn to pretend-play such as talking on a toy phone or feeding a doll and playing next to or in parallel with another child. He may imitate other child's play and look at him but he cannot play in a cooperative, imaginative way with another child yet. During preschool years he learns to manipulate his subjective emotions into a more socially accepted gesture. He uses a "poker face", and exaggerates or minimizes emotions for social etiquette. For example, he will say thank you for a present he didn't like. The child refers to himself as "I" or "me" and possessiveness "mine" and negativism "no" emerge.

Between 30 and 54 months, impulse control, gender roles, and peer relationship issues emerge. A caregiver plays a major role in helping preschoolers define values and learn flexible self-control. Testing limits on what behaviors are acceptable and how much autonomy they can exert is an expected phenomenon. Thoughtful parenting with a balance between setting limits and giving choices will successfully establish a child's sense of initiative and decrease anxiety from guilt or loss of control. At 30 months pretend play skills emerge and the child shows evidence of symbolic play, using an object as something different like pretending a block to be a telephone or a bottle to feed a doll. The play scenarios become more complex with themes and storylines. By 3 years of age, the child engages more in interactive play, masters his aggression and learns cooperation and sharing skills. They can play with 1 or 2 peers, with turn-taking play and joint goals. Imaginative and fantasy play begin like pretending to be a cat and role-play skills develop. The child, however, cannot yet distinguish between reality and imagination and it is common to be afraid of imaginary things. They master this skill to differentiate between real and imaginary around 4 years of age. They enjoy playing tricks on others and are worried about being tricked themselves. Imaginary scenarios and play skills are developing and becoming more complex. They can play with 3 to 4 peers, with more complex themes and pretend skills.

At 5 and 6 years of age, the child can follow simple rules and directions. They learn adult social skills like giving praise and apologizing for unintentional mistakes. They like to spend more time in peer groups and relate to a group of friends. Imaginative play gets more complex, and he likes to play dress, and act out his fantasies.

At 7 and 8 years of age, the child fully understands rules and regulations. They show a deeper understanding of relationships and responsibilities and can take charge of simple chores. Moral development furthers, and he learns more complex coping skills. At this age, a child explores new ideas and activities and peers may test his beliefs. Children identify more with other children of similar gender and find a best friend in common.

At 9 and 10 years of age, peer and friend groups take precedence over family. Children at this age will show increasing independent decision-making and a growing need for independence from family. Parents can use responsibilities and chores to earn time with friends. A positive nurturing relationship with a caregiver with praise and affection and setting up a reasonable balance between independence and house rules builds self-confidence and self-assurance. Promoting supportive adult relationships and increasing opportunities to take part in positive community activities increases resilience.

Greater independence and commitment to peer groups drive the transition to adolescence. This will include indulging in risky behavior to explore uncertain emotions and impress peer groups. Social interactions include complex relationships, disagreements, breakups, new friendships, and long-lasting relations. Normally the adolescent will learn to cope with these stresses with healthy adult relationships and guidance to make independent decisions. As young adulthood approaches, school success and work-related activities become important. For a healthy transition to adulthood positive and supportive adult guidance and opportunities to take part constructively in the community play a pivotal role.

Issues of Concern

The inability to reach age-appropriate milestones can be a manifestation of psychosocial disturbance and needs further exploration. Examples of early childhood social-emotional disturbance include autism, reactive attachment disorder, social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, attention-deficit hyperactive disorder, bullying, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder, among others.

Clinical Significance

A failure to follow the expected trajectory of social-emotional development can lead to undetected mental and emotional health problems. Adverse childhood experiences can alter development significantly. Thus, alongside screening for child development, actively screening for family dysfunction and supporting families in establishing a healthy nurturing environment is vital. By having a thorough knowledge of developmental pathways and adverse childhood experiences, and having a close follow-up established with families in the medical home, pediatricians and medical professionals are in a prime position to identify risk factors and developmental delays timely.

Medical professionals taking care of children should begin with identifying and addressing the family's concerns, asking open-ended questions regarding social-emotional milestones, and intentionally observing parent-child interaction and child's interaction with the environment including themselves. While examining the patient, they should observe age-appropriate developmental interaction. They should give teenagers the opportunity to engage in health visits in a private and safe environment without a caregiver. Also, should be able to address questions about parenting advice. These include advice on temper tantrums and defiant behaviors, child care and preschool guidance, referring to parent training management when appropriate, and counseling on temperament differences and "goodness of fit" models.

The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and Bright Futures Guidelines for Health Supervision of Infants, Children, and Adolescents emphasize active screening for developmental delays and environmental risk factors on top of clinical surveillance. This includes the use of standardized screening tools for social-emotional development and for environmental risks appropriate to the risk level of the population you serve. Environmental risk factors should include caregiver/family functioning, caregiver mental health, socio-economic stress, refugee/immigrant status, safety concerns, caregiver drug addiction, etc. AAP recommends screening for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) at both the 18- and 24-month health supervision visits, and whenever concerns are raised. When using screening tests, one should be cognizant of some potential limitations including the inability to administer and score the screening tool correctly, using it as a diagnostic tool, failure to incorporate other available clinical data, and using a linguistic or culturally inappropriate tool.[5]

If screening identifies any risk factor or delays, it should always follow with further assessment and evidence-based interventions. Screening for maternal depression especially during the first year of childbirth is important. Identifying and intervening for maternal depression early on can avoid attachment and social-emotional problems in the child later. With clear delays in social and language development, it is important to initiate services even before a confirmed diagnosis as early intervention is the key. If the child is younger than 3 years should be referred to local Early Intervention EI services. A child 3 years of age or older should be referred to their school district. Anticipatory guidelines should include evidence-based strategies for age-appropriate behavioral interventions such as the management of temper tantrums for toddlers. Implementing the use of developmental screening tools in clinical practice has shown an encouraging trend though still, a wide gap in practice remains.[6] Practices that have successfully established screening are struggling with coordinating referrals and monitoring progress.[7] We need further research to identify barriers to the use of standardized tools and the coordination of services and interventions.

Standardized Screening Instruments

Caregiver Functioning

1. Adverse Childhood Experience Score

2. Parenting Stress Index-Short Form

3. Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale

4. Patient Health Questionnaire-2

5. Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Screening

6. Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale

Temperament

Carey Temperament Scales

Infancy to Early Childhood

1. Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social-Emotional

2. Survey of Well Being of Young Children

3. Communication and Symbolic-Behavior Scale

4. Developmental Profile, Infant Toddler Checklist

5. Brief Infant-Social Emotional Assessment

Early Childhood to Adolescence

Multidimensional

1. Infant-Toddler Social Emotional Assessment

2. NCAST Parent-Child Interaction Feeding and Teaching Scale

3. Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment

4. Behavior Assessment Scale for Children Second Edition

5. Connors Comprehensive Behavior Rating Scales

6. Child Symptom Inventories-4

7. Vanderbilt Parent and Teacher Assessment Scales

Single Dimension Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Single Dimension Anxiety/Depression

Beck Youth Inventories

(Adapted from Duby JC, Social and Emotional Development. In: Voigt RG, Macias MM, Myers SM, eds. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2011:241-248)

Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

Optimal child growth and development need orchestrating enhanced communication between the pediatrician/primary care provider and various medical specialties including but not limited to the mother's obstetrician, nursery/NICU teams, nursing staff, psychology, psychiatry, child life, and social work. Twenty percent to 25% of children seen in primary care clinics experience social-emotional problems that are clinically significant. Access to mental health services and parenting classes and education is limited due to stigmatization, cost, and availability. In 2004, the American Academy of Pediatrics organized a Task Force on Mental Health to enhance identification and intervention for social-emotional problems in primary care pediatric practice. One of the key findings in its report was having integrated models of care with collaboration with psychologists, social workers, psychiatrists, and others in the community to formulate a comprehensive care plan. With help from other professionals, primary care practice should be able to put together a list of clinical and family concerns, coach the family on self-management techniques, and create a resource list including professionals involved in care, community partners available to the family and child, and treatment goals and strategies.[8] Building a comprehensive system of care with a focus on prevention and early intervention can address the unmet needs of social-emotional development and behavioral problems in children. To achieve such a system, it is imperative to establish training models with an integrated system of care. Such a model will encourage and train professionals to collaborate mutually to prevent, identify, consult, educate and plan treatment for patients.[9]

References

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Developmental Stages of Social Emotional Development In Children

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To understand human growth and development, healthcare professionals need to understand and learn about 2 areas: (1) knowledge of milestone competencies, for example, growth in the motor, cognitive, speech-language, and social-emotional domains, and (2) the eco-biological model of development, specifically, the interaction of environment and biology and their influence on development.[1][2] This article reviews the developmental stages of social-emotional development and also discusses the role of the interprofessional team in identifying the cause of social-emotional problems and therefore, intervening effectively.

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Unit 5: Fine Motor Development From Birth to 5

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Unit 5: Fine Motor Development From Birth to 5

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This reference refers to motor development in children from birth to five years. It gives an informative explanation through developmental stages in children, and shows as well the importance of environmental factors children are attached to, and how their motivation plays a crucial role in development of motor skills.

Type of license of the resource: Youtube video from HSC Winnipeg.

HSC Winnipeg. (2017, 20. November). Fine Motor Development From Birth to 5 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LiTuGv_GeaE

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Lesson 8

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The Attachment Theory: How Childhood Affects Life

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https://youtu.be/bounwXLkme4?si=JYAvh_T2ozntKUH_

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Kohlberg’s 6 Stages of Moral Development

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Resource Name: Environmental Factors Implicated in Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes

Explanation: This article describes environmental factors during pregnancy and their negative influence, e.g. reasons for miscarriage or congenital anomalies. Besides that, it offers insights into preventive measures.

APA: Triche, E. W., & Hossain, N. (2007). Environmental Factors Implicated in the Causation of Adverse Pregnancy Outcome. Seminars in Perinatology, 31(4), 240–242. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.semperi.2007.07.013

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2795358/

Type of License: Public (National Library of Medicine, PubMed Central)

Marla Spannring

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Environmental factors implicated in the causation of adverse pregnancy outcome

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Adverse pregnancy outcome from environmental factors may include congenital anomalies, increased risk for miscarriage, preterm delivery, intrauterine growth restriction and still birth. Apart from adverse pregnancy outcome, there may be effects on…

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Resource Name: Parenting Style and Language Development

Explanation: This study connects parenting styles to children’s language development and how their behavior influences early communication skills.

APA: Sadiq, S., Farooq, N., Mansoor, R., Shoukat, S., & Saqulain, G. (2024). Association between Parenting Style and Language Development in Children: Parenting Style and Language Development. Pakistan Journal of Health Sciences, 23–28.

https://doi.org/10.54393/pjhs.v5i03.1319

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/379503322_Association_between_Parenting_Style_and_Language_Development_in_Children_Parenting_Style_and_Language_Development

Type of License: Public (Creative Commons Attribution License), https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Marla Spannring

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Resource Name: Children’s Early Helping in Action

Explanation: The article connects Piaget’s developmental theories to the moral development of children and describes how, when and why children mostly show prosocial behaviour.

APA: Hammond, S. I. (2014). Children’s early helping in action: Piagetian developmental theory and early prosocial behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 5(759).

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00759

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4102168/

Type of License: Open Access (Creative Commons Attribution License), Copyright © 2014 Hammond

Marla Spannring

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Children’s early helping in action: Piagetian developmental theory and early prosocial behavior

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After a brief overview of recent research on early helping, outlining some central problems, and issues, this paper examines children’s early helping through the lens of Piagetian moral and developmental theory, drawing on Piaget’s “Moral Judgment…

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EBSCO Sign In, look for Universidad Europea Valencia and then you need your European University password and account name to login

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Resource Name: Creating the Correctional Environment for Personality Development of Children with Autistic Disorders

Explanation: This article provided a good overview of how personality development of children with autism differs from children without this condition and how the environment influences their development.

APA: Bazyma, N., Mamicheva, O., Korhun, L., Krykunenko, Y., Rozina, I., & Dehtiarenko, T. (2022). Creating the Correctional Environment for Personality Development of Children with Autistic Disorders. BRAIN. Broad Research in Artificial Intelligence and Neuroscience, 13(1), 259–275.

https://doi.org/10.18662/brain/13.1/283

https://eds.p.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=1&sid=7f48baf5-ec57-4b58-8da3-

60e48a927c28%40redis&bdata=Jmxhbmc9ZXMmc2l0ZT1lZHMtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=156572996&db=asn

Type of License: Open Access (Creative Commons Attribution License) and restricted access (Universidad Europea library.)

Marla Spannring

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Search by name, city, or institutional email

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Resource Name: Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

Explanation: This article explores Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and describes each stage with examples. In the end there is a short quiz to check your knowledge.

APA: Cherry, K. (2023, March 13). Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development. Verywell Mind; Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962

Type of License: Open Access, copyright by organization Very Well Mind.

Marla Spannring

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According to the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, children go through a series of psychosexual stages that lead to the development of the adult personality. Freud's stages of human development, which consisted of five psychosexual stages of development, described how personality developed over the course of childhood.

While Freud's theory of personality development is well-known in psychology, it has always been quite controversial, both during Freud's time and in modern psychology.

One important thing to note is that contemporary psychoanalytic theories of personality development have incorporated and emphasized ideas about internalized relationships and interactions and the complex ways in which we maintain our sense of self into the models that began with Freud.

Overview of Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An erogenous zone is characterized as an area of the body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation.

During the five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages, the erogenous zone associated with each stage serves as a source of pleasure.

Psychosexual energy, or the libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior.

Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life.

Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or stifle development, depending upon how they are resolved. If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, a healthy personality is the result.

If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A person who is fixated at the oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.

The Oral Stage

Age Range: Birth to 1 Year

Erogenous Zone: Mouth

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.

Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

The Anal Stage

Age Range: 1 to 3 years

Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training-the child has to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents ​approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive.

Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet training stage serve as the basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.

However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents.

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality.

If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

The Phallic Stage

Age Range: 3 to 6 Years

Erogenous Zone: Genitals

Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.​

Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother's affection. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.

The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.

Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage.

Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she referred to as womb envy.

The Latent Period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty

Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed. Children develop social skills, values, and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family.

The development of the ego and superego contributes to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time that children enter school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is repressed or dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.

As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for children to become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death

Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.

Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.

If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring.

Unlike many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants.

Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.

Evaluating Freud's Stages of Human Development

Freud's theory is still considered controversial today, but imagine how audacious it seemed during the late 1800s and early 1900s. There have been a number of observations and criticisms of Freud's psychosexual theory on a number of grounds, including scientific and feminist critiques.

Criticisms of the Psychosexual Stages of Development

The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little mention of female psychosexual development.

His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as the libido are impossible to measure, and therefore cannot be tested. The research that has been conducted tends to discredit Freud's theory.

Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a current behavior was caused specifically by a childhood experience? The length of time between the cause and the effect is too long to assume that there is a relationship between the two variables.

Freud's theory is based on case studies and not empirical research. Also, Freud based his theory on the recollections of his adult patients, not on actual observation and study of children.

Ignores Homosexuality

Another criticism of the psychosexual stages is that the theory focuses primarily on heterosexual development, and largely ignores homosexual development.

So how exactly did Freud explain the development of sexual preferences?

Freud's theory suggested that heterosexual preferences represent the "normal" outcome of development and suggested that homosexual preferences represented a deviation from this process. Freud's own viewpoints on homosexuality varied, at times expressing biological explanations and at other times social or psychological explanations for sexual preferences.

Unlike many thinkers of his time, Freud was unconvinced that homosexuality represented a pathology. He also believed that attempts to alter a person's sexuality were usually futile and often harmful.

In a famous 1935 letter to a mother who had written him to ask that he treat her homosexual son, Freud wrote that while he believed homosexuality was not advantageous, it was certainly not a vice or something to be ashamed of. Freud wrote, "...it cannot be classified as an illness; we consider it to be a variation of the sexual function, produced by a certain arrest of sexual development."

While Freud's theory implied that homosexuality was a deviation from normal psychosexual development, many contemporary psychologists believe that sexual orientation is largely influenced by biological factors.

A Word From Verywell

While few people are strong proponents of Freud's theory of psychosexual development today, his work made important contributions to our understanding of human development. Perhaps his most important and enduring contribution was the idea that unconscious influences could have a powerful impact on human behavior.

Freud's theory also stressed the importance of early experiences in development. While experts continue to debate the relative contributions of early versus later experiences, developmental experts recognize that the events of early life play a critical role in the developmental process and can have lasting effects throughout life.

Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read our editorial process to learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

De kuyper E. The Freudian construction of sexuality: the gay foundations of heterosexuality and straight homophobia. J Homosex. 1993;24(3-4):137-44. doi: 10.1300/J082v24n03_10

Additional Reading

Carducci, BJ. The Psychology of Personality: Viewpoints, Research, and Applications. UK: John Wiley & Sons; 2009.

Freud, S. Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex (Annotated). Arcadia Ebook; 2016.

Shaffer, DR & Kipp, K. Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescense. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning; 2010.

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What Are Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development?

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Freud's stages of human development, referred to as the psychosexual stages of development, describe how the libido develops through childhood, guiding behavior.

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This article highlights motor milestones as key developmental benchmarks that are shaped and influenced by genetics, environment, and cultures.

Type of license of the resource: Article from Parenting science(© 2019 – 2023 Gwen Dewar, Ph.D., all rights reserved)

Dewar, G. (2024, March 25). Motor milestones: How do children develop during the early years? PARENTING SCIENCE. https://parentingscience.com/motor-milestones/

Henry Robin

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Motor milestones mark exciting transitions in our children's lives - those time points when a child demonstrates the ability to carry out certain movements with their muscles. But there is no single, universal, milestone timeline that all children follow. For example, studies indicate that at least 50% of infants can

roll over (from back to belly, or belly to back) by 4-5 months

sit up, unsupported, by 6 months,

crawl on hands and knees by 8 and a half months,

stand, unassisted, by 11 months, and

walk, unassisted, by 12 months.

Yet the timing and expression of motor development varies substantially from baby to baby - and from one culture to the next. There are babies who have learned to roll over when they are only 2 months old, and babies who stand (unassisted) when they are less than 8 months old. There are societies where infants never learn to crawl, and societies where children don't normally begin walking until well past 18 months (Nelson et al 2004; Rachwani et al 2020; Kaplan and Dove 1987).

What's going on here? We can definitely rule out the idea that all healthy babies develop at the same rate. Clearly, that isn't happening. We can also reject the notion that individual children are biologically programmed to hit their motor milestones at specific, predetermined ages.

As we'll see below, there is strong evidence showing that motor development is influenced by parenting practices and other environmental factors: Children develop skills faster when they get lots of opportunities to practice.

So what does this mean if we want to know what to expect, and find out if our own children are on track?

Basically, it means that we need to think about motor milestones as likely to occur within certain time windows - sometimes relatively broad time windows. Individuals develop at their own pace, depending on their personal characteristics and experiences.

In this article, we will go over the development time windows during which most children achieve major motor milestones - both gross motor milestones, and fine motor milestones. Then we'll talk about when to be concerned about the possibility of a motor delay. I'll include an age-by-age timeline of when to talk to your pediatrician if your baby seems to be lagging, based on the latest, expert recommendations. Finally, we'll talk about the reasons that individual children vary in the timing of milestones, and I'll present some evidence-based tips for supporting the development of motor skills.

Gross motor milestones: Examples of postural and locomotary milestones

Gross motor milestones depend on the coordination of large muscles in the legs, trunk, and arms. They include modes of locomotion, like crawling, walking, and running. But they also include motor skills related to posture, like being able to hold your head erect, sitting up without support, and standing.

What are the major gross motor milestones - the milestones that parents are supposed to notice and track? Historically, pediatricians and developmental scientists have emphasized these postural and locomotory milestones:

Lifts head when lying on belly

Pushes up on forearms or elbows while lying on belly, elevating chest

Rolls over

Sits without support

Crawls

Stands with support

Pulls self up into a standing position

Climbs (onto a low chair or other piece of furniture)

Stands without help or support

Walks alone, without support

Runs

Jumps with both feet

Hops

When should we expect children to achieve gross motor milestones?

Understanding the range of milestone "ages"

Individual variation makes this tricky, even if we restrict ourselves to children living in the same society. For instance, take the first milestone - a baby lifting his or her head while lying prone (belly down). A study of Canadian babies suggests that around 5% of children can achieve this shortly after birth. Half can do it before they are 1.5 months old, and 95% will have reached this milestone by the time they are 4 months old (Rachwani et al 2020; Piper and Darrah 1994).

We could try to mash this up with a single number - an average - but that wouldn't be very helpful for appreciating the range of what's normal. A better way to represent the development of motor skills is to think in terms of developmental windows - time periods during which the vast majority of children achieve a given milestones.

So we can characterize the milestone, "Lifts head when lying on belly," with a time window based on the statistics from the Canadian study. For children encountering conditions similar to those in Canada, we may expect that about 95% of children will achieve this motor milestone sometime between birth and 4 months (Piper and Darrah 1994).

This age range is roughly similar to what researchers have observed for children living in Africa, South Asia, and Central and South America, where about 10% of babies lying on their bellies were able to hold their heads up for at least a few seconds within the the first 3 weeks after birth, and 90% had achieved the milestone by 3 months (Lancaster et al 2018, supplement 2).

In the same way, researchers can use large data sets to estimate time windows for other gross motor milestones, including the following:

Examples of time windows for typical motor development

Pushes up on forearms or elbows while lying on belly, elevating chest: 10% display this by 1.6 months, and 90% by 3.8 months (Lancaster et al 2018, supplement 2)

Rolls over: 5% by 2 months, and 95% by 9 months (Piper and Darrah 1994)

Sits without support: 10% by 4.6 months, and 90% by 7.5 months (WHO 2006b)

Crawls (on hands and kneess): 10% by 6.1months, and 90% by 10.5 month (WHO 2006b)

Stands with support (for at least 10 seconds): 10% by 5.4 months, 90% by 10.5 months (Lancaster et al 2018, supplement 2)

Pulls self up into a standing position: 10% by 5.8% months, and 90% by 10.7 months (Lancaster et al 2018, supplement 2)

Climbs (onto a low chair or other piece of furniture): 10% by 7.5 months, and 90% by 14 months (Lancaster et al 2018, supplement 2)

Stands without help or support: 10% by 8.8 months, 90% by 14.4 months (WHO 2006b)

Walks alone, without support: 10% by 10 months, and 90% by 14.4 months (WHO 2006b)

Runs: 10% by 12.2 months, and 90% by 24 months

Jumps with both feet: 10% by 24.7 months, and 90% by 42.7 months (Lancaster et al 2018, supplement 2)

Hops (at least three steps forward): 10% by 28.6 months, and 90% by 52.1 months (Lancaster et al 2018, supplement 2)

If you prefer a more visual approach, here's an infographic I made to illustrate, adapted from a figure published by the World Health Organization (WHO 2006b). It shows the time windows during which approximately 98% of infants reach 6 gross motor milestones.

As you can see, some gross motor milestones tend to occur earlier than others, but the windows are wide, and they overlap each other. The resulting picture doesn't predict when your baby will hit any particular milestone - not in any fine-grained sense. But it provides us with a realistic time range.

What about object manipulation skills? When do they emerge?

The motor skills we've mentioned so far are concerned with posture or locomotion. But of course there are also motor skills that involve the manipulation of objects. In some cases, these abilities depend on gross motor ability, but they typically require fine motor development, too - the coordination of small muscles in the hand, eye, and (sometimes) the mouth or feet. What are examples to watch for?

Holding objects (with help), and attempting to reach for objects

Two-month-old babies can hold onto small objects - if we place these objects directly into their hands. And they are likely to bring the items up to their mouths to investigate (Rochat 1989). But the grasp of a young infant isn't very secure or reliable. When babies' arms flail around, they are likely to lose their grip on whatever they are holding. Approximately 10% of infants can make an unsuccessful reach by 1.6 months, and 90% have achieved this milestone by 4 months (Lancaster et al 2018, supplement 2).

Greater competence with holding, reaching, and grabbing

Between the ages of 3 and 6 months, most babies will have developed the manual dexterity to hold onto and shake a toy. They are also developing the ability to move an object back and forth between hands. In international research, about 10% of infants could pass a toy between their hands by 4 months, and 90% could do it by 7 months (Lancaster et al 2018, supplement 2).

Around 10% of babies can successfully reach for a stationary object by 3 months, and 90% have caught up with this milestone by 5 months (Lancaster et al 2018, supplement 2). But their movements are jerky, and babies aren't yet good at catching a moving object. Babies don't yet understand how to grasp large objects efficiently - they don't show a preference for doing it with both hands.

Between 6 and 9 months, these "grabbing" skills improve considerably. Babies become proficient at catching hold of rolling objects. For instance, they can grab rolling balls, and judge when some balls are rolling too fast to catch (van Hof et al 2008). By 11 months, babies also show better planning for picking up large objects - they consistently reach with both hands at once (Fagard and Jacquet 1996).

Kicking a ball

Kicking a ball is more challenging than rolling it, in part because you must be standing up while you do it. So parents don't usually observe this until children are well beyond their first birthdays. In international tests, kids were challenged to see if they could kick a ball while keeping their balance. About 10% of children could do this by 12 months, but it wasn't until kids were more than 17 months old (and, in some tests, more than 25 months old) before 90% of them could achieve this milestone (Lancaster et al 2018, supplement 2)

Learning to throw (and catch)

In a small study of children in the United Kingdom, researchers observed toddlers between the ages of 15 and 30 months throwing objects overarm. All kids could do it, but kids didn't "put their whole body" into the effort. They usually moved their arms in isolation, without stepping into the throw, or moving their torsos. Older children tended to release items at higher speeds (Marques-Bruna and Grimshaw 1997).

As you might expect, developing good throwing aim, and the ability to catch, depends on hand-eye coordination - a classic hallmark of fine motor skills. And, according to international research, the time window for these motor skills is quite broad. About 10% of toddlers can perform at least 3 throws and 3 catches by the time they are 15 months, and 50% can do this by the age of 27.4 months. By 45.5 months, 90% of children have reached this milestone (Lancaster et al 2018, supplement 2).

Refinements of fine motor control and tool use

Ever-improving grasping skills

By between 5 and 10 months, most babies are showing off a number of fine motor skills. For instance, if you present infants with a small piece of food on a table surface, about 10% of them can "rake" the item towards themselves (a sweeping motion using all of their fingers) by about 5 months. Research suggests that 90% of children can do this by 10-13 months (Lancaster et al 2018, supplement 2).

During this period, babies also begin developing the ability to grip small objects between the thumb and index finger - the so-called "pincer grasp". Many babies can drink from a cup (albeit with help!), and they are figuring out how to eat with a spoon.

But their attempts are awkward. For instance, if you provide babies with a loaded spoon, they are likely to pick it up by the bowl end - not the handle (McCarty et al 2001; van Roon et al 2003). Moreover, they will hold onto the spoon with a fist grip, not a precision (pincer) grasp. By 14 months babies are more adept. They might still hold the spoon in a fist grip, but they've learned how to hold it by the handle (van Roon et al 2003).

Scribbling

By 11 to 12 months, about 50% of babies can use a writing implement (like a crayon on pen) to draw random-looking marks and dots. But just as we saw with learning to throw and catch, the age at which children begin "scribbling" varies quite a lot (Lancaster et al 2018, supplement 2), no doubt depending on their opportunities to practice. By 18 months, scribbling efforts may become more controlled and organized, and may include straight lines and zig-zags (Dunst and Gorman 2009). More complex drawings - of geometric shapes, and figures with identifiable features (like a blob creature with legs) - develop slowly, and may not appear until a child is three years old (Dunst and Gorman 2009).

Stacking blocks

In a study tracking the fine motor development of 37 infants in the United States, researchers found that more than 85% of the children had begun stacking at least one block on top of another between the ages of 10 and 14 months. By 18 months, about 40% of the children could create block towers composed of 3 elements or more. By 24 months, more than 85% of the kids had reached this fine motor milestone (Marcinowski et al 2019). International research suggests that 90% of children can create a 6 block tower by the age of 37.6 months (Lancaster et al 2018, supplement 2).

Using hands to twist things

This is yet another fine motor skill that varies widely. For instance, in a study where children were asked to screw on the lid to a jar - and then screw it back off - about 10% could do this by about 21.7 months. But it took until 43.5 months for 90% of the children to master both tasks (Lancaster et al 2018, supplement 2).

If a child's development seems slow, when should you be concerned?

First, you need to trust your intuitions. If something seems wrong or worrying, talk to your pediatrician. If it turns out that your baby is having problems, early intervention can make a big difference.

But what if you're merely noticing that your baby is taking longer than most to reach a particular motor milestone. At what point should your baby should be screened for a possible developmental delay?

In the absence of any other signs or concerns, one rule of thumb is to pay attention to the 90th percentile - the age by which 90% of children have achieved a given milestone (Sices 2007). Another approach is to set the bar lower, at the age when a milestone has been reached 75% of the population (Zubler et al 2022).

Either way, the idea is to compare children, and then focus on individuals who are slower than a selected percentage of their peers. If a child still hasn't reached a milestone by the specified age, it doesn't mean that child is especially likely to have a developmental problem. But it's an indication to move forward with screening. As noted, early intervention can be important, so it makes sense to take a proactive approach.

Below are some of the latest, evidence-informed milestone recommendations, as proposed by researchers working for the American Academy of Pediatrics and the Center for Disease Control (Zubler et al 2022). Note that the researchers are using a 75% criterion, and that the ages represent the cut-off dates for observing the given milestones. If your child has not reached a milestone by the listed date, that's reason to talk with your medical provider.

Motor milestone timeline: At what age should you consult your pediatrician (if you child hasn't yet demonstrated a particular skill)?
2 months

Holds up head when lying on belly

Moves every limb (both arms and both legs)

Briefly uncurls fingers (opening up the hand for a split second before relaxing again)

4 months

Can hold head steady, without support, when being held

Can control arms enough to reach and take a swing at a toy

Pushes up on forearms or elbows while lying on belly, elevating chest

6 months

Rolls over (from belly to back)

Pushes up with arms straightened while on belly

Leans on hands to keep steady while sitting

9 months

Can get into a sitting position without help

Sits up without support

Can transfer objects from one hand to the other

Uses fingers to sweep or rake an object towards self

12 months

Pulls self up to a standing position

Walks around while holding onto furniture (also called "cruising")

Can drink from a lidless cup, while you hold it for him

Picks up objects by holding them between the thumb and pointer finger

15 months

Takes first steps without support (but not necessarily walking yet)

Uses fingers to eat (e.g., picking up a piece of breakfast cereal and bringing it to the mouth)

18 months

Can walk without any help - without hanging onto a person or grasping the furniture

Can climb onto a sofa or chair without help

Can scribble when given a writing implement (like a crayon)

Can drink from a cup without a lid, without help (but may spill sometimes)

Tries to use a spoon during feeding (but not yet proficient)

24 months

Can kick a large ball

Runs

Can walk up a few stairs (with or without assistance)

Uses a spoon to eat

30 months

Capable of jumping in the air with both feet

Can take some clothing off without help (like pulling off loose pants)

Can use hands to perform twisting actions (such as turning a knob or unscrewing a lid)

Can turn the pages of a book, one at a time

3 years

Can "string items together" (e.g., threading a cord through the holes in a set of large, wooden beads)

Puts some clothing on without assistance

Can use a fork

4 years

Able to catch a ball consistently (e.g., can catch most "easy" tosses)

Can unbutton some buttons

Can pour water for himself, or serve herself food, with supervision

Holds writing implements (e.g., a crayon) between thumb and forefinger

5 years

Can hop on one foot

Can button some buttons

What about the order of motor milestones? Is there something wrong if a child seems to skip a step, or experiences a reversal?

Not necessarily. Babies don't always hit these milestones in the same order, and one of the milestones - crawling - isn't even universal.

If you look at the time window graphic, you might reasonably assume that your baby will hit gross motor milestones in the following sequence:

(1) sitting up without support; (2) crawling on hands and knees; (3) standing with assistance; (4) walking with assistance; (5) standing without support; and (6) walking without support.

And indeed, when the World Health Organization (WHO) tracked the development of babies in 5 countries (Ghana, India, Norway, Oman and the USA), this pattern was found in the largest percentage of infants - about 42% of them.

But more than a third of the babies achieved milestone #3 (standing with assistance) before they crawled. Almost 9% of the babies also hit milestone #4 (walking with assistance) before crawling.

Another 10% of babies mixed the order up in even more exotic ways, and approximately 4% of babies never crawled on their hands and knees (WHO 2006a).

Other studies have reported even higher rates of babies who never crawled - babies who were healthy and went on to walk within the normal time window.

So there isn't a master sequence of motor development milestones that all babies follow. As motor development experts Karen Adolph and John Franchak (2016) explain:

"The milestone charts suggest an orderly, age-related march through a series of stages, but developmental pathways can differ and individual infants do not strictly adhere to the normative sequence derived from average onset ages. Infants can acquire skills in various orders, skip stages, and revert to earlier forms."

Why is there so much variation?

Some of it is cultural.

For example, in some African countries, parents actively train their babies to sit, stand, and walk. They provide infants with lots of practice, and this appears to accelerate the development of upright posture (Super 1976; Bril and Sabatier 1986; Karasik et al 2015; Adolph and Robinson 2015).

The notion is supported by experimental work (Zelazo 1983). Newborn babies have a "stepping reflex": If you hold a baby so that soles of his feet brush against the ground, the baby will spontaneously take steps - long before the baby is capable of standing under his own weight. The reflex usually disappears over time, but not if babies are given daily opportunities to practice the action, and such babies have reached the milestone of walking (without assistance) at an earlier age. (You can read more about learning to walk in my article, "When do babies start walking, and how does it develop?")

So we've got evidence that parenting practices can speed up the emergence of sitting, standing, and walking. And the converse is also true: Caregiving can contribute to slower development of these milestones.

In places where parents adopt a hands-off approach - or actively prevent babies from moving around during the day - infants take longer to sit, stand, and walk independently (WHO 2006b; Mei 1994; Adolph and Robinson 2015; Adolf et al 2018).

What about crawling?

Environmental factors may play an especially big role in the development of crawling. In the contemporary United States, parents expect babies to crawl, and they provide them with opportunities to do so. But this isn't true everywhere, and it probably wasn't true for our hunter-gatherer ancestors.

Crawling outdoors - in a world inhabited by predators - wouldn't have been a good idea, and indeed, contemporary hunter-gatherers don't encourage their infants to crawl. As I explain in this guide to the development of crawling, it's not unusual for babies to reject hands-and-knees crawling in favor of other methods of getting around - like scooting around on their bottoms, or rolling from place to place.

It's also clear that motor milestones are influenced by genetics.

When researchers have controlled for the effects of culture and parenting, they've found that genetic factors have an important impact on the timing of motor milestones (Smith et al 2017).

Siblings don't reach motor milestones at exactly the same time, even if they are raised under similar conditions. Individual differences in temperament, body fat composition, and other characteristics - characteristics influenced by genes - can affect a child's activity patterns, leading some individuals to spend more time practicing developing motor skills.
Give your baby lots of "tummy time."
As I note in this article, it's clear that "tummy time" is important. Babies develop better muscle control when they spend supervised time on their stomachs. It's good for building neck strength, and it helps babies develop the ability to roll, crawl, and sit up from a lying position (Kuo et al 2008).
Help babies practice an upright posture.
We've also seen how parents can support the development of sitting and standing. Practice sessions - where you help your baby adopt an upright posture by providing support with your hands - may speed up development.
Help babies reach and grasp.
Not surprisingly, babies learn faster when we provide them with opportunities to touch, hold, and reach for objects.

For example, in experiments using mittens and toys covered in Velcro®, babies as young as 3 months have gotten extra practice handling objects that would ordinarily be hard to grasp. When parents encourage their babies to explore objects with such "sticky mittens," babies have shown long-term developmental benefits (Needham et al 2017; Libertus et al 2015).
Let babies bang.
It's noisy and obnoxious, but researchers think that babies develop important motor skills when they grab onto an object and bang away (Kahrs et al 2012). Just make sure the object is safe for your baby to use!
Encourage free play - and make yourself a visible, responsive, and non-bossy playmate.
Babies exercise more - and spend more time interacting with objects - when we provide them with the time and space to engage in free play (Adolf and Koch 2019). And babies benefit when we get down on the floor to interact with them.

More reading

For more in-depth, anthropologically-informed information about motor milestones, check out my articles on these subjects:

And for other information about baby development, see this index to Parenting Science articles.

References: Motor milestones

Adolph K. 2008. Motor and physical development: Locomotion. In M.M. Haith and J.B. Benson (Eds), Encyclopedia of infant and early childhood development, M.M. Haith and J.B. Benson (Eds), San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 359-373.

Adolph KE and Robinson SR 2015. Motor development. In R. M. Lerner (Series Eds.) and L. Liben and U. Muller (Eds), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science: Vol. 2: Cognitive processes (7th ed.) New York: Wiley, pp. 114-157

Adolph KE and Hoch JE 2019. Motor development: Embodied, embedded, enculturated, and enabling. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 141-164.

Adolph KE, Hoch JE, Cole WG. 2018. Development (of Walking): 15 Suggestions. Trends Cogn Sci. 22(8):699-711.

Bril B and Sabatier C. The cultural context of motor development: Postural manipulations in the daily life of Bambara babies (Mali) International Journal of Behavioral Development. 1986;9:439-453.

Dunst C and Gorman E. 2009. Development of infant and toddler mark making and scribbling. Cent. Early Learn. Lit. Rev. 2, 1-16.

Fagard J, Jacquet AY. Changes in reaching and grasping objects of different sizes between 7 and 13 months of age. British Journal of Developmental Psychology. 1996;14:65-78.

Kahrs BA, Jung WP, Lockman JJ. 2012. What is the role of infant banging in the development of tool use? Exp Brain Res. 218(2):315-20.

Kaplan H and Dove H. 1987. Infant development among the Ache of eastern Paraguay. Developmental Psychology, 23(2): 190-198.

Kuo YL, Liao HF, Chen PC, Hsieh WS, Hwang AW. 2008. The influence of wakeful prone positioning on motor development during the early life. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 29(5):367-76.

Lancaster GA, McCray G, Kariger P, Dua T, Titman A, Chandna J, McCoy D, Abubakar A, Hamadani JD, Fink G, Tofail F, Gladstone M, Janus M. 2018. Creation of the WHO Indicators of Infant and Young Child Development (IYCD): metadata synthesis across 10 countries. BMJ Glob Health. 3(5):e000747.

Libertus K, Joh AS, Needham AW. 2016. Motor training at 3 months affects object exploration 12 months later. Dev Sci. 19(6):1058-1066.

Marcinowski EC, Nelson E, Campbell JM, Michel GF. 2019. The Development of Object Construction from Infancy through Toddlerhood. Infancy. 24(3):368-391.

Marques-Bruna P and Grimshaw PN. 1997. 3-dimentional kinematics of overarm throwing action of children age 15 to 30 months. Percept Mot Skills. 84: 1267-1283.

McCarty ME, Clifton RK, and Collard RR. 2001. The beginnings of tool use by infants and toddlers. Infancy 2: 233-56.

Mei, J. 1994. The Northern Chinese custom of rearing babies in sandbags: implications for motor and intellectual development. In: vanRossum, J.; Laszlo, J., editors. Motor development: Aspects of normal and delayed development. Amsterdam: VU Uitgeverij.

Needham AW, Wiesen SE, Hejazi JN, Libertus K, Christopher C. 2017. Characteristics of brief sticky mittens training that lead to increases in object exploration. J Exp Child Psychol. 164:209-224

Nelson EA1, Yu LM, Wong D, Wong HY, Yim L. 2004. Rolling over in infants: age, ethnicity, and cultural differences. Dev Med Child Neurol. 46(10):706-9.

Rachwani J, Hoch J, and Adolph KE. 2020. Action in development: Plasticity, variability, and flexibility. In J. J. Lockman and C. S. Tamis-LeMonda (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of infant development: Brain, behavior, and cultural context (pp. 469-494). Cambridge University Press.

Rochat R 1989 Object Manipulation and Exploration in 2- to 5-Month-Old Infants Developmental Psychology 25 (6): 871-884

Sices L. 2007. Use of developmental milestones in pediatric residency training and practice: time to rethink the meaning of the mean. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 28(1):47-52.

Smith L, van Jaarsveld CHM, Llewellyn CH, Fildes A, López Sánchez GF, Wardle J, Fisher A. 2017. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Developmental Milestones and Movement: Results From the Gemini Cohort Study. Res Q Exerc Sport. 88(4):401-407.

Super CM. 1976. Environmental effects on motor development: the case of "African infant precocity". Dev Med Child Neurol. 18(5):561-7.

vam Hof P, Kamp J, Savelsbergh GJP. 2002. The relation of unimanual and bimanual reaching to crossing the midline. Child Dev. 73:1353-1362.

van Roon D, van der Kamp J, Steenbergen B 2003. Constraints in children's learning to use spoons. In: Savelsbergh G, Davids K, van der Kamp J, Bennett SJ, eds. Development of Movement Co-ordination in Children: Applications in the Fields of Ergonomics, Health Sciences and Sport. Routledge, London: 75-93.

WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group. 2006a. Assessment of sex differences and heterogeneity in motor milestone attainment among populations in the WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study. Acta Paediatr Suppl. 450:66-75.

WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group. 2006b. WHO Motor Development Study: windows of achievement for six gross motor development milestones. Acta Paediatr Suppl. 450:86-95.

Zelazo PR 1983. The development of walking: New findings and old solutions. Journal of Motor Behavior 15: 99-137.

Zubler JM, Wiggins LD, Macias MM, Whitaker TM, Shaw JS, Squires JK, Pajek JA, Wolf RB, Slaughter KS, Broughton AS, Gerndt KL, Mlodoch BJ, Lipkin PH. 2022. Evidence-Informed Milestones for Developmental Surveillance Tools. Pediatrics. 149(3):e2021052138.

Image credits for "Motor milestones"

image of baby starting to roll over by istock / Gwill

image of baby holding and using spoon by istock/ PeopleImages

charts (adapted from WHO 2006) copyright Parenting Science

content last modified 10/2023

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Motor milestones: How do children develop during the early years?

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Motor milestones mark exciting transitions in a baby's life, but there's no universal schedule that all babies follow. What's normal, and how parents support healthy development?

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This reference briefly explains how an infant goes through the process of visual development within the span of 12 months from its the birth.

Type of license of the resource: Article from American Academy of Ophthalmology

Vision Development: Newborn to 12 months. (2024, July 11). American Academy of Ophthalmology. https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/baby-vision-development-first-year

Henry Robin

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As the title states, the video basically explains Vygotsky's approach that contributes significantly to the study on Cognitive development in social relationships.

Type of license of the resource: Youtube Video from Sprouts.

Sprouts. (2020, February 28). Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Social Relationships [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8I2hrSRbmHE

Henry Robin

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Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development in Social Relationships

# data[].attributes.body
This video emphasizes how babies acquire bilingual language skills and how it positively affects cognitive devlopment.

Type of license of the resource: Youtube video from SciShow Psych.

SciShow Psych. (2017, March 30). How Do Babies Become Bilingual? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Me_v82q0ins

Henry Robin

# data[].attributes.body
This article elaborates on Kolberg's theory of Moral development.

Type of license of the resource: Article from Verywellmind.

MSEd, K. C. (2022, November 7). Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/kohlbergs-theory-of-moral-development-2795071

Henry Robin

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Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a theory that focuses on how children develop morality and moral reasoning. Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral development occurs in a series of six stages and that moral logic is primarily focused on seeking and maintaining justice.

Here we discuss how Kohlberg developed his theory of moral development and the six stages he identified as part of this process. We also share some critiques of Kohlberg's theory, many of which suggest that it may be biased based on the limited demographics of the subjects studied.

What Is Moral Development?

Moral development is the process by which people develop the distinction between right and wrong (morality) and engage in reasoning between the two (moral reasoning).

How do people develop morality? This question has fascinated parents, religious leaders, and philosophers for ages, but moral development has also become a hot-button issue in psychology and education. Do parental or societal influences play a greater role in moral development? Do all kids develop morality in similar ways?

American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg developed one of the best-known theories exploring some of these basic questions. His work modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's previous work but was more centered on explaining how children develop moral reasoning.

Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan. Kohlberg's theory outlines six stages of moral development within three different levels.

How Kohlberg Developed His Theory

Kohlberg based his theory on a series of moral dilemmas presented to his study subjects. Participants were also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments in each scenario.

One example was "Heinz Steals the Drug." In this scenario, a woman has cancer and her doctors believe only one drug might save her. This drug had been discovered by a local pharmacist and he was able to make it for $200 per dose and sell it for $2,000 per dose. The woman's husband, Heinz, could only raise $1,000 to buy the drug.

He tried to negotiate with the pharmacist for a lower price or to be extended credit to pay for it over time. But the pharmacist refused to sell it for any less or to accept partial payments. Rebuffed, Heinz instead broke into the pharmacy and stole the drug to save his wife. Kohlberg asked, "Should the husband have done that?"

Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory is broken down into three primary levels. At each level of moral development, there are two stages. Similar to how Piaget believed that not all people reach the highest levels of cognitive development, Kohlberg believed not everyone progresses to the highest stages of moral development.

Preconventional Morality

0 to 9

Stage 1: Obedience and punishment Stage 2: Individualism and exchange

Conventional Morality

Early adolescence to adulthood

Stage 3: Developing good interpersonal relationships Stage 4: Maintaining social order

Postconventional Morality

Some adults; rare

Stage 5: Social contract and individual rights stage 6: Universal principles

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts until around the age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking the rules. There are two stages within this level:

Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment): The earliest stages of moral development, obedience and punishment are especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at this stage see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid punishment.

Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the individualism and exchange stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best served Heinz's needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social rules regarding what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and adults internalize the moral standards they have learned from their role models and from society.

This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to the norms of the group. There are two stages at this level of morality:

Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.

Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): This stage is focused on ensuring that social order is maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one's duty, and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract principles of morality. The two stages at this level are:

Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The ideas of a social contract and individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.

Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg's final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

Kohlberg believed that only a relatively small percentage of people ever reach the post-conventional stages (around 10 to 15%). One analysis found that while stages one to four could be seen as universal in populations throughout the world, the fifth and sixth stages were extremely rare in all populations.

Applications for Kohlberg's Theory

Understanding Kohlberg's theory of moral development is important in that it can help parents guide their children as they develop their moral character. Parents with younger children might work on rule obeyance, for instance, whereas they might teach older children about social expectations.

Teachers and other educators can also apply Kohlberg's theory in the classroom, providing additional moral guidance. A kindergarten teacher could help enhance moral development by setting clear rules for the classroom, and the consequences for violating them. This helps kids at stage one of moral development.

A teacher in high school might focus more on the development that occurs in stage three (developing good interpersonal relationships) and stage four (maintaining social order). This could be accomplished by having the students take part in setting the rules to be followed in the classroom, giving them a better idea of the reasoning behind these rules.

Criticisms for Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory played an important role in the development of moral psychology. While the theory has been highly influential, aspects of the theory have been critiqued for a number of reasons:

Moral reasoning does not equal moral behavior: Kohlberg's theory is concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing what we ought to do versus our actual actions. Moral reasoning, therefore, may not lead to moral behavior.

Overemphasizes justice: Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept of justice when making moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring, and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning.

Cultural bias: Individualist cultures emphasize personal rights, while collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and community. Eastern, collectivist cultures may have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not take into account.

Age bias: Most of his subjects were children under the age of 16 who obviously had no experience with marriage. The Heinz dilemma may have been too abstract for these children to understand, and a scenario more applicable to their everyday concerns might have led to different results.

Gender bias: Kohlberg's critics, including Carol Gilligan, have suggested that Kohlberg's theory was gender-biased since all of the subjects in his sample were male. Kohlberg believed that women tended to remain at the third level of moral development because they place a stronger emphasis on things such as social relationships and the welfare of others.

Gilligan instead suggested that Kohlberg's theory overemphasizes concepts such as justice and does not adequately address moral reasoning founded on the principles and ethics of caring and concern for others.

Other Theories of Moral Development

Kohlberg isn't the only psychologist to theorize how we develop morally. There are several other theories of moral development.

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory is an expansion of Piaget's theory of moral development. Piaget described a three-stage process of moral development:

Stage 1: The child is more concerned with developing and mastering their motor and social skills, with no general concern about morality.

Stage 2: The child develops unconditional respect both for authority figures and the rules in existence.

Stage 3: The child starts to see rules as being arbitrary, also considering an actor's intentions when judging whether an act or behavior is moral or immoral.

Kohlberg expanded on this theory to include more stages in the process. Additionally, Kohlberg believed that the final stage is rarely achieved by individuals whereas Piaget's stages of moral development are common to all.

Moral Foundations Theory

Proposed by Jonathan Haidt, Craig Joseph, and Jesse Graham, the moral foundations theory is based on three morality principles:

1. Intuition develops before strategic reasoning. Put another way, our reaction comes first, which is then followed by rationalization.

2. Morality involves more than harm and fairness. Contained within this second principle are a variety of considerations related to morality. It includes: care vs. harm, liberty vs. oppression, fairness vs. cheating, loyalty vs. betrayal, authority vs. subversion, and sanctity vs. degradation.

3. Morality can both bind groups and blind individuals. When people are part of a group, they will tend to adopt that group's same value systems. They may also sacrifice their own morals for the group's benefit.

While Kohlberg's theory is primarily focused on help vs. harm, moral foundations theory encompasses several more dimensions of morality. However, this theory also fails to explain the "rules" people use when determining what is best for society.

Normative Theories of Moral Behavior

Several other theories exist that attempt to explain the development of morality, specifically in relation to social justice. Some fall into the category of transcendental institutionalist, which involves trying to create "perfect justice." Others are realization-focused, concentrating more on removing injustices.

One theory falling into the second category is social choice theory. Social choice theory is a collection of models that seek to explain how individuals can use their input (their preferences) to impact society as a whole. An example of this is voting, which allows the majority to decide what is "right" and "wrong."

A Word From Verywell

While Kohlberg's theory of moral development has been criticized, the theory played an important role in the emergence of the field of moral psychology. Researchers continue to explore how moral reasoning develops and changes through life as well as the universality of these stages. Understanding these stages offers helpful insights into the ways that both children and adults make moral choices and how moral thinking may influence decisions and behaviors.

Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read our editorial process to learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

1. American Psychological Association. Heinz dilemma.

2. American Psychological Association. Kohlberg's theory of moral development.

3. Kohlberg L, Essays On Moral Development. Harper & Row; 1985.

4. Gibbs J. Moral Development And Reality. 4th ed. Oxford University Press; 2019.

5. Gilligan C. In A Different Voice. Harvard University Press; 2016.

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Levels of Developing Morality in Kohlberg's Theories

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Kohlberg's theory of moral development seeks to explain how children form moral reasoning. According to Kohlberg's theory, moral development occurs in six stages.

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This video explains sensory processing, which is how the brain interprets and responds to sensory input. It discusses how some individuals, particularly those with autism, may face challenges with sensory processing, affecting their daily experiences. It also highlights strategies for managing these sensory sensitivities.

APA references - Sensory Processing. (2019, December 8). What is Sensory Processing? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V-kUKyfu0as

Type of license - Youtube video from Different Minds

# data[].attributes.body
The article explores how infants learn to communicate, beginning with gestures and progressing to speech. It outlines key developmental stages such as expansion of vocabulary, and reviews well known theories by Chomsky, Skinner, etc. It emphasises how social interaction and the environment play crucial roles in a child's language learning process.

APA reference - Lumen Learning. (n.d.). Language development. In Developmental psychology. Retrieved December 8, 2024, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-developmentalpsych/chapter/language-development/

Type of License - article from Lumen Learning

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Language Development | Developmental Psychology

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Vygotsky's theory suggests that cognitive development is influenced by social interactions. He proposed that children learn through cooperation with others, particularly those with more knowledge, and that language and cultural tools are essential. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) underscores the value of support in helping children engage with tasks they cannot complete alone.

APA reference - The Audiopedia. (2019, December 16). Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development in Social Relationships [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8I2hrSRbmHE

Type of License - Youtube video from Sprouts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development in Social Relationships

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Kohlberg’s moral development theory suggests that people move through three stages: in the first stage, decisions are based on external rewards or punishments; in the second, individuals follow societal rules to gain approval; and in the final stage, moral decisions are guided by universal principles like justice. Although influential, the theory has been critiqued for focusing primarily on justice and for potential cultural biases​

APA reference - Verywell Mind. (n.d.). Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Verywell Mind. Retrieved December 8, 2024, from https://www.verywellmind.com/kohlbergs-theory-of-moral-development-2795071

Type of License - Article from verywellmind

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a theory that focuses on how children develop morality and moral reasoning. Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral development occurs in a series of six stages and that moral logic is primarily focused on seeking and maintaining justice.

Here we discuss how Kohlberg developed his theory of moral development and the six stages he identified as part of this process. We also share some critiques of Kohlberg's theory, many of which suggest that it may be biased based on the limited demographics of the subjects studied.

What Is Moral Development?

Moral development is the process by which people develop the distinction between right and wrong (morality) and engage in reasoning between the two (moral reasoning).

How do people develop morality? This question has fascinated parents, religious leaders, and philosophers for ages, but moral development has also become a hot-button issue in psychology and education. Do parental or societal influences play a greater role in moral development? Do all kids develop morality in similar ways?

American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg developed one of the best-known theories exploring some of these basic questions. His work modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's previous work but was more centered on explaining how children develop moral reasoning.

Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan. Kohlberg's theory outlines six stages of moral development within three different levels.

How Kohlberg Developed His Theory

Kohlberg based his theory on a series of moral dilemmas presented to his study subjects. Participants were also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments in each scenario.

One example was "Heinz Steals the Drug." In this scenario, a woman has cancer and her doctors believe only one drug might save her. This drug had been discovered by a local pharmacist and he was able to make it for $200 per dose and sell it for $2,000 per dose. The woman's husband, Heinz, could only raise $1,000 to buy the drug.

He tried to negotiate with the pharmacist for a lower price or to be extended credit to pay for it over time. But the pharmacist refused to sell it for any less or to accept partial payments. Rebuffed, Heinz instead broke into the pharmacy and stole the drug to save his wife. Kohlberg asked, "Should the husband have done that?"

Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory is broken down into three primary levels. At each level of moral development, there are two stages. Similar to how Piaget believed that not all people reach the highest levels of cognitive development, Kohlberg believed not everyone progresses to the highest stages of moral development.

Preconventional Morality

0 to 9

Stage 1: Obedience and punishment Stage 2: Individualism and exchange

Conventional Morality

Early adolescence to adulthood

Stage 3: Developing good interpersonal relationships Stage 4: Maintaining social order

Postconventional Morality

Some adults; rare

Stage 5: Social contract and individual rights stage 6: Universal principles

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts until around the age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking the rules. There are two stages within this level:

Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment): The earliest stages of moral development, obedience and punishment are especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at this stage see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid punishment.

Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the individualism and exchange stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best served Heinz's needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social rules regarding what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and adults internalize the moral standards they have learned from their role models and from society.

This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to the norms of the group. There are two stages at this level of morality:

Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.

Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): This stage is focused on ensuring that social order is maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one's duty, and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract principles of morality. The two stages at this level are:

Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The ideas of a social contract and individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.

Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg's final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

Kohlberg believed that only a relatively small percentage of people ever reach the post-conventional stages (around 10 to 15%). One analysis found that while stages one to four could be seen as universal in populations throughout the world, the fifth and sixth stages were extremely rare in all populations.

Applications for Kohlberg's Theory

Understanding Kohlberg's theory of moral development is important in that it can help parents guide their children as they develop their moral character. Parents with younger children might work on rule obeyance, for instance, whereas they might teach older children about social expectations.

Teachers and other educators can also apply Kohlberg's theory in the classroom, providing additional moral guidance. A kindergarten teacher could help enhance moral development by setting clear rules for the classroom, and the consequences for violating them. This helps kids at stage one of moral development.

A teacher in high school might focus more on the development that occurs in stage three (developing good interpersonal relationships) and stage four (maintaining social order). This could be accomplished by having the students take part in setting the rules to be followed in the classroom, giving them a better idea of the reasoning behind these rules.

Criticisms for Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory played an important role in the development of moral psychology. While the theory has been highly influential, aspects of the theory have been critiqued for a number of reasons:

Moral reasoning does not equal moral behavior: Kohlberg's theory is concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing what we ought to do versus our actual actions. Moral reasoning, therefore, may not lead to moral behavior.

Overemphasizes justice: Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept of justice when making moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring, and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning.

Cultural bias: Individualist cultures emphasize personal rights, while collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and community. Eastern, collectivist cultures may have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not take into account.

Age bias: Most of his subjects were children under the age of 16 who obviously had no experience with marriage. The Heinz dilemma may have been too abstract for these children to understand, and a scenario more applicable to their everyday concerns might have led to different results.

Gender bias: Kohlberg's critics, including Carol Gilligan, have suggested that Kohlberg's theory was gender-biased since all of the subjects in his sample were male. Kohlberg believed that women tended to remain at the third level of moral development because they place a stronger emphasis on things such as social relationships and the welfare of others.

Gilligan instead suggested that Kohlberg's theory overemphasizes concepts such as justice and does not adequately address moral reasoning founded on the principles and ethics of caring and concern for others.

Other Theories of Moral Development

Kohlberg isn't the only psychologist to theorize how we develop morally. There are several other theories of moral development.

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory is an expansion of Piaget's theory of moral development. Piaget described a three-stage process of moral development:

Stage 1: The child is more concerned with developing and mastering their motor and social skills, with no general concern about morality.

Stage 2: The child develops unconditional respect both for authority figures and the rules in existence.

Stage 3: The child starts to see rules as being arbitrary, also considering an actor's intentions when judging whether an act or behavior is moral or immoral.

Kohlberg expanded on this theory to include more stages in the process. Additionally, Kohlberg believed that the final stage is rarely achieved by individuals whereas Piaget's stages of moral development are common to all.

Moral Foundations Theory

Proposed by Jonathan Haidt, Craig Joseph, and Jesse Graham, the moral foundations theory is based on three morality principles:

1. Intuition develops before strategic reasoning. Put another way, our reaction comes first, which is then followed by rationalization.

2. Morality involves more than harm and fairness. Contained within this second principle are a variety of considerations related to morality. It includes: care vs. harm, liberty vs. oppression, fairness vs. cheating, loyalty vs. betrayal, authority vs. subversion, and sanctity vs. degradation.

3. Morality can both bind groups and blind individuals. When people are part of a group, they will tend to adopt that group's same value systems. They may also sacrifice their own morals for the group's benefit.

While Kohlberg's theory is primarily focused on help vs. harm, moral foundations theory encompasses several more dimensions of morality. However, this theory also fails to explain the "rules" people use when determining what is best for society.

Normative Theories of Moral Behavior

Several other theories exist that attempt to explain the development of morality, specifically in relation to social justice. Some fall into the category of transcendental institutionalist, which involves trying to create "perfect justice." Others are realization-focused, concentrating more on removing injustices.

One theory falling into the second category is social choice theory. Social choice theory is a collection of models that seek to explain how individuals can use their input (their preferences) to impact society as a whole. An example of this is voting, which allows the majority to decide what is "right" and "wrong."

A Word From Verywell

While Kohlberg's theory of moral development has been criticized, the theory played an important role in the emergence of the field of moral psychology. Researchers continue to explore how moral reasoning develops and changes through life as well as the universality of these stages. Understanding these stages offers helpful insights into the ways that both children and adults make moral choices and how moral thinking may influence decisions and behaviors.

Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read our editorial process to learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

1. American Psychological Association. Heinz dilemma.

2. American Psychological Association. Kohlberg's theory of moral development.

3. Kohlberg L, Essays On Moral Development. Harper & Row; 1985.

4. Gibbs J. Moral Development And Reality. 4th ed. Oxford University Press; 2019.

5. Gilligan C. In A Different Voice. Harvard University Press; 2016.

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Levels of Developing Morality in Kohlberg's Theories

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Kohlberg's theory of moral development seeks to explain how children form moral reasoning. According to Kohlberg's theory, moral development occurs in six stages.

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The article explains how personality develops through a mix of genetics and experiences, offering tips to boost your self-awareness, communication, and emotional intelligence for personal growth.

APA reference - Verywell Mind. (n.d.). Personality development. Verywell Mind. Retrieved December 8, 2024, from https://www.verywellmind.com/personality-development-2795425

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When we meet new people, it is often their personality that grabs our attention. Understanding how personality develops can provide insight into who someone is and their background while also increasing our understanding of what's behind our own personality traits and characteristics.

What Is Personality Development?

Personality development refers to the process by which the organized thought and behavior patterns that make up a person's unique personality emerge over time. Many factors influence personality, including genetics and environment, how we were parented, and societal variables.

Perhaps most importantly, it is the ongoing interaction of all these influences that continue to shape personality. Personality involves not only inborn traits but also the development of cognitive and behavioral patterns that influence how we think and act.

Temperament is a key part of personality that is determined by inherited traits. Character is an aspect of personality influenced by experience that continues to grow and change throughout life.

Personality development has been a major topic of interest for some of the most prominent thinkers in psychology. Since the inception of psychology as a separate science, researchers have proposed a variety of ideas to explain how and why personality develops.

Key Theories of Personality Formation

Our personalities make us unique, but how does personality develop? What factors play the most important role in the formation of personality? Can personality change?

To answer these questions, many prominent thinkers have developed theories to describe the various steps and stages that occur during the development of personality. The following theories focus on several aspects of personality formation-including those that involve cognitive, social, and moral development.

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

In his well-known stage theory of psychosexual development, Sigmund Freud suggested that personality develops in stages that are related to specific erogenous zones. These stages are:

Stage 1: Oral stage (birth to 1 year)

Stage 2: Anal stage (1 to 3 years)

Stage 3: Phallic stage (3 to 6 years)

Stage 4: Latent period (age 6 to puberty)

Stage 5: Genital stage (puberty to death)

Freud also believed that failure to complete these stages would lead to personality problems in adulthood.

In addition to being one of the best-known thinkers in the area of personality development, Sigmund Freud also remains one of the most controversial.

Freud's Structural Model of Personality

Freud not only theorized about how personality developed over the course of childhood, but he also developed a framework for how overall personality is structured.

According to Freud, the basic driving force of personality and behavior is known as the libido. This libidinal energy fuels the three components that make up personality: the id, the ego, and the superego.

The id is the aspect of personality present at birth. It is the most primal part of the personality and drives people to fulfill their most basic needs and urges.

The ego is the aspect of personality charged with controlling the urges of the id and forcing it to behave in realistic ways.

The superego is the final aspect of personality to develop and contains all of the ideals, morals, and values imbued by our parents and culture.

According to Freud, these three elements of personality work together to create complex human behaviors. The superego attempts to make the ego behave according to these ideals. The ego must then moderate between the primal needs of the id, the idealistic standards of the superego, and reality.

Freud's concept of the id, ego, and superego has gained prominence in popular culture, despite a lack of support and considerable skepticism from many researchers.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson's eight-stage theory of human development is another well-known theory in psychology. While it builds on Freud's stages of psychosexual development, Erikson chose to focus on how social relationships impact personality development. The theory also extends beyond childhood to look at development across the entire lifespan.

Erikson's eight stages are:

At each of these stages, people face a crisis in which a task must be mastered. Those who successfully complete that stage emerge with a sense of mastery and well-being. Those who do not resolve the crisis at a particular stage may struggle with those skills for the remainder of their lives.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development remains one of the most frequently cited in psychology, despite being subject to considerable criticism. While many aspects of his theory have not stood the test of time, the central idea remains important today: Children think differently than adults.

According to Piaget, children progress through a series of four stages that are marked by distinctive changes in how they think. And how children think about themselves, others, and the world around them plays an important role in the formation of personality.

Piaget's four stages are:

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg developed a theory of personality development that focused on the growth of moral thought. Building on a two-stage process proposed by Piaget, Kohlberg expanded the theory to include six different stages:

Stage 1: Obedience and punishment

Stage 2: Individualism and exchange

Stage 3: Developing good interpersonal relationships

Stage 4: Maintaining social order

Stage 5: Social contract and individual rights

Stage 6: Universal principles

These stages are separated by levels. Level one is the pre-conventional level, it includes stages one and two, and takes place from birth to 9 years. Level two is the conventional level, it includes stages three and four, and takes place from age 10 to adolescence. Level three is the post-conventional level, it includes stages five and six, and takes place in adulthood.

Although this theory includes six stages, Kohlberg felt that it was rare for people to progress beyond stage four, also stressing that these stages of moral development are not correlated with the maturation process.

Kohlberg's theory of moral development has been criticized for a number of different reasons. One primary criticism is that it does not accommodate different genders and cultures equally. Yet, the theory remains important in our understanding of how personality develops.

The Bottom Line

While these theories suggest different numbers and types of stages, and different ages for progressing from one stage to the next, they have all influenced what we know today about personality development.

Types of Personalities

The goal of personality development theories is to explain how we each develop our own unique characteristics and traits. While the list of options could be almost endless, most of these personality traits fall into five basic categories:

Openness: Level of creativeness and responsiveness to change

Conscientiousness: Level of organization and attention to detail

Extraversion: Level of socialness and emotional expressiveness

Agreeableness: Level of interest in others and cooperativeness

Neuroticism: Level of emotional stability and moodiness

The "Big 5" is one of the most recognized models of personality and also the most widely used, though some suggest that it isn't comprehensive enough to cover the huge variety of personality traits that one can grow and develop.

Personality Development Tips

On a global level, people spend a lot of money on personal development, with this market bringing in more than $38 billion annually (and expected to grow). If you're interested in making positive changes to your personality, these tips can help:

Identify your current traits. You won't know where to place your efforts if you don't first identify the personality traits you feel the need to work on. A personality test can provide an assessment of your current traits. Pick one or two traits to work on that you feel would help you grow as a person and focus on them.

Set a daily personal development goal. Commit to doing at least one thing every day to help develop your personality. This doesn't have to be a big action either. Even baby steps will move you in the right direction.

Keep a positive mindset. Changing yourself can be difficult, especially if you're working on a part of your personality you've had for a long time. Staying positive along the way helps you pay more attention to the pros versus the cons. It also makes the journey more enjoyable, for you and everyone around you.

Be confident. When you have something about yourself that you'd like to change, it can be easy to let your perceived imperfection reduce your confidence. Yet, you can be confident and continue to develop your personality in meaningful ways at the same time, giving you the best of both worlds while pursuing personality development.

A Word From Verywell

Understanding how personality develops can provide insight into others, as well as into ourselves. There are many different theories as to how personality forms, each of which has contributed to what we know about personality today.

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5 Major Theories of Personality Development

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Learn about some of psychology's most prominent thinkers' major theories of personality formation and development.

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UNIT 2 - Theoretical perspectives on human development

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UNIT 2 - Theoretical perspectives on human development

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Elisa Gómez

This video provides a concise and visually engaging overview of the main theoretical perspectives on human development. It explores key theories such as Piaget's stages of cognitive development, Erikson's psychosocial stages, and Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, using clear examples and simple explanations. With dynamic animations and relatable scenarios, the video helps viewers understand how these theories explain different aspects of human growth and learning. Perfect for those looking to reinforce their understanding of developmental psychology in a quick, accessible format.

Type of License of the Resource: Standard YouTube Licens.

TED-Ed. (2023, October 12). Theories of D

evelopment: Concepts and Perspectives in Psychology [Video]. YouTube.

https://youtu.be/grAUgEjdIsI?si=nzwuvI_3-VY4pzN4

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Concepts and Issues on Human Development #education #childdevelopment

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UNIT 2 - Theoretical perspectives on human development

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UNIT 2 - Theoretical perspectives on human development

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Elisa Gómez

This article provides a comprehensive and well-structured explanation of key developmental psychology theories, such as Piaget's cognitive stages, Erikson's psychosocial stages, and Vygotsky's sociocultural theory. It highlights how these theories apply to real-life contexts, making it a valuable resource for students seeking to deepen their understanding of human development.

Type of License of the Resource: Open access.

Rutgers University Libraries. (n.d.). Chapter 1: Developmental Theories. In Development Across the Lifespan. Rutgers Open Textbooks. https://openpub.libraries.rutgers.edu/developmentacrossthelifespan/chapter/chapter-1-developmental-theories/

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Developmental Theories – A Primer for Understanding Development Across The Life Span

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“Only through freedom and environmental experience is it
practically possible for human development to occur”.
– Maria Montessori

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Elisa Gómez

This resource relates to the topics of prenatal stages: germinal, embryonic and fetal, as well as environmental and biological factors that influence development.

APA Citation: Iowa State University. (n.d.). Prenatal Development. In Parenting and Family Diversity Issues. https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/parentingfamilydiversity/chapter/prenatal-development/

Type of License- Online article, open Access

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Prenatal Development – Parenting and Family Diversity Issues

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How did you come to be who you are? From beginning as a one-cell structure to your birth, your prenatal development occurred in an orderly and delicate sequence. There are three stages of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal. Keep in mind that this is different than the three trimesters of pregnancy.

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Elisa Gómez

This video analyzes motor development in infants from both a theoretical and practical perspective, explaining how early reflexes evolve into more coordinated and voluntary movements.

A highlight is his discussion of the importance of cultural context and individual differences in the pace of development, a topic we only touch on briefly in the classroom.

APA Citation: Psychology Matters. (2023, February 10). Motor Development in Infants: Theories and Practical Applications [Video]. YouTube.

https://youtu.be/LiTuGv_GeaE

Type of License- Youtube video, standard Youtube License

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Elisa Gómez

This podcast episode addresses children's language development from a practical and accessible perspective, offering theory-backed strategies for fostering language skills.

One aspect that I found particularly interesting was the discussion of how caregivers can support children with speech delays, connecting it to Vygotsky's scaffolding theory.

APA Citation: No One Told Us. (2023, March 22). Supporting Your Child’s Speech and Language [Podcast]. https://www.noonetoldusthepodcast.com/episodes/supporting-your-childs-speech-and-language

Type of license- Podcast Episode, Open Access

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Supporting Your Child’s Speech & Language Development — No One Told Us: The Podcast

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Episode 36: Supporting Your Child’s Speech & Language Development with Katie & Carly of Wee Talkers @weetalkers “Why isn’t my toddler talking yet?” “Should my child be saying more words?” “Is screen time OK for my baby?” If you have ever had these questions, you are

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Elisa Gómez

This article is an essential reference on attachment theory and discusses in depth how early attachments shape socioemotional development and future relationships.

it explains attachment styles (secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized) clearly, connecting them to current research, such as the influence of attachment on emotional regulation and stress responses.

the article includes cultural perspectives and factors such as parental sensitivity, providing a broader view of what we discussed in class.

APA Citation: Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.). (2016). Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications (3rd ed.). Guilford Press. https://www.academia.edu/120826620/Handbook_of_attachment_theory_research_and_clinical_applications_Third_edition

Type of license-Research Article, open Access

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Handbook of attachment: theory, research, and clinical applications. Third edition

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Handbook of attachment: theory, research, and clinical applications. Third edition

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Unit 7: Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development (In 2 Minutes!)

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Unit 7: Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development (In 2 Minutes!)

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Isabella Coello

Summary: This video very briefly explains Who Jean Piaget was as well as the main concepts of his developmental stages. It goes through each one of the stages, explaining the ages in which they occur and their key concepts.

Type of license: Standard YouTube License

APA citation:

Helpful Professor Explains! (2023, June 29). Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (In 2 minutes!) [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2spOA-H6JEY

Original link: https://youtu.be/2spOA-H6JEY?si=ZHw9jSOI4igENOUL

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Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development (In 2 Minutes!)

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Unit 8: 5 Parenting Styles and Their Effects on Life

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Unit 8: 5 Parenting Styles and Their Effects on Life

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Isabella Coello

Summary: This video starts by listing and explaining the 4 parenting styles and later mentions the 5th more recently discovered one. It goes on to give examples that put these parenting styles into perspective and shows how it affects the child’s behaviors and attitudes, as well as how their future is affected. Following this, the video mentions research done and who first introduced the 4 parenting styles.

Original link: https://youtu.be/fyO8pvpnTdE?si=IRlo57NR3WiqzTer

Type of license: Standard YouTube License

APA citation:

Sprouts. (2021, April 30). 5 Parenting styles and their effects on life [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fyO8pvpnTdE

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5 Parenting Styles and Their Effects on Life

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Unit 6: Language: Crash Course Psychology #16

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Unit 6: Language: Crash Course Psychology #16

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Isabella Coello

Summary: This video explains the entirety of language development, from phonemes and morphemes to the stages of language acquisition. It starts by introducing Kanzi and Bonobo and what language is. It continues by explaining phonemes, morphemes, and grammar and then the stages in which language is acquired and what you can say within each stage. It concludes by going over Skinner and Chomsky’s theories and aphasias that can limit language.

Original link: https://youtu.be/s9shPouRWCs?si=DGuV1tFT3Bn7gZOU

Type of license: Standard YouTube License

APA citation:

CrashCourse. (2014, May 26). Language: Crash course Psychology #16 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s9shPouRWCs

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Isabella Coello

Summary: This article outlines the three key stages of human development during pregnancy: the germinal stage, the embryonic stage, and the fetal stage. It explains the major milestones and processes occurring in each stage. The germinal stage focuses on the formation and implantation of the zygote. The embryonic stage details the development of major organs and body systems. Finally, the fetal stage describes the growth and maturation that prepare the fetus for birth.

Original link: https://www.verywellmind.com/stages-of-prenatal-development-2795073

Type of license: Article from Very Well Mind

APA citation:

MSEd, K. C. (2024c, May 20). Prenatal development stages. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/stages-of-prenatal-development-2795073

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While you might think of child development as something that begins during infancy, the prenatal period is also considered an important part of the developmental process. Prenatal development is a time of remarkable change that helps set the stage for future psychological development. The brain develops over the course of the prenatal period, but it will continue to go through more changes during the early years of childhood

There are three stages of prenatal development: the germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages.

The first two weeks after conception are known as the germinal stage, the third through the eighth week is known as the embryonic period, and the time from the ninth week until birth is known as the fetal period.

Germinal Stage of Prenatal Development

The germinal stage begins at conception when the sperm and egg cell unite in one of the two fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg is called a zygote. Just a few hours after conception, the single-celled zygote begins making a journey down the fallopian tube to the uterus.

Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours after conception. Through the process of mitosis, the zygote first divides into two cells, then into four, eight, sixteen, and so on. A significant number of zygotes never progress past this early part of cell division, with as many as half of all zygotes surviving less than two weeks.

Once the eight-cell point has been reached, the cells begin to differentiate and take on certain characteristics that will determine the type of cells they will eventually become. As the cells multiply, they will also separate into two distinctive masses: the outer cells will eventually become the placenta, while the inner cells form the embryo.

Cell division continues at a rapid rate during the approximately week-long journey from fallopian tube to uterus wall. The cells develop into what is known as a blastocyst. The blastocyst is made up of three layers, each of which develops into different structures in the body.﻿﻿

1. Ectoderm: Skin and nervous system

2. Endoderm: Digestive and respiratory systems

3. Mesoderm: Muscle and skeletal systems

Finally, the blastocyst arrives at the uterus and attaches to the uterine wall, a process known as implantation. Implantation occurs when the cells nestle into the uterine lining and rupture tiny blood vessels. The connective web of blood vessels and membranes that form between them will provide nourishment for the developing being for the next nine months. Implantation is not always an automatic and sure-fire process.

Researchers estimate that approximately 60% of all natural conceptions never become properly implanted in the uterus, which results in the new life ending before the mother is ever aware she is pregnant.

When implantation is successful, hormonal changes halt the normal menstrual cycle and cause a whole host of physical changes. For some people, activities they previously enjoyed such as smoking and drinking alcohol or coffee may become less palatable, possibly part of nature's way of protecting the growing life inside them.﻿﻿

Embryonic Stage of Prenatal Development

At this point, the mass of cells is now known as an embryo. The beginning of the third week after conception marks the start of the embryonic period, a time when the mass of cells becomes distinct as a human. The embryonic stage plays an important role in the development of the brain.

Approximately four weeks after conception, the neural tube forms. This tube will later develop into the central nervous system including the spinal cord and brain. The neural tube begins to form along with an area known as the neural plate. The earliest signs of development of the neural tube are the emergence of two ridges that form along each side of the neural plate.

Over the next few days, more ridges form and fold inward until a hollow tube is formed. Once this tube is fully formed, cells begin to form near the center.﻿﻿ The tube begins to close and brain vesicles form. These vesicles will eventually develop into parts of the brain, including the structures of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.​

Around the fourth week, the head begins to form, quickly followed by the eyes, nose, ears, and mouth. The blood vessel that will become the heart start to pulse. During the fifth week, buds that will form the arms and legs appear.

By the eighth week of development, the embryo has all of the basic organs and parts except those of the sex organs. At this point, the embryo weighs just one gram and is about one inch in length.

By the end of the embryonic period, the basic structures of the brain and central nervous system have been established. At this point, the basic structure of the peripheral nervous system is also defined.

The production of neurons, or brain cells, begins around day 42 after conception and is mostly complete sometime around the middle of pregnancy.

As neurons form, they migrate to different areas of the brain. Once they have reached the correct location, they begin to form connections with other neural cells, establishing rudimentary neural networks.

Fetal Stage of Prenatal Development

Once cell differentiation is mostly complete, the embryo enters the next stage and becomes known as a fetus. The fetal period of prenatal develop marks more important changes in the brain. This period of development begins during the ninth week and lasts until birth. This stage is marked by amazing change and growth.

The early body systems and structures established in the embryonic stage continue to develop. The neural tube develops into the brain and spinal cord and neurons continue to form. Once these neurons have formed, they begin to migrate to their correct locations. Synapses, or the connections between neurons, also begin to develop.

Between the ninth and twelfth week of gestation (at the earliest), reflexes begin to emerge. The fetus begins to make reflexive motions with its arms and legs.﻿﻿

During the third month of gestation, the sex organs begin to differentiate. By the end of the month, all parts of the body will be formed. At this point, the fetus weighs around three ounces. The fetus continues to grow in both weight and length, although the majority of the physical growth occurs in the later stages of pregnancy.

The end of the third month also marks the end of the first trimester of pregnancy. During the second trimester, or months four through six, the heartbeat grows stronger and other body systems become further developed. Fingernails, hair, eyelashes, and toenails form.﻿﻿ Perhaps most noticeably, the fetus increases about six times in size.

So what's going on inside the brain during this important period of prenatal development? The brain and central nervous system also become more responsive during the second trimester. Around 28 weeks, the brain starts to mature faster, with an activity that greatly resembles that of a sleeping newborn.

During the period from seven months until birth, the fetus continues to develop, put on weight, and prepare for life outside the womb. The lungs begin to expand and contract, preparing the muscles for breathing.

While development usually follows this normal pattern, there are times when problems with prenatal development occur. Disease, malnutrition, and other prenatal influences can have a powerful impact on how the brain develops during this critical period.

A Word From Verywell

Brain development does not end at birth. A considerable amount of brain development takes place postnatally, including growing in size and volume while changing in structure. The brain quadruples in size between birth and preschool. As children learn and have new experiences, some networks in the brain are strengthened while other connections are pruned.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the most critical weeks of fetal development?

The first 13 weeks of pregnancy are considered the most critical in prenatal development. It is during this period that the embryo forms organs. It is also the period when most miscarriages occur.

What are the stages of embryonic development in order?

The main stages of the embryonic period encompass gastrulation (the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm form), neurulation (formation of neural tissue), organogenesis (development of the organs).

What are the major milestones in fetal development?

Important fetal development milestones at each stage of prenatal development include:

Germinal stage: The division of cells and implantation of the blastocyst.

Embryonic stage: The development of the neural tube and organs.

Fetal stage: Continued growth of organs and physical development in preparation for birth.

Additional Reading

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How a Baby Develops During the Prenatal Period

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The stages of prenatal development represent a tremendous amount of change from conception to birth. Learn about what happens during the prenatal development stages.

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Unit 9: Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development Explained!

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Unit 9: Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development Explained!

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Isabella Coello

Summary: The video explains Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development, which outlines six stages of moral reasoning across three levels. The Preconventional (focused on personal rewards and punishments), Conventional (guided by social rules and laws), and Postconventional (based on abstract principles like justice). It explains how moral thinking evolves with cognitive and social development.

Original link: https://youtu.be/sBop4yfH4pg?si=aL6YkQqR4lpL-8N9

Type of license: Standard YouTube License

APA citation:

Collin Testing and Psychological Services. (2017, July 22). Kohlberg’s theory of moral development explained! [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sBop4yfH4pg

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Collin Testing and Psychological Services

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Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development Explained!

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In this article you get a deeper insight into what to expect when it comes to language development in a toddler, as well as different stages of language development.

Language development in children: 0-8 years. (2023, December 19). Raising Children Network. https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/development/language-development/language-development-0-8

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Language development in children: 0-8 years

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Language development underpins cognitive, social and literacy development. A lot of talking responding and reading with you helps your child learn language.

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In this article, you get more information on what the primary motor skills are, and a timeline of what to expect when children are developing, it has a detailed and clear explanation of each motor development stage.

Children’s Developmental Milestones: Gross and Fine Motor Skills | Brown University Health. (n.d.). Brown University Health. https://www.brownhealth.org/be-well/childrens-developmental-milestones-gross-and-fine-motor-skills

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Children’s Developmental Milestones: Gross and Fine Motor Skills | Brown University Health

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Each child is different and will develop their motor skills at different times, there are some guidelines that pediatricians and pediatric physical and occupational therapists follow.

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Unit 7: Introduction to developmental psychology: Piaget’s stages 

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Unit 7: Introduction to developmental psychology: Piaget’s stages 

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Elizabeth Tickner

Summary: The video introduces Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, outlining four stages. The stages highlight how children’s thinking evolves, though development varies individually.

1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Learning through senses and actions; develops object permanence.

2. Preoperational (2-7 years): Symbolic thinking and language emerge but remains egocentric and intuitive.

3. Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Logical thinking develops for concrete objects; understands conservation and classification.

4. Formal Operational (12+ years): Abstract and hypothetical reasoning matures.

Original link: https://youtu.be/eJTIo_MhG3M?si=nZHBDMeNnA_xVpTr

Type of license: Standard YouTube license

APA citation: Professor Dave Explains. (2022, March 14). Introduction to Developmental Psychology: Piaget’s Stages [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJTIo_MhG3M

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Introduction to Developmental Psychology: Piaget’s Stages

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In this article made by Cincinatti's children's hospital, we get a proper explanation and examples of what is cognitive development and the typical changes that come with age, that help the child develop and mature, and how it shows.

Cognitive Development in Children | Advice for Parents. (n.d.). https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/health/c/cognitive-development#:~:text=What%20is%20Cognitive%20Development%3F,and%20transform%20objects%20and%20actions.

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What is Cognitive Development?

Cognitive development means the development of the ability to think and reason.

Children ages 6 to 12, usually think in concrete ways (concrete operations). This can include things like how to combine, separate, order, and transform objects and actions.

Adolescence marks the beginning development of more complex thinking processes (also called formal logical operations). This time can include abstract thinking and the ability to form their own new ideas or questions. It can also include the ability to consider many points of view, compare or debate ideas or opinions, as well as consider the process of thinking.

Typical Cognitive Changes During Adolescence

During adolescence (between 12 and 18 years of age), the developing teenager gains the ability to think systematically about all logical relationships within a problem. The transition from concrete thinking to formal logical operations happens over time. Every adolescent progresses at their own rate in developing their ability to think in more complex ways. Each adolescent develops their own view of the world. Some adolescents may be able to apply logical operations to school work before they are able to apply them to personal problems. When emotional issues come up, they can add an additional level of complexity for an adolescent's cognitive reasoning. The ability to consider possibilities, emotions, and facts may impact decision-making in positive or negative ways.

Some common features indicating growth from more simple to more complex cognitive development include:

Early Adolescence

During early adolescence, the use of more complex thinking is focused on personal decision-making in school and home environments. This can include:

Begins to demonstrate use of formal logical operations in schoolwork.

Begins to question authority and society standards.

Begins to form and verbalize their own thoughts and views on a variety of topics. These are usually more related to their own life, such as:

Which sports are better to play

Which groups are better to be included in

What personal looks are desirable or attractive

What parental rules should be changed

Middle Adolescence

The focus of middle adolescence often includes more philosophical and futuristic concerns. Examples may include:

Often questions and analyzes more extensively

Thinks about and begins to form their own code of ethics (what do I think is right?)

Thinks about different possibilities and begins to develop own identity (who am I?)

Thinks about and begins to consider possible future goals (what do I want?)

Thinks about and begins to make their own plans

Begins to think long term

Begins to consider how to influence relationships with others

Late Adolescence

During late adolescence, complex thinking processes are used to focus on less self-centered concepts and personal decision-making. Examples may include:

Increased thoughts about more global concepts such as justice, history, and politics

Develops idealistic views on specific topics or concerns

Debates and develops intolerance of opposing views

Begins to focus thinking on making career decisions

Begins to focus thinking on emerging role in adult society

Fostering Healthy Adolescent Cognitive Development

To help encourage positive and healthy cognitive development in the adolescent:

Help adolescents in getting adequate sleep, hydration, and nutrition.

Include adolescents in discussions about a variety of topics, issues, and current events.

Encourage adolescents to share ideas and thoughts with adults.

Encourage adolescents to think independently and develop their own ideas.

Help adolescents in setting their own goals.

Encourage adolescents to think about possibilities of the future.

Compliment and praise adolescents for well-thought-out decisions.

Help adolescents in reviewing any poorly made decisions.

Reviewed By Katie Nees, Child Life Specialist

Cincinnati Children's has primary care services at locations throughout Greater Cincinnati.

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Cognitive Development in Children | Advice for Parents

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More complex thinking processes start to develop in adolescence. Read about the typical cognitive changes and how to foster healthy development.

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In this article, we can see what social-emotional development in early childhood is, it talks about different temperaments the child can have, an the different stages the child can go through.

Developmental Stages of Social Emotional Development in Children. (2024, January 1). PubMed. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30521240/

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Developmental Stages of Social Emotional Development in Children - PubMed

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To understand human growth and development, healthcare professionals need to understand and learn about 2 areas:

1. Knowledge of m

…

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In this video we get to see the definition and the stages of moral development in humans, and it has a clear structure and explanations for each part.

https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-moral-development-definition-stages.html#:~:text=Lesson%20Summary-,What%20is%20Moral%20Development%3F,as%20well%20as%20established%20laws.

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Unit 2: The Development of Human Psychology: Retrospect and Prospect of Three Major Theoretical Perspectives

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Unit 2: The Development of Human Psychology: Retrospect and Prospect of Three Major Theoretical Perspectives

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Elizabeth Tickner

Summary: This article reviews three key theories in developmental psychology. The authors suggest that integrating these theories could lead to comprehensive models for understanding human psychological development throughout life.

1. Psychoanalytic Theory: Emphasizes the impact of early individual experiences on later development, suggesting a “nature determinism” perspective.

2. Cognitive Developmental Theory: Focuses on children’s psychological development as the adaptation of the subject to the object through action.

3. Social Learning Theory: Highlights the role of later social experiences in shaping individual psychological development, shifting focus from genetics and environment to social factors.

Original link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380172740_The_Development_of_Human_Psychology_Retrospect_and_Prospect_of_Three_Major_Theoretical_Perspectives/fulltext/662f914006ea3d0b7418eca7/The-Development-of-Human-Psychology-Retrospect-and-Prospect-of-Three-Major-Theoretical-Perspectives.pdf?origin=publication_detail&_tp=eyJjb250ZXh0Ijp7ImZpcnN0UGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIiwicGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uRG93bmxvYWQiLCJwcmV2aW91c1BhZ2UiOiJwdWJsaWNhdGlvbiJ9fQ

Type of license: Article from Research gate

APA citation: Sun, Y., & Wang, X. (2024, April). The Development of Human Psychology: Retrospect and Prospect of Three Major Theoretical Perspectives. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380172740_The_Development_of_Human_Psychology_Retrospect_and_Prospect_of_Three_Major_Theoretical_Perspectives/fulltext/662f914006ea3d0b7418eca7/The-Development-of-Human-Psychology-Retrospect-and-Prospect-of-Three-Major-Theoretical-Perspectives.pdf?origin=publication_detail&_tp=eyJjb250ZXh0Ijp7ImZpcnN0UGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIiwicGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uRG93bmxvYWQiLCJwcmV2aW91c1BhZ2UiOiJwdWJsaWNhdGlvbiJ9fQ.

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Unit 5: Infant fine/gross motor, social, and psychosocial development - Pediatric nursing @LevelUpRN

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Unit 5: Infant fine/gross motor, social, and psychosocial development - Pediatric nursing @LevelUpRN

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Elizabeth Tickner

Summary: This video outlines key developmental milestones for infants. The video emphasises the typical age ranges for these milestones, aiding in monitoring infant development.

• Gross Motor Skills: Large movements such as rolling over, sitting, crawling, and walking.

• Fine Motor Skills: Precise actions like grasping objects, transferring items between hands, and pincer grasp development.

• Social Development: Behaviors including smiling, stranger anxiety, and social interactions.

• Psychosocial Development: Emotional and psychological growth, referencing Erikson’s stages, particularly trust vs. mistrust in infancy.

Original link: https://youtu.be/qbrRYCRd2cU?si=K4HzecVJgeySxXMK

Type of license: Standard YouTube license

APA citation: Level Up RN. (2021, December 21). Infant Fine/Gross Motor, Social, and Psychosocial Development - Pediatric Nursing | @LevelUpRN [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qbrRYCRd2cU

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Infant Fine/Gross Motor, Social, and Psychosocial Development - Pediatric Nursing | @LevelUpRN

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Unit 6: Theories of Language Development 

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Unit 6: Theories of Language Development 

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Elizabeth Tickner

Summary: In this video, several key theories are discussed. The video compares these theories, highlighting their strengths and limitations in explaining language acquisition.

1. Nativist Theory: Proposed by Noam Chomsky, this theory suggests that humans are born with an innate ability for language acquisition, facilitated by a theoretical construct known as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD).

2. Learning (Behaviorist) Theory: Championed by B.F. Skinner, it posits that language is acquired through imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning.

3. Interactionist Theory: This perspective combines biological and social factors, asserting that language development arises from the desire to communicate and is influenced by social interactions.

Original link: https://youtu.be/HJ41B-BeJ3g?si=MI8GI4H7orkX_3pk

Type of license: Standard YouTube license

APA citation: 5-Minute Psych. (2024, January 22). Theories of Language Development [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HJ41B-BeJ3g

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Unit 11: Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development Explained 

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Unit 11: Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development Explained 

# data[].attributes.body
Elizabeth Tickner

Summary: This video outlines Sigmund Freud’s model, which proposes that human development occurs through five stages, each centered on a specific erogenous zone. The video explains that unresolved conflicts during any stage can lead to fixation, potentially influencing adult personality and behavior.

1. Oral Stage (0-1 year): Pleasure centers on the mouth; activities like sucking and biting are crucial.

2. Anal Stage (1-3 years): Focus shifts to bowel and bladder control; toilet training becomes significant.

3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Attention moves to the genitals; children begin to identify with same-sex parents.

4. Latency Stage (6-puberty): Sexual impulses are repressed; focus is on social interactions and skills development.

5. Genital Stage (puberty onward): Mature sexual interests develop; individuals seek relationships outside the family.

Original link: https://youtu.be/WBX7IDuh1bU?si=PzjxOZypYec604xM

Type of license: Standard YouTube License

APA citation: Collin Testing and Psychological Services. (2019, May 28). Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development Explained [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WBX7IDuh1bU

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Collin Testing and Psychological Services

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Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development Explained

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Resource Name:

Brain Mechanisms in Early Language Acquisition

Explanation:

This peer-reviewed article explores the neural mechanisms underlying language acquisition in infants. It emphasizes the role of social interactions and brain plasticity in the development of phonological and syntactic skills. Kuhl also highlights how early exposure to language shapes the brain‘s processing abilities, making it a cornerstone for understanding developmental psychology in early childhood.

Reference:

Kuhl, P. K. (2010). Brain mechanisms in early language acquisition. Neuron, 67(5), 713-727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2010.08.038

License Type:

All rights reserved (direct access available via DOI link).

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Brain mechanisms in early language acquisition - PubMed

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The last decade has produced an explosion in neuroscience research examining young children’s early processing of language. Noninvasive, safe functional brain measurements have now been proven feasible for use with children starting at birth. The phonetic level of language is especially accessible t …

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Resource Name:

Temperament in Children‘s Development

Explanation:

This Chapter explores temperament as a biological foundation for personality development, detailing how traits such as emotionality, activity level, and sociability interact with environmental factors. It emphasizes the role of early temperament in shaping self-regulation and broader personality traits across childhood and adolescence.

Reference:

Rothbart, M.K., & Bates, J. E. (in press). Temperament in children‘s development. In W. Damon, R. Lerner, & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology, Sixth Edition: Social, Emotional, and Personality Development (Vol. 3). New York: Wiley.

License Type:

All rights reserved (accessible via ResearchGate).

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Resource Name:

Reconstructing Constructivism: Casual Models, Bayesian Learning Mechanisms, and the Theory Theory

Explanation:

This peer-reviewed article updates classical constructivist theories, such as those by Piaget, by integrating modern insights from Bayesian learning models and causal reasoning. It proposes that children actively construct knowledge through probabilistic inference and causal learning, emphasizing the “theory theory“ approach to understanding how children think and learn about the world.

Reference:

Gopnik, A., & Wellman, H. M. (2012). Reconstructing constructivism: causal models, Bayesian learning mechanisms, and the theory theory. Psychological bulletin, 138(6), 1085–1108. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028044

License Type:

All rights reserved (accessible via DOI link).

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Reconstructing constructivism: Causal models, Bayesian learning mechanisms and the theory theory

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We propose a new version of the “theory theory” grounded in the computational framework of probabilistic causal models and Bayesian learning. Probabilistic models allow a constructivist but rigorous and detailed approach to cognitive development.…

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Resource Name:

Origins and Development of Morality

Explanation:

This chapter from the Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science: Socioemotional Processes provides a detailed exploration of moral development. It covers the early roots of morality in infancy , moral judgements in childhood, and the role of family, peers, and societal contexts in shaping moral reasoning. Additionally, it integrates neuroscience and theory of mind to explain how children understand morality in relation to mental states, fairness, and justice.

Reference:

Killen, M., & Smetana, J. G. (2015). Origins and development of morality. In M. Lamb (Ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science: Socioemotional Processes (7th ed., Vol. 3, pp. 702-742). John Wiley & Sons. https://www.sas.rochester.edu/psy/people/faculty/smetana_judith/assets/pdf/KillenSmetana_2015_Origins.pdf

License Type:

All rights reserved (accessible via provided link).

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Resource Name:

The Future of Sex and Gender in Psychology: Five Challenges to the Gender Binary

Explanation:

This article critically examines the limitations of traditional gender binary models in psychology and proposes a more inclusive framework for understanding sex, gender, and sexuality. It integrates research across biology, psychology, and sociology to explore the fluidity and complexity of gender and sexual identity. Key challenges include addressing biases, expanding conceptual frameworks, and integrating intersectional approaches.

Reference:

Hyde, J. S., Bigler, R. S., Joel, D., Tate, C. C., & van Anders, S. M. (2019). The future of sex and gender in psychology: Five challneges to the gender binary. American Psychologist, 74(2), 171-193. Retrieved from https://psychiatry.ucsd.edu/_files/diversity/hyde.pdf

License Type:

All rights reserved (accessible via provided link).

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Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

In this video, Piaget's stages of cognitive development are explained. The complex concept is broken down into digestible information, with concise and visually engaging information. The video explains how children progress through different stages of thinking. It is an excellent resource for understanding this foundational theory in this unit.

Type of License: Standard Youtube License

APA Citation: Sprouts (2018, August 1). Piaget’s Theory on Cognitive Development [Video]. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IhcgYgx7aAA

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Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

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In this article, you get a very deep dive into what are morals and the philosophy behind it, and how humans have evolved and developed and how morality has evolved and developed within the human society.

Moral Development | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (n.d.). https://iep.utm.edu/moraldev/

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Moral Development | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

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This entry analyzes moral development as a perennial philosophical view complemented by modern empirical research programs. The two initial sections summarize what moral development is and why it is important for ethics and human nature theory. The “Roots” section notes historical versions of natural development in morality, touching on Confucius, Aristotle, Rousseau and Rawls. The next four sections assess current empirical research in moral psychology focusing on the cognitive-developmental approach of Piaget and Kohlberg and its philosophical theory. In the “Critical Specifics” section, controversies are taken up in stage theories of moral development focusing major rivalries in moral philosophy, critical and feminist theory. “Caring’s Different Voice” focuses on conflicts between justice and benevolence ethics. The “Pedagogical Implications” of moral cognition research are then summarized with a focus on classroom practices. Finally, “Related Research” is surveyed on the roles of moral perception, identity, empathy, convention/tradition, altruism and egoism, along with new moral-automaticity notions in cognitive science.

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Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems: 5 Forces Impacting Our Lives

In this video, the contextual perspective is explained by Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory. It makes it easier to understand how environmental factors influence development. Its historical context, Bronfenbrenner’s work connects environmental and developmental psychology. I particularly chose this resource, because it explains this theory in an engaging, tangible and animated way.

Type of License: Standard Youtube License

APA Citation: Sprouts (2021, December 1). Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems: 5 Forces Impacting Our Lives [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6pUQ4EDHeQ

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Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems: 5 Forces Impacting Our Lives

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4 Parenting Styles That You Must Know! | How Parenting Style Impacts the Lives of Your Children?

This video explores the four main parenting styles in detail, but still in a visually engaging way. Authoratative, democratic, uninvolved and permissive parenting styles are discussed. It is an excellent resource for understanding how different parenting approaches impact children’s socioemotional development, when it comes to the child's behavior and well-being. The video’s practical explanations and examples make the concept easy to grasp.

Type of License: Standard Youtube License

APA Citation: MR. BRAIN (2023, June 22). 4 Parenting Styles That You Must Know! How Parenting Styles Impacts The Lives Of Your Children? [Video]. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CCunStG5ewM

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4 Parenting Styles That You Must Know! | How Parenting Style Impacts the Lives of Your Children?

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Prenatal Development: What babies learn in the Womb

This video is an engaging approach to prenatal development. It emphasizes the profound impact of the prenatal environment on development. The video introduces concepts like David Barker’s ‘postcards’ theory. The video gives us an unique insight into how external factors during pregnancy influence a baby’s future. I choose this because this is a visually engaging resource that explains prenatal development in easy terms.

Type of License: Standard Youtube License

APA Citation: Sprouts (2018, November 28). Prenatal development: What babies learn in the Womb [Video]. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UA-Tk9qlG9A

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Prenatal Development: What Babies Learn in the Womb

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"Two Different Mismatches: Integrating the Developmental and the Evolutionary-Mismatch Hypothesis"

This article explores the integration of developmental and evolutionary perspectives on moral development, providing insights into how mismatches between evolved psychological mechanisms and modern environments can influence moral behavior.

License Type: Open Access (Creative Commons Attribution)

Hoogland, M., & Ploeger, A. (2022). Two Different Mismatches: Integrating the Developmental and the Evolutionary-Mismatch Hypothesis. Perspectives on Psychological Science. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35834332/

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Two Different Mismatches: Integrating the Developmental and the Evolutionary-Mismatch Hypothesis - PubMed

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Evolutionary psychology aims to understand the origins of the human mind, including disease. Several theories about the origins of disease have been proposed. One concerns a developmental mismatch-a mismatch might occur at the individual level between the environment experienced during childhood and …

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“Theory-Based Advanced Nursing Practice: A Practice Update on the Application of Orem's Self-Care Deficit Nursing Theory”

This article applies cognitive development theories in the context of nursing, illustrating how self-care skills are acquired and reflecting on developmental principles.

License Type: Open Access (Creative Commons Attribution)

Yip, J. Y. C. (2021). Theory-Based Advanced Nursing Practice: A Practice Update on the Application of Orem's Self-Care Deficit Nursing Theory. SAGE Open Nursing. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33959682/

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The .gov means it's official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site.

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Abstract

Introduction: Many researchers have commended the self-care deficit nursing theory (SCDNT) developed by Orem as a means of improving patients' health outcomes through nurses' contributions. However, experimental research has investigated specific aspects of SCDNT, such as self-care agency and self-care requisites, rather than how the construct is practiced and understood as a whole. The current research presents a case study in which an advanced practice nurse (APN) used SCDNT-led practice within a primary healthcare setting that illustrates how the theory is applied to case management.

Methods: A case study was conducted by observing an APN during her work in the asthma clinic of a public hospital in Hong Kong. A comparison was made between the case management of the APN under observation with the nursing processes stipulated by the SCDNT across four key operations: diagnostic, prescriptive, treatment or regulatory, and case management.

Conclusion: During the observed consultation, the APN applied the four key operations. In SCDNT, the role of the APN is to apply practical nursing knowledge by determining how a patient can best undertake self-care within the circumstances of their living arrangements and support facilities. The case study also demonstrated that SCDNT-based nursing practice has strengths and limitations in a primary healthcare setting. The study concluded that Orem's SCDNT serves as an appropriate theoretical framework for nursing practice within primary healthcare settings. One practical consequence of using SCDNT is that it enables APNs to use nurse-sensitive indicators when evaluating their clinical practice. This study offers a practice update to increase the accountability of nursing practice for nurse-led healthcare services.

Keywords: Orem self-care model; nursing theory; nursing theory-guided practice; primary care nursing.

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Conflict of interest statement

Declaration of Conflicting Interests: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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References

Afrasiabifar A., Mehri Z., Ghaffarian Shirazi H. R. (2020). Orem's self-care model with multiple sclerosis patients' balance and motor function. Nursing Science Quarterly, 33(1), 46-54. 10.1177/0894318419881792 - DOI - PubMed

Afrasiabifar A., Mehri Z., Javad Sadat S., Ghaffarian Shirazi H. R. (2016). The effect of Orem's self-care model on fatigue in patients with multiple sclerosis: A single blind randomized clinical trial study. Iranian Red Crescent Medical Journal, 18(8), e31955. 10.5812/ircmj.31955 - DOI - PMC - PubMed

Bal Özkaptan B., Kapucu S. (2016). Home nursing care with the self-care model improves self-efficacy of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Japan Journal of Nursing Science, 13(3), 365-377. 10.1111/jjns.12118 - DOI - PubMed

Blok A. C. (2017). A middle-range explanatory theory of self-management behavior for collaborative research and practice: Self-management behavior. Nursing Forum, 52(2), 138-146. 10.1111/nuf.12169 - DOI - PubMed

Bond A. E., Eshah N. F., Bani-Khaled M., Hamad A. O., Habashneh S., Kataua' H., al-Jarrah I., Kamal A. A., Hamdan F. R., Maabreh R. (2011). Who uses nursing theory? A univariate descriptive analysis of five years' research articles. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 25(2), 404-409. 10.1111/j.1471-6712.2010.00835.x - DOI - PubMed

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national center for biotechnology information

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Theory-Based Advanced Nursing Practice: A Practice Update on the Application of Orem's Self-Care Deficit Nursing Theory - PubMed

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
During the observed consultation, the APN applied the four key operations. In SCDNT, the role of the APN is to apply practical nursing knowledge by determining how a patient can best undertake self-care within the circumstances of their living arrangements and support facilities. The case study also ...

# data[].attributes.body
“Parenting Styles and Children’s Emotional Development During the First Grade: The Moderating Role of Child Temperament”

This study investigates how parenting styles affect children’s emotional development, emphasizing the role of temperament in shaping socioaffective growth.

License Type: Open Access (Creative Commons Attribution)

Zarra-Nezhad, M., Aunola, K., Kiuru, N., Mullola, S., Moazami-Goodarzi, A., & Nurmi, J. E. (2017). Parenting Styles and Children’s Emotional Development During the First Grade: The Moderating Role of Child Temperament. Journal of Psychology & Psychotherapy. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=gW8lTU0AAAAJ

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“The Impact of Pretend Play on Children's Development: A Review of the Evidence”

This review explores the role of pretend play in child development, including its impact on language acquisition and other cognitive skills.

License Type: Open Access (Creative Commons Attribution)

Lillard, A. S., Lerner, M. D., Hopkins, E. J., Dore, R. A., Smith, E. D., & Palmquist, C. M. (2013). The Impact of Pretend Play on Children's Development: A Review of the Evidence. Psychological Bulletin. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=jvqmx08AAAAJ

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“Theory of Mind: How Children Understand Others' Thoughts and Feelings”

This book details the development of theory of mind in children, explaining how understanding others’ thoughts and feelings is foundational for personality and social development.

License Type: Open Access (Creative Commons Attribution)

Doherty, M. (2008). Theory of Mind: How Children Understand Others' Thoughts and Feelings. Psychology Press. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=dLTD330AAAAJ

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Language: The first 5 Years of Life of Learning

This resource stood out to me since it highlights a critical period in early childhood for learning language. It gives us the milestones over the first five years of language acquisition. The video explains it in a summarized, easy and concise way, making it perfect for understanding this aspect of development

Type of License: Standard Youtube License

APA Citation: Sprouts (2019, April 30). Language: The 5 years of Life of Learning [Video]. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u49uLLCUlEk

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Language: The First 5 Years of Life of Learning

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Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

This resource provides an overview of Erik Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development, detailing each stage's central conflict, age range, and outcomes. It underlines the significance of resolving each stage's conflict for healthy psychological and social development. The authors discuss practical applications in various fields, including education and mental health, and provide insights into how unresolved conflicts can impact an individual's later life.

Orenstein, G. A., & Lewis, L. (2022). Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556096/

License: Public Domain

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Definition/Introduction

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development is a theory introduced in the 1950s by the psychologist and psychoanalyst Erik Erikson. It built upon Freud's theory of psychosexual development by drawing parallels in childhood stages while expanding it to include the influence of social dynamics as well as the extension of psychosocial development into adulthood.[1] It posits eight sequential stages of individual human development influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors throughout the lifespan. This bio-psychosocial approach has influenced several fields of study, including gerontology, personality development, identity formation, life cycle development, and more.[2][3]

Issues of Concern

Function

Stages arise as individuals grow and face new decisions and turning points during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Each stage is defined by two opposing psychological tendencies - one positive/syntactic and negative/dystonic. From this develops an ego virtue/strength or maldevelopment, respectively. If the virtue is adopted, it can help to resolve the current decision or conflict. It will also help subsequent stages of development and contribute to a stable foundation for core belief systems in relating to the self and the outer world.[3] The opposite is true with the adoption of the maldeveloped quality.

As an example, the ego identity crystallizes in stage 5, during adolescence. The two opposing qualities are ego identity and confusion/diffusion. Those who develop ego identity yield the virtue of fidelity, while the inability to do so - ego confusion - creates a quality of repudiation. With a stronger sense of ego identity, the interaction with the outer and inner world is of rejecting incongruent evaluations of self and a decreased level of anxiety, respectively.[4]

While adopting the syntonic attribute is clearly beneficial in this example, doing so should be done within reason. Extreme ego identity can become fanaticism, which can create unhealthy interactions with the self and others. One must navigate the two opposing values in each stage to find a balance, instead of only striving for the positive quality. Straying too far towards the positive tendency can be maladaptive, while leaning too far toward the negative can be malignant.[3]

Components

Some scholars have attempted to confine stages to specific ages, but Erikson did not initially define this. Instead, there are periods within childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Each stage provides an example in which the positive attribute may be furthered.

Stages of Childhood

Stage 1 - Infancy period: Trust vs. Mistrust

Stage 2 - Early Childhood period: Autonomy vs. Shame, doubt

Stage 3 - Play Age period: Initiative vs. Guilt

Stage 4 - School Age period: Industry vs. Inferiority

Stage of Adolescence

Stage 5 - Adolescence period: Identity vs. Identity confusion

Virtue: Fidelity, Maldevelopment: Repudiation

Example: Individual weighs out their previous experiences, societal expectations, and their aspirations in establishing values and 'finding themselves.'

Stages of Adulthood

Stage 6 - Young Adulthood period: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Virtue: Love, Maldevelopment: Distantiation

Example: Individual forms close friendships or long-term partnership

Stage 7 - Adulthood period: Generativity vs. Stagnation/Self-absorption

Virtue: Care, Maldevelopment: Rejectivity

Example: Engagement with the next generation through parenting, coaching, or teaching

Stage 8 - Old Age period: Integrity vs. Despair

Virtue: Wisdom, Maldevelopment: Disdain

Example: Contemplation and acknowledgment of personal life accomplishments

A ninth stage was added by Erik Erikson's wife, Joan Erikson. It considers new challenges experienced with continued aging and incorporates aspects from all previous eight stages of psychosocial development.

The sequential layout of Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development might initially suggest that stage outcomes become fixed once the next stage is engaged. While there is a fixed sequence, resolution can be a life-long process, re-activated at various times depending on life events that affect the ego strength or maldeveloped belief pattern.[5] Resolution is not required to move on to the next stage. Additionally, with advancement to a new stage, preceding stages are questioned and must be reintegrated.[6] This is why his theory is sometimes referred to as an 'epigenetic principle.' Additional research suggests that the latter four stages are, to an extent, a repetition of previous stages.[7] As an example, the stage of intimacy can be considered a combination of autonomy and trust. Thus, the developmental stages and formation of identity is an ever-evolving process, as opposed to a rigid concrete system.

Clinical Significance

Several clinical tools and further research have emanated from and have undergone significant influence by Erikson's Stages of Development:

1. Studying Erikson's stages serve as a basis of treatment for different recovery stages of mental illness.[8] For example, the initial stage of trust vs. mistrust parallels the mental illness recovery stage concerning the acceptance of the mental illness and trusting the idea of recovery.

2. The Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory (EPSI) was based on Erikson's stages, and the modified version following it (MEPSI) is a reliable tool used to assess psychosocial development.[9][10]

3. A model of psychodynamic psychotherapy is based on the concept and staging of Erikson's theory.[3]

Nursing, Allied Health, and Interprofessional Team Interventions

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development can be utilized by mental health providers when treating patients who are facing periods of adjustment or turning points in life. When taken in the appropriate context to social and cultural factors, it can be a means for the patient to augment awareness and understanding of themselves. While many stages focus on periods early in life, it can serve as a conceptual and possibly actionable guide for those later in life as well.[11] This area continues to be an active focus of research, as Erickson's developmental maturity in mid-life is studied alongside global cognitive and executive function, as well as emotional health.[12]

This research was supported (in whole or part) by HCA Healthcare and/or an HCA Healthcare affiliated entity. The views expressed in this publication represent those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the official views of HCA Healthcare or any of its affiliated entities.

References

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Eriksons Stages of Psychosocial Development

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Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development is a theory introduced in the 1950s by the psychologist and psychoanalyst Erik Erikson. It built upon Freud's theory of psychosexual development by drawing parallels in childhood stages while expanding it to include the influence of social dynamics as well as the extension of psychosocial development into adulthood.[1] It posits eight sequential stages of individual human development influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors throughout the lifespan.

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Development of twins

This video talks about how twins develop within the womb of a mother. It compares the differences in formation between monozygotic (identical) twins and dizygotic (fraternal) twins.

Osmosis from Elsevier. (2023). Development of twins [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ERMt3H6f9BI

License: Standard YouTube License

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Laterality in children: Evidence for task-dependent lateralization of motor functions

This article examines laterality in children, showing that they generally perform better with their dominant hand. It highlights how task demands, handedness, and other factors influence motor asymmetries in children aged 6 to 11.

Bondi, D., Prete, G., Malatesta, G., & Robazza, C. (2020). Laterality in children: Evidence for task-dependent lateralization of motor functions. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(18), 6705. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186705

License: Public Domain

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Laterality in Children: Evidence for Task-Dependent Lateralization of Motor Functions

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The behavioral preference for the use of one side of the body starts from pre-natal life and prompt humans to develop motor asymmetries. The type of motor task completed influences those functional asymmetries. However, there is no real consensus on…

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Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) influential model overshadowed their contemporary theory of human memory

This article revisits the Atkinson-Shiffrin (1968) memory model, highlighting its broader insights and its alignment with later theories like working memory and depth of processing. It corrects misconceptions, showing that Atkinson and Shiffrin anticipated more complex memory processes, including elaborative rehearsal, not just maintenance rehearsal.

Wixted, J. T. (2024). Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) influential model overshadowed their contemporary theory of human memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 136, 104471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2023.104471

License: Elsevier User License

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Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

This article summarizes Kohlberg's theory of moral development, which identifies three levels; preconventional, conventional, and postconventional - each with two stages. The theory highlights how individuals develop moral reasoning from avoiding punishment to upholding universal ethical principles, with progression through these stages being universal and sequential.

Simply Psychology. (2024). Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html

License: Not explicitly stated on their policies.

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Key Takeaways

Lawrence Kohlberg formulated a theory asserting that individuals progress through six distinct stages of moral reasoning from infancy to adulthood.

He grouped these stages into three broad categories of moral reasoning, pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral development.

Kohlberg suggested that people move through these stages in a fixed order and that moral understanding is linked to cognitive development.

Heinz Dilemma

Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral development in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further.

He used Piaget's storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. In each case, he presented a choice to be considered, for example, between the rights of some authority and the needs of some deserving individual unfairly treated.

After presenting people with various moral dilemmas, Kohlberg categorized their responses into different stages of moral reasoning.

Using children's responses to a series of moral dilemmas, Kohlberg established that the reasoning behind the decision was a greater indication of moral development than the actual answer.

One of the best-known of Kohlberg's (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe.

Heinz's wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug, and this was much more than the Heinz could afford.

Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later.

The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke into the chemist's and stole the drug.

Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not?

Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:

1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?

2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?

3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?

4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman dies?

By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions, Kohlberg hoped to discover how moral reasoning changed as people grew older.

The sample comprised 72 Chicago boys aged 10-16 years, 58 of whom were followed up at three-yearly intervals for 20 years (Kohlberg, 1984).

Each boy was given a 2-hour interview based on the ten dilemmas. Kohlberg was interested not in whether the boys judged the action right or wrong but in the reasons for the decision. He found that these reasons tended to change as the children got older.

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. Each level has two sub-stages.

People can only pass through these levels in the order listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical of the earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the stages.

Preconventional
1. Avoiding Punishment

Moral reasoning is based on direct consequences.

Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is illegal, and he could be punished.

2. Self-Interest

Actions are seen in terms of rewards rather than moral value.

Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is illegal, and he could be punished.

Conventional
3. Good boy attitude

Good behavior is about living up to social expectations and roles.

Heinz should steal the drug because, as a good husband, he is expected to do whatever he can to save his wife.

4. Law & Order Morality

Moral reasoning considers societal laws.

Heinz should not steal the drug because he must uphold the law and maintain societal order.

Postconventional
5. Social Contract

Rules are seen as social agreements that can be changed when necessary.

Heinz should steal the drug because preserving human life is a more fundamental value than property rights.

6. Universal Principles

Moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and justice.

Heinz should consider non-violent civil disobedience or negotiation with the pharmacist. The decision reflects a conflict between property rights and the sanctity of human life.

Level 1 - Preconventional Morality

Preconventional morality is the first level of moral development, lasting until approximately age 8. During this level, children accept the authority (and moral code) of others.

Preconventional morality is when people follow rules because they don't want to get in trouble or they want to get a reward. This level of morality is mostly based on what authority figures like parents or teachers tell you to do rather than what you think is right or wrong.

Authority is outside the individual, and children often make moral decisions based on the physical consequences of actions.

For example, if an action leads to punishment, it must be bad; if it leads to a reward, it must be good.

So, people at this level don't have their own personal sense of right and wrong yet. They think that something is good if they get rewarded for it and bad if they get punished for it.

For example, if you get candy for behaving, you think you were good, but if you get a scolding for misbehaving, you think you were bad.

At the preconventional level, children don't have a personal code of morality. Instead, moral decisions are shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.

Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.

Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right view handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

Level 2 - Conventional Morality

Conventional morality is the adolescent phase of moral development focused on societal norms and external expectations to discern right from wrong, often grounded in tradition, cultural practices, or established codes of conduct.

We internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models at the conventional level (most adolescents and adults).

Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the group's norms to which the person belongs.

A social system that stresses the responsibilities of relationships and social order is seen as desirable and must influence our view of right and wrong.

So, people who follow conventional morality believe that it's important to follow society's rules and expectations to maintain order and prevent problems.

For example, refusing to cheat on a test is a part of conventional morality because cheating can harm the academic system and create societal problems.

Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.

Stage 4. Law and Order Morality. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules to uphold the law and avoid guilt.

Level 3 - Postconventional Morality

Postconventional morality is the third level of moral development and is characterized by an individual's understanding of universal ethical principles.

Postconventional morality is when people decide based on what they think is right rather than just following the rules of society. This means that people at this level of morality have their own ethical principles and values and don't just do what society tells them to do.

At this level, people think about what is fair, what is just, and what values are important.

What is considered morally acceptable in any given situation is determined by what is the response most in keeping with these principles.

They also think about how their choices might affect others and try to make good decisions for everyone, not just themselves.

Values are abstract and ill-defined but might include: the preservation of life at all costs and the importance of human dignity. Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice.

According to Kohlberg, this level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get.

Only 10-15% are capable of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality). That is to say, most people take their moral views from those around them, and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves.

Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals.

The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz's dilemma, the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.

Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. E.g., human rights, justice, and equality.

The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment.

Kohlberg doubted few people had reached this stage.

Problems with Kohlberg's Methods

1. The dilemmas are artificial (i.e., they lack ecological validity)

Most dilemmas are unfamiliar to most people (Rosen, 1980). For example, it is all very well in the Heinz dilemma, asking subjects whether Heinz should steal the drug to save his wife.

However, Kohlberg's subjects were aged between 10 and 16. They have never been married, and never been placed in a situation remotely like the one in the story.

How should they know whether Heinz should steal the drug?

2. The sample is biased

Kohlberg's (1969) theory suggested males more frequently progress beyond stage four in moral development, implying females lacked moral reasoning skills.

His research assistant, Carol Gilligan, disputed this, who argued that women's moral reasoning differed, not deficient.

She criticized Kohlberg's theory for focusing solely on upper-class white males, arguing women value interpersonal connections. For instance, women often oppose theft in the Heinz dilemma due to potential repercussions, such as separation from his wife if Heinz is imprisoned.

Gilligan (1982) conducted new studies interviewing both men and women, finding women more often emphasized care, relationships and context rather than abstract rules. Gilligan argued that Kohlberg's theory overlooked this relational "different voice" in morality.

According to Gilligan (1977), because Kohlberg's theory was based on an all-male sample, the stages reflect a male definition of morality (it's androcentric).

Men's morality is based on abstract principles of law and justice, while women's is based on principles of compassion and care.

Further, the gender bias issue raised by Gilligan is a reminder of the significant gender debate still present in psychology, which, when ignored, can greatly impact the results obtained through psychological research.

3. The dilemmas are hypothetical (i.e., they are not real)

Kohlberg's approach to studying moral reasoning relied heavily on his semi-structured moral judgment interview. Participants were presented with hypothetical moral dilemmas, and their justifications were analyzed to determine their stage of moral reasoning.

Some critiques of Kohlberg's method are that it lacks ecological validity, removes reasoning from real-life contexts, and defines morality narrowly in terms of justice reasoning.

Psychologists concur with Kohlberg's moral development theory, yet emphasize the difference between moral reasoning and behavior.

What we claim we'd do in a hypothetical situation often differs from our actions when faced with the actual circumstance. In essence, our actions might not align with our proclaimed values.

In a real situation, what course of action a person takes will have real consequences - and sometimes very unpleasant ones for themselves. Would subjects reason in the same way if they were placed in a real situation? We don't know.

The fact that Kohlberg's theory is heavily dependent on an individual's response to an artificial dilemma questions the validity of the results obtained through this research.

People may respond very differently to real-life situations that they find themselves in than they do to an artificial dilemma presented to them in the comfort of a research environment.

4. Poor research design

How Kohlberg carried out his research when constructing this theory may not have been the best way to test whether all children follow the same sequence of stage progression.

His research was cross-sectional, meaning that he interviewed children of different ages to see their moral development level.

A better way to see if all children follow the same order through the stages would be to conduct longitudinal research on the same children.

However, longitudinal research on Kohlberg's theory has since been carried out by Colby et al. (1983), who tested 58 male participants of Kohlberg's original study.

She tested them six times in 27 years and supported Kohlberg's original conclusion, which is that we all pass through the stages of moral development in the same order.

Contemporary research employs more diverse methods beyond Kohlberg's interview approach, such as narrative analysis, to study moral experience. These newer methods aim to understand moral reasoning and development within authentic contexts and experiences.

Tappan and colleagues (1996) promote a narrative approach that examines how individuals construct stories and identities around moral experiences. This draws from the sociocultural tradition of examining identity in context. Tappan argues narrative provides a more contextualized understanding of moral development.

Colby and Damon's (1992) empirical research uses in-depth life story interviews to study moral exemplars - people dedicated to moral causes. Instead of hypothetical dilemmas, they ask participants to describe real moral challenges and commitments. Their goal is to respect exemplars as co-investigators of moral meaning-making.

Walker and Pitts' (1995) studies use open-ended interviews asking people to discuss real-life moral dilemmas and reflect on the moral domain in their own words. This elicits more naturalistic conceptions of morality compared to Kohlberg's abstract decontextualized approach.

Problems with Kohlberg's Theory

1. Are there distinct stages of moral development?

Kohlberg claims there are, but the evidence does not always support this conclusion.

For example, a person who justified a decision based on principled reasoning in one situation (postconventional morality stage 5 or 6) would frequently fall back on conventional reasoning (stage 3 or 4) with another story.

In practice, it seems that reasoning about right and wrong depends more on the situation than on general rules. Moreover, individuals do not always progress through the stages, and Rest (1979) found that one in fourteen slipped backward.

The evidence for distinct stages of moral development looks very weak. Some would argue that behind the theory is a culturally biased belief in the superiority of American values over those of other cultures and societies.

Gilligan (1982) did not dismiss developmental psychology or morality. She acknowledged that children undergo moral development in stages and even praised Kohlberg's stage logic as "brilliant" (Jorgensen, 2006, p. 186). However, she preferred Erikson's model over the more rigid Piagetian stages.

While Gilligan supported Kohlberg's stage theory as rational, she expressed discomfort with its structural descriptions that lacked context.

She also raised concerns about the theory's universality, pointing out that it primarily reflected Western culture (Jorgensen, 2006, pp. 187-188).

Neo-Kohlbergian Schema Model

Rest and colleagues (199) have developed a theoretical model building on but moving beyond Kohlberg's stage-based approach to moral development. Their model outlines four components of moral behavior: moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral character.

For the moral judgment component, Rest et al. propose that individuals use moral schemas rather than progress through discrete stages of moral reasoning.

Schemas are generalized knowledge structures that help us interpret information and situations. An individual can have multiple schemas available to make sense of moral issues, rather than being constrained to a single developmental stage.

Some examples of moral schemas proposed by Rest and colleagues include:

Personal Interest Schema - focused on individual interests and preferences

Maintaining Norms Schema - emphasizes following rules and norms

Postconventional Schema - considers moral ideals and principles

Rather than viewing development as movement to higher reasoning stages, the neo-Kohlbergian approach sees moral growth as acquiring additional, more complex moral schemas. Lower schemas are not replaced, but higher order moral schemas become available to complement existing ones.

The schema concept attempts to address critiques of the stage model, such as its rigidity and lack of context sensitivity. Using schemas allows for greater flexibility and integration of social factors into moral reasoning.

2. Does moral judgment match moral behavior?

Kohlberg never claimed that there would be a one-to-one correspondence between thinking and acting (what we say and what we do), but he does suggest that the two are linked.

However, Bee (1994) suggests that we also need to take into account of:

a) habits that people have developed over time.

b) whether people see situations as demanding their participation.

c) the costs and benefits of behaving in a particular way.

d) competing motive such as peer pressure, self-interest and so on.

Overall, Bee points out that moral behavior is only partly a question of moral reasoning. It also has to do with social factors.

3. Is justice the most fundamental moral principle?

This is Kohlberg's view. However, Gilligan (1977) suggests that the principle of caring for others is equally important. Furthermore, Kohlberg claims that the moral reasoning of males has often been in advance of that of females.

Girls are often found to be at stage 3 in Kohlberg's system (good boy-nice girl orientation), whereas boys are more often found to be at stage 4 (Law and Order orientation). Gilligan (p. 484) replies:

"The very traits that have traditionally defined the goodness of women, their care for and sensitivity to the needs of others, are those that mark them out as deficient in moral development".

In other words, Gilligan claims that there is a sex bias in Kohlberg's theory. He neglects the feminine voice of compassion, love, and non-violence, which is associated with the socialization of girls.

Gilligan concluded that Kohlberg's theory did not account for the fact that women approach moral problems from an 'ethics of care', rather than an 'ethics of justice' perspective, which challenges some of the fundamental assumptions of Kohlberg's theory.

In contrast to Kohlberg's impersonal "ethics of justice", Gilligan proposed an alternative "ethics of care" grounded in compassion and responsiveness to needs within relationships (Gilligan, 1982).

Her care perspective highlights emotion, empathy and understanding over detached logic. Gilligan saw care and justice ethics as complementary moral orientations.

Walker et al. (1995) found everyday moral conflicts often revolve around relationships rather than justice; individuals describe relying more on intuition than moral reasoning in dilemmas. This raises questions about the centrality of reasoning in moral functioning.

4. Do people make rational moral decisions?

Kohlbeg's theory emphasizes rationality and logical decision-making at the expense of emotional and contextual factors in moral decision-making.

One significant criticism is that Kohlberg's emphasis on reason can create an image of the moral person as cold and detached from real-life situations.

Carol Gilligan critiqued Kohlberg's theory as overly rationalistic and not accounting for care-based morality commonly found in women. She argued for a "different voice" grounded in relationships and responsiveness to particular individuals.

The criticism suggests that by portraying moral reasoning as primarily cognitive and detached from emotional and situational factors, Kohlberg's theory oversimplifies real-life moral decision-making, which often involves emotions, social dynamics, cultural nuances, and practical constraints.

Critics contend that his model does not adequately capture the multifaceted nature of morality in the complexities of everyday life.

References

Bee, H. L. (1994). Lifespan development. HarperCollins College Publishers.

Blum, L. A. (1988). Gilligan and Kohlberg: Implications for moral theory. Ethics, 98(3), 472-491.

Colby, A., Kohlberg, L., Gibbs, J., & Lieberman, M. (1983). A longitudinal study of moral judgment. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 48 (1-2, Serial No. 200). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Day, J. M., & Tappan, M. B. (1996). The narrative approach to moral development: From the epistemic subject to dialogical selves. Human Development, 39(2), 67-82.

Gilligan, C. (1977). In a different voice: Women's conceptions of self and of morality. Harvard Educational Review, 47(4), 481-517.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. Harvard University Press.

Gilligan, C. (1995). Hearing the difference: Theorizing connection. Hypatia, 10(2), 120-127.

Jorgensen, G. (2006). Kohlberg and Gilligan: duet or duel?. Journal of Moral Education, 35(2), 179-196.

Kohlberg, L. (1958). The Development of Modes of Thinking and Choices in Years 10 to 16. Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Chicago.

Kohlberg, L. (1984). The Psychology of Moral Development: The Nature and Validity of Moral Stages (Essays on Moral Development, Volume 2). Harper & Row

Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.

Rest, J. R. (1979). Development in judging moral issues. University of Minnesota Press.

Rosen, B. (1980). Moral dilemmas and their treatment. In, Moral development, moral education, and Kohlberg. B. Munsey (Ed). (1980), pp. 232-263. Birmingham, Alabama: Religious Education Press.

Walker, L. J., Pitts, R. C., Hennig, K. H., & Matsuba, M. K. (1995). Reasoning about morality and real-life moral problems.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Lawrence Kohlberg formulated a theory asserting that individuals progress through six distinct stages of moral reasoning from infancy to adulthood. According to Kohlberg, these stages are grouped into three separate levels known as preconventional, conventional, and post-conventional morality.

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“Association Between Screen Time Trajectory and Early Childhood Development in Children in China”

This study examines how patterns of screen time from infancy to early childhood affect developmental outcomes at age 6. Researchers identified three screen time trajectories: Continued Low, Early Increasing, and Late Increasing. The findings reveal and compare the cognitive and psychosocial development within three different groups. The study highlights the potential negative impact of excessive screen time on early childhood development and underscores the importance of parents monitoring screen use during critical developmental periods.

License Type: Open Access (Creative Commons Attribution)

Wei, M., Wong, R. S., Zeng, J., Zhou, J., Loke, A. Y., Zeng, X., & Rong, H. (2022). Association between screen time trajectory and early childhood development in children in China. JAMA Pediatrics, 176(8), 817–824. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2022.2065

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“Social Cognition Development and Socioaffective Dysfunction in Childhood and Adolescence”

Chapter: Social Interactions and Theory of Mind in Childhood and Adolescence

The chapter emphasizes the significance of developing the Theory of Mind (ToM), which refers to the ability to understand the mental states of others and how it shapes social interactions during crucial developmental years. It explores how children and adolescents learn to express and interpret beliefs, desires, and intentions, fostering effective communication and empathy. The discussion also highlights the influence of social experiences, such as interactions with peers and guidance from parents, in nurturing ToM development. Furthermore, it delves into how ToM proficiency enhances social skills while addressing the challenges faced by individuals who struggle with ToM deficits.

License Type: Limited Open Access

Berlim de Mello, C., da Silva Gusmão Cardoso, T., & Vinicius C. Alves, M. (2022). Social cognition development and socioaffective dysfunction in childhood and adolescence. In P. S. Boggio, T. S. H. Wingenbach, M. L. da Silveira Coêlho, W. E. Comfort, L. M. Marques, & M. V. C. Alves (Eds.), Social and affective neuroscience of everyday human interaction(pp. 161–175). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08651-9_10

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Social Cognition Development and Socioaffective Dysfunction in Childhood and Adolescence

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Social cognition refers to a wide range of cognitive abilities that allow individuals to understand themselves and others and also communicate in social interactionSocial interactions contexts (Adolphs, Curr Opin Neurobiol 11(2):231–239, 2001). According to…

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“Input and language development in bilingually developing children”

A study that shows how language input quantity and quality shape bilingual language development in children under five, it emphasizes the importance of using assessments that look at vocabulary in both languages to better understand bilingual development and identify any language disorders.

License Type: Open Access (Creative Commons Attributions)

Hoff, E., & Core, C. (2013). Input and language development in bilingually developing children. Seminars in speech and language, 34(4), 215–226. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0033-1353448

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“Mechanisms shaping the development of personality and personality disorders in children and adolescents”

This article explores how genetic, environmental, and developmental factors shape personality and the onset of disorders in children and adolescents, emphasizing early intervention and resilience.

License Type: Open Access (Creative Commons Attribution)

Lenkiewicz, K., Srebnicki, T., & Bryńska, A. (2016). Mechanisms shaping the development of personality and personality disorders in children and adolescents. Psychiatria Polska, 50(3), 621–629. https://doi.org/10.12740/PP/36180

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Until the end of the nineties last century personality disorders could not be diagnosed before the age of eighteen. Nevertheless, the results of studies published in the last decade have revealed that personality disorders can be observed in children and adolescents and that personality disorders diagnosed in adult patients had been present as early as in childhood. The knowledge of possible mechanisms shaping personality disorders in childhood is unsatisfactory and needs to be expanded. Developmental psychology explains the development of abnormal personality through inappropriate attachment patterns and abnormal transitions between developmental phases. Genetic and temperamental factors are also important in the aetiology of personality disorders as well as early maladaptive schemas resulting from personal experiences and interactions with others. The aim of this article is to review the current knowledge on the mechanisms shaping the development of personality and personality disorders in childhood and adolescence.

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Mechanisms shaping the development of personality and personality disorders in children and adolescents.

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Until the end of the nineties last century personality disorders could not be diagnosed before the age of eighteen. Nevertheless, the results of studies published in the last decade have revealed that personality disorders can be observed in children and adolescents and that personality disorders...

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This article explores early psychosexual development in children, emphasizing the role of nurturing, culturally sensitive caregiving in fostering healthy emotional and self-concept growth. It highlights the importance of open, non-shaming responses to children’s natural curiosity about their bodies.

License Type: Open Access (Creative Commons Attributions)

Honig, A. S. (1999). Psychosexual development in infants and young children: Implications for caregivers. Young Children, 40(6), 57–64. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Alice-Honig/publication/234604191_Psychosexual_Development_in_Infants_and_Young_Children_Implications_for_Caregivers/links/5547c0ec0cf2e2031b384884/Psychosexual-Development-in-Infants-and-Young-Children-Implications-for-Caregivers.pdf