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AgoraVox France. (2011, March 29). O-Daiko by Kodō [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/C7HL5wYqAbU

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Associated Press. (2008). Daihachi Oguchi [Photograph]. The New York Times.

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Note. By the Associated Press, 2008, photograph, Daihachi Oguchi, from the New York Times.

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Interestingly enough, taiko ensembles did not exist until the first kumi-daiko was founded in 1951 by Daihachi Oguchi, a Japanese musician with a passion for American jazz (Linfamy & Head, 2021; Miller & Shahriari, 2016; Stabbed Panda Music, 2021; Taiko Center Co., Ltd., 2017; Xue et al., 2018). When he was asked to study an old sheet of taiko music, Daihachi Oguchi noticed that taiko was never played together or experimented with. Seeing this, he had the brilliant idea of gathering a variety of taiko and combining them into a single ensemble. According to Miller and Shahriari (2016), the organisation of the ensemble was derived from the structure of a jazz drum kit. For instance, the ōdaiko imitated the kick drum, whereas the shime-daiko acted as a snare drum. Soon enough, Daihachi Oguchi founded his own taiko group named Osuwa Daiko and composed several pieces that emulated the drumming patterns found in Shinto rituals.

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Note. By Kodō Heartbeat, 2020, video, Zoku by Kodō, from YouTube.

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As maintained by Miller and Shahriari (2016), Daihachi Oguchi's concept of taiko ensembles quickly became appealing, resulting in the creation of other kumi-daiko troupes. Based on an article published by Taiko Center Co., Ltd. (2017), one of the groups that were formed include Yushima Tenjin Sukeroku Daiko, a troupe that was characterised by the performers' powerful playing and unique choreography. The ensemble's music was inspired by style of music featured in Edo Matsuri Bayashi. Another notable kumi-daiko was the Za Ondekoza, which was founded by Tagayasu Den in 1969. This ensemble is recognised for popularising the art of kumi-daiko. Like Yushima Tenjin Sukeroku Daiko, the troupe was split into two separate groups in 1981. The original members of Za Ondekoza formed a new group known as Kodō, where Tagayasu Den formed a new Za Ondekoza. Today, Kodō is arguably the most well-known kumi-daiko and performs all around the world (Bender, 2012; Miller & Shahriari, 2016; Stabbed Panda Music, 2021; Taiko Center Co., Ltd., 2017). In this post, I have attached a video of Kodō's performance. The piece played in the video is titled Zoku.

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太鼓芸能集団 鼓童 Kodo

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Bender, S. (2012). Taiko Boom: Japanese Drumming in Place and Motion. University of California Press.

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Note. By Hands Percussion, 2016, video, Hands Percussion Malaysia: Drumbeat Inferno, from YouTube.

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Before it was a popularised art form, taiko was ironically hard to find in Japan despite its use in various traditional Japanese art forms (Bender, 2012). It was almost as if the Japanese had not yet realised the beauty of taiko and thus, did not claim it as their own. Even after the phenomenal taiko boom had occurred in 1964, Japanese record stores still shelved Kodō's CDs under the "world music" category in the 1990s. In fact, Bender (2012) writes that taiko music was sometimes classified into a miscellaneous category because it was deemed to fit in neither the category of Japanese mainstream music, nor the category of non-Japanese music. I find that this lack of appreciation for local musical instruments is also prominent in Malaysia. How many of us actually know more than a handful of instruments that are of Malaysian heritage? The fact that this project is focused on a Japanese instrument is evidence in itself that many of us show no interest in learning more about our culture. As a result, we do not see the significance in appreciating or preserving our culture. Out of curiosity, I decided to briefly look up if there are any Malaysian ensembles similar to the Japanese kumi-daiko, and stumbled upon the above video. Not only is Hands Percussion a musical ensemble that features Malaysian instruments, but it is also a Malaysian troupe that incorporates all kinds of cultural dances and other art forms into the performances. Watching the group perform was very inspiring, and has encouraged me to learn more about Malaysian music. With that, I hope more of us get to know the beauty of local art forms and in turn, do our part in preserving our culture.

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HANDS Percussion Malaysia - Drumbeat Inferno 马来西亚手集团《鼓焰》

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Note. By TAIKOPROJECT, 2022, video, TAIKOPROJECT 2023 to 2024 Promotional Video, from YouTube.

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In this era of globalisation, taiko has become a critically acclaimed staple at Japanese cultural festivals, and kumi-daiko is now one of Japan's most internationally successful performing arts (Bender, 2012). Since kumi-daiko was first founded in the 1950s, the number of taiko groups has increased dramatically. Xue et al. (2018) estimates that there are currently over four thousand taiko troupes in Japan. Of course, taiko has also grown and made its way into the Western scene thanks to the worldwide phenomenon, taiko boom. According to Miller and Shahriari (2016), renowned troupes like Kodō have performed at several esteemed locations, including the Greek Acropolis and the Carnegie Hall of New York City. As a result, taiko has garnered an international audience that is interested enough in the art form to learn it and start their own ensembles. Some of the taiko groups that are based outside of Japan include the San Francisco Taiko Dojo, Daion Taiko, as well as the Australian Taiko Academy (Linfamy & Head, 2021; Taiko Center Co., Ltd., 2017). Embedded above is a promotional video taken from TAIKOPROJECT (2022). In the video, you may observe how the American kumi-daiko has taken a different but modern approach on taiko drumming. It features Western instruments like the cymbals, and performers are seen playing more than one drum.

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Note. The above depicts a statue of Emperor Keitai.

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In feudal Japan, taiko was used predominantly in the military arena (Xue et al., 2018). Like many armies across the globe, Japanese troops utilised taiko to motivate and coordinate soldiers by setting a steady pace for marching (Linfamy & Head, 2021; Mueller et al., 2016; Stabbed Panda Music, 2021). Fascinatingly enough, legend has it that Emperor Keitai once brought a huge drum from China to inspire his men, as well as scare enemies away from his castle (Linfamy & Head, 2021). In addition to this, taiko was also used to issue commands to Japanese soldiers, the same way European knights were given orders via trumpets (Stabbed Panda Music, 2021). For instance, nine sets of five beats would call an ally to battle, whereas nine groups of three beats would call the soldiers to advance and persecute the enemies, based on a war chronicle called the Gunji Yoshu (Linfamy & Head, 2021). Purportedly, taiko was also used to notify neighbouring villages of bad weather or important visitors, as well as to mark town borders — the town ended where the drums were no longer heard.

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Note. The above depicts a priest and a taiko at Myoshinji Temple.

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As stated by Xue et al. (2018) as well as Linfamy and Head (2021), Japanese religions like Buddhism and Shinto began to adopt taiko as a sacred instrument over time. In shrines, priests and lay practitioners use taiko for various ceremonies and festivals, including the Setsubun Festival. In fact, kagura is a genre of music and dances featured in Shinto rituals in which taiko is commonly played (Bender, 2012). Moreover, Nettl and Rommen (2016) mention that matsuribayashi, a form of satokagura, is a genre of folk music that is used in traditional Shinto festivals. Instrumental ensembles of matsuribayashi often consist of a few taiko drums, including the ōdaiko. Comparatively, taiko is also a huge part of Buddhist practices and traditions, such as the Obon Festival (Bender, 2012). One of the many ways taiko is utilised in Buddhism is sutra reading. During service, a steady beat is played on either the nagadō-daiko or a wooden fish drum known as the mokugyo. This is because the deep percussive sound of the drum aids the members in chanting the sutra concurrently (Linfamy & Head, 2021). A representative from Daion Taiko, a group that is based in California, pointed out two of the biggest reasons taiko is used in Buddhism (Linfamy & Head, 2021). The first reason goes like this: learning and playing the taiko is the embodiment of the three treasures in Buddhism — the Buddha, the dharma, and the sangha. In Japanese drumming, the taiko itself represents the Buddha, whereas the player represents the sangha, or the community. The bachi, on the other hand, represents the dharma, or law, that connects the player to the Buddha. The second reason states: we all wear masks for different people in different situations. Striking a drum is something that calls attention to the players in a way that they have nowhere to hide. In this regard, playing the taiko is an activity where the performers have to be confident and true to themselves.

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Note. By the KANSAI Guide, 2022, video, Exclusive Expeditions, KANSAI Japan: Osaka, from YouTube.

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Taiko is also used for rhythmic and atmospheric purposes in various traditional art forms such as noh, kyo-gen, nagauta, and kabuki (Stabbed Panda Music, 2021; Taiko Center Co., Ltd., 2017). In kabuki theatre, the taiko is usually accompanied by a three-stringed instrument called shamisen (Bender, 2012). An example of kabuki plays that feature the taiko is The Tale of Shiroishi and the Taihei Chronicles. More often, taiko is found in noh theatre (Blades, 1992; Linfamy & Head, 2021; Nettl & Rommen, 2016; Varian, 2013). As seen previously, the heads of the tsuzumi are tied to the body with ropes. In a book, Blades (1992) writes that the colour of these ropes commonly correspond to the skill level of the musician: orange and red for amateur players, light blue for players with expertise, and lilac for masters of the instrument. The instrumental quartet of noh theatre, also referred to as the hayashi, consists of the shime-daiko, kotsuzumi, ōtsuzumi, and a bamboo flute known as the nohkan (Nettl & Rommen, 2016). An essential part of noh drumming is the use of kakegoe. These are shouts or voiced calls — not to be confused with Andrew's song, 9420's Voice Call — that drummers use (Nettl & Rommen, 2016; Varian, 2013). In the video attached, a brief introduction to noh theatre is given, and short excerpt of Takasago, or The Paired Pines, is performed. The video features Tomoyoshi Ueno and Tomohiko Ueno, a father-son duo who perform in the renowned Choyo Kaikan theatre group.

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Exclusive Expeditions, KANSAI Japan - Osaka [4K]

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Note. By Discover Kyoto, 2017, video, Kyoto Event: Takigi Noh at Heian Shrine 2017, from YouTube.

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Quick, sound the alarms! Because before we move on to gagaku, I want to leave you with a bonus feature! Embedded above is a collection of snippets that were taken during the 68th Annual Takigi Noh in 2017. The high-definition video features several plays performed by different troupes, details of which can be found in the description of the video. If you enjoyed this video, Discover Kyoto has also published a few video compilations of the 69th and 70th Annual Takigi Noh which you can check out.

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Kyoto Event: Takigi Noh at Heian Shrine 2017 [4K]

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Blades, J. (1992). Percussion Instruments and Their History. Bold Strummer.

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Blystone, M. J. (2020, October 22). Ready, Set, Kadon [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/N5G59NgKF3E

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Dean, M. (2012). The Drum: A History. Scarecrow Press.

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Discover Kyoto. (2017, August 23). Kyoto Event: Takigi Noh at Heian Shrine 2017 [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/88v-HYGAKMQ

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Kyoto Event: Takigi Noh at Heian Shrine 2017 [4K]

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Note. The above depicts the Cotton Eye Joe scene from New Girl (2011–2018).

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Where Did You Come From? Where Did You Go?

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Where Did You Come From? Where Did You Go?

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As maintained by Xue et al. (2018), taiko has been a part of Japanese culture for centuries. In fact, some may even say that taiko or similar drums have been around since the Jōmon period. Nonetheless, Mueller et al. (2016) attests that the origin of taiko remains ambiguous. Therefore, it is not completely unfeasible to believe that the Japanese had invented taiko themselves (Linfamy & Head, 2021). Throughout my research, I have gathered three potential ways by which taiko may have originated.

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Note. By Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2021, map, the Silk Road, from Encyclopædia Britannica.

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By now, you might have noticed that there are a lot of similarities between taiko and other percussive instruments that come from Korea, China, and India. Linfamy and Head (2021) suggest that this is due to cultural influences from the Silk Road, an ancient trade route that connected the Western world to the Middle East and Asia. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica (2021), the Silk Road started in Xi'an and was used by Chinese merchants to export material goods. Based on historical accounts that date as far back as 588 CE, it is estimated that young Japanese men travelled to Korea — presumably via the Silk Road — to study the kakko, a drum that originated in South China. Blades (1992) believes that this occurrence is what inspired the origination of taiko.

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Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2021). Silk Road. Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Silk-Road-trade-route

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Note. The above depicts a haniwa figure and a katsugi-okedaiko player.

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Attached above are two images. The one on the left depicts a haniwa statue, whereas the one of the right portrays a katsugi-okedaiko player. Reportedly, archeological evidence suggests that taiko has been around since the late Kofun period, and were plausibly in various festivals and rituals (Dean, 2012; Stabbed Panda Music, 2021). This evidence was further corroborated by the discovery of haniwa statues in the Sawa District of Gunma Prefecture. Among the clay figures that were found, one of them seems to be equipped with a drum which resembles a katsugi-okedaiko, and is using a stick that looks like a bachi to play it. Titled "Man Beating the Taiko", this statue is deemed the oldest artefact to feature taiko (Dean, 2012; Linfamy & Head, 2021; Varian, 2013).

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Everything Movie. (2022, April 17). Isle of Dogs (2018) Opening Title Sequence [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/hl8c0JYHeA0

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Hands Percussion. (2016, March 22). Hands Percussion Malaysia: Drumbeat Inferno [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/QvzKWSgpbXA

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Note. By M. J. Blystone, 2020, video, Ready Set Kadon performed by Soten Taiko, from YouTube.

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With Western kumi-daiko, comes Western taiko compositions. The video embedded shows a kumi-daiko performance of Ready Set Kadon. As mentioned previously when we listened to the kuchi-shōga of Ready Set Kadon, this piece was composed by Shoji Kameda, who is based in America. Of course, Japanese taiko ensembles have also come up with new compositions over the years. Some examples of modern repertoire developed by local composers include Dyu-ha, Shunpuu, Uneri, Haruka, and Hotobashiru, all of which have been performed by the one and only way-too-frequently-credited Kodō.

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Hill, J. (2021). The moment of remembrance was commemorated by a dancer and a taiko drummer [Photograph]. The New York Times.

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Hunter-Ishikawa, E. (2021, October 2). 30 Days of Taiko Skills: (1) Kuchi-shōga [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/oC3sCdk_T14

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Kodō Heartbeat. (2020, December 2). Zoku by Kodō: Full Version [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/heglVG83scA

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太鼓芸能集団 鼓童 Kodo

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Linfamy. (2019, October 12). Amaterasu vs Susanoo: When the Sun Disappeared [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/htyHPh1KSvQ

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Linfamy, & Head, S. R. (2021, June 26). Taiko: The Art of Japanese Drumming [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/1pJMiDQp1fo

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Note. By NOWNESS, 2021, video, Paired Flowers: A Modern Retelling of Takasago, from YouTube.

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Titled Paired Flowers, the attached is a modern retelling of Takasago, a famous play in noh theatre that we have come across earlier on. Written and directed by Hannah Bon, the short film was created in homage to traditional Japanese theatre. In honour of Bon's mother, Paired Flowers also features her as an actress and a flautist, as found in the description of the video. Just as taiko is a part of noh theatre, this modern retelling of Takasago features taiko too, although not visually. As we continue to grow in a modern society, retellings of traditional stories are especially important as they not only preserve our culture, but also encourage us to look at these stories from a different perspective and come up with our own interpretation. That said, I am quite pleased to have stumbled upon this short film while I was looking for present-day performances of traditional Japanese plays.

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A modern retelling of a Japanese Noh play - Paired Flowers (組の花)

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Note. By Everything Movie, 2022, video, Isle of Dogs (2018) Opening Title Sequence, from YouTube.

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Released in 2018, Isle of Dogs is a stop-motion animation about a young boy who sets out to look for his dog, Spots. As seen in the video above, the title sequence of the film features three taiko players. The way they are positioned is similar to that of Kodō's performance, which we have watched previously. In this day and age when content is infinite, there are plenty of other movies and TV shows that feature taiko too (Miller & Shahriari, 2016). For instance, the anime Aki no Kanade, which translates to Aki's Melody, follows Aki Miyagawa on her journey to becoming a katsugi-okedaiko drummer. In fact, there are also several documentaries, such as Kodō: Heartbeat Drummers of Japan and Taiko Film: Healing Beats, that revolve around taiko. With the rise of online streaming platforms like YouTube, drummers like Shoji Kameda and Eien Hunter-Ishikawa are able to put out videos that educate laypeople about taiko.

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Isle of Dogs (2018) Opening title sequence

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Note. By K. Sasahara, 2015, photograph, first lady Michelle Obama performs taiko with the Akutagawa High School Taiko Club, from ABC News.

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Similar to that of martial arts, kata is one of the core components of kumi-daiko performances (Bender, 2012; Varian, 2013). In regards to taiko, kata refers to the posture and movements of the performers, and is deemed a significant factor in judging the quality of a kumi-daiko performance. On that note, the stereotypically Japanese body was considered to be ideal for taiko drumming, and was also the very foundation of performance aesthetics. Consequently, a latent hierarchy was constructed by which bodies of taiko drummers were ranked. According to Bender (2012), the authenticity of taiko performances relied on the drummers' race and place of birth. Back then, local performers expressed taiko in a way that is impossible for foreigners to replicate. Because of this, non-native kumi-daiko performances were considered unauthentic and inferior to the performances of local troupes. Fortunately, though, we have come to realise that not all bodies are the same over time. Nowadays, cultural and racial comparisons between Japanese and non-Japanese taiko ensembles are not made as frequently as they used to, although they may still occur in the discourse of taiko pedagogy. Not only are all bodies included and accepted in today's kumi-daiko, but there are also taiko groups all around the world which are being led by non-Japanese teachers. In fact, even Michelle Obama has tried playing the taiko when she visited the Fushimi Inari Shinto Shrine in 2015! In the modern world we live in today, one cannot deny that taiko drumming has evolved to be a much more diverse and inclusive art form.

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Note. The above depicts former US representative Elijah Cummings saying "I've said it before and I'll say it again".

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In brief, taiko is more than just a series of Japanese percussive instruments (Mueller et al., 2016). Taiko is the heartbeat of Japan, and holds a great deal of importance to its players. It is used not only in the form of ensemble performance, but also in traditional Japanese art forms including noh theatre, kabuki plays, gagaku performance, and many more (Bender, 2012; Blades, 1992; Linfamy & Head, 2021; Nettl & Rommen, 2016; Stabbed Panda Music, 2021; Taiko Center Co., Ltd., 2017; Varian, 2013). In modern context, taiko has been — and is still being — incorporated into games, movies, anime, as well as other various streaming media. For many women in Japan, taiko is a statement on gender equality (Bender, 2012; Linfamy & Head, 2021). Ultimately, taiko has evolved tremendously throughout the years, and is now an incredibly significant part of Japanese culture that is adored and recognised by many people all around the world.

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Note. The above depicts a performer striking the ōdaiko.

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For this project, we were tasked to create a padlet featuring a world musical instrument or genre. As such, the focus of this project is taiko, one of the most culturally significant forms of music in Japan. In this project, we will learn about taiko in its traditional context as well as its modern context. Overall, this project aims to explore taiko not only as an instrument, but also as a form of art and expression.

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Note. The above depicts the Google definition of taiko.

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Before we look into the history and origin of taiko, we need to first understand what taiko really is. Taiko is a Japanese term that literally translates to "drum" or "big drum" (Miller & Shahriari, 2016; Xue et al., 2018). In musical context, however, taiko often refers to a broad range of percussive instruments that vary in size, shape, sound, and pitch (Rachel, 2013; Stabbed Panda Music, 2021; Taiko Center Co., Ltd., 2017). This collection of drums is what makes up the taiko ensembles — or kumi-daiko — that we know today.

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Note. The above depicts Kodō performing as a kumi-daiko.

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In this day and age, the term taiko is used loosely and can be used to describe not just a variety of drums, but also a Japanese drumming style, a drum ensemble, as well as a world music genre (Miller & Shahriari, 2016; Mueller et al., 2016; Taiko Center Co., Ltd., 2017; Xue et al., 2018). More accurately described as kumi-daiko, the art of Japanese drumming in a taiko ensemble is known to be a significant part of Japanese culture that embodies the spirit of Japanese people (Miller & Shahriari, 2016; Mueller et al., 2016). As described by Varian (2013), kumi-daiko is a form of performing arts that involves several players and all sorts of taiko.

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Note. The above depicts the game, Taiko no Tatsujin: Drum 'n' Fun!

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Finally, we have come to the honorary mention of Taiko no Tatsujin! As you may already know, Taiko no Tatsujin, meaning Taiko Master in English, began as an arcade game that was created by a Japanese company called Namco. To play the game, players use a pair of bachi to tap along to popular pieces of music on an electronic drum that is shaped like a taiko. Since then, the company has published a series of software and hardware home-console versions of Taiko no Tatsujin (Bender, 2012). Today, a version of Taiko no Tatsujin exists as a free online browser game, and you may click here to try it out! Of course, there are also other video games such as Sekiro: Shadows Die Twice that feature Japanese culture. In the game, the da-daiko can be found in the Fountainhead Palace, where gagaku-inspired music is played.

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Miller, T. E., & Shahriari, A. C. (2016). World Music: A Global Journey (4th ed.). Taylor & Francis Group.

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Mueller, N., Desormeaux, E., Ferrell, D., Kallweit, A., Henderson, T., & Lau, B. (2016). Taiko: Its Past and Present in Japanese Society. Ursidae: The Undergraduate Research Journal at the University of Northern Colorado, 6(1).

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Nettl, B., & Rommen, T. (2016). Excursions in World Music (7th ed.). Taylor & Francis Group.

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NOWNESS. (2021, October 2). Paired Flowers: A Modern Retelling of Takasago [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/FWXkcSnwx5Y

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Rachel, B. (2013, October 2). A Basic Intro to Taiko and Why It's Awesome. Tofugu. https://www.tofugu.com/japan/taiko/

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Sasahara, K. (2015). First lady Michelle Obama performs taiko with the Akutagawa High School Taiko Club during her visit to Fushimi Inari Shinto Shrine [Photograph]. ABC News.

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Shigenobu, K. (1725–1750). Pictures of Excursions Through the Famous Sites of the Capital [Painting]. Smithsonian's National Museum of Asian Art.

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Stabbed Panda Music. (2021, September 18). History and Evolution of Taiko [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/lGb-lMWaisM

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Taiko Center Co., Ltd. (2017). About Taiko. Taiko Center Co., Ltd.; TAIKO-LAB. https://www.taiko-center.co.jp/english/about/index.html

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TAIKOPROJECT. (2022, August 16). TAIKOPROJECT 2023 to 2024 Promotional Video [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/WanY0HpFJR4

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Tentekomai. (2021, February 24). Japanese Drums and Percussion Instruments. Tentekomai. https://www.tentekomai.eu/percussion/

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Note. The above depicts a Japanese taiko group, or kumi-daiko.

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As we have previously established, a kumi-daiko consists of various drums — each one serving its own purpose, both aurally and visually (Bender, 2012). Conventionally, most taiko can be classified into one of two categories, depending on the way it is made. According to Rachel (2013), the body of a taiko is typically made from hallowing out a log, although cheaper ones are occasionally made from barrels. The biggest difference between the two types of taiko lies in how the head of the drum is made (Taiko Center Co., Ltd., 2017). A taiko is considered a byō-uchi-daiko if the skin covering the drum is nailed into its head using round black tacks. Normally, this is the type of drum that would come to mind when taiko is mentioned. The head of a tsukeshime-daiko, on the other hand, is constructed by stretching the skin over the taiko and fastening it with ropes. In a more modern setting, the skin of a tsukeshime-daiko can also be tightened using bolts. Here is a fun fact: since the skin of a tsukeshime-daiko is not nailed into the drum to create a fixed pitch, they have adjustable pitches (Rachel, 2013; Varian, 2013)!

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Note. The above depicts a nagadō-daiko, a type of taiko.

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The nagadō-daiko is arguably the most popular taiko in Japan (Dean, 2012; Linfamy & Head, 2021; Rachel, 2013; Varian, 2013). In Japanese, this directly translates to "long-bodied drum" (Tentekomai, 2021). From the picture, we can see that the skin of the nagadō-daiko is attached with round black tacks. Like all byō-uchi-daiko, the nagadō-daiko comes in a variety of sizes. This disparity in size is what enables them to differ in pitch. The diameter of a nagadō-daiko ranges from 30 centimetres to 85 centimetres. Furthermore, a medium-sized nagadō-daiko, or chū-daiko, normally weighs around 27 kilogrammes (Varian, 2013). According to Vetter et al. (2019), the nagadō-daiko can often be found in Buddhist temples, where it is used to accompany the chanting of scriptures or Buddhist obon festival dances. This is likely how the nagadō-daiko got its nickname, miya-daiko, which means "temple drum" (Linfamy & Head, 2021; Vetter et al., 2019).

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Note. The above depicts a hira-daiko, a type of taiko.

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Appropriately named after its short body, the hira-daiko simply means "flat drum" in Japanese. The structure of a hira-daiko is largely similar to that of a nagadō-daiko, and this is because they are constructed the same way (Rachel, 2013). Having a shallower shell, a hira-daiko will produce a lighter and higher sound compared to a nagadō-daiko of the same diameter. Consequently, hira-daiko are often used for accompaniment alongside shime-daiko during festivals. In a video, Linfamy and Head (2021) explain that the hira-daiko also appears in kabuki theatre, although it takes on a different name: gaku-daiko. In theatrical context, the hira-daiko is decorated elaborately, and this is what makes the gaku-daiko so special. Contrary to its name which can be understood as "musical drum", the gaku-daiko is often used to depict war scenes in kabuki theatre, a traditional art form that we will cover later on.

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Note. The above depicts an ōdaiko, a type of taiko.

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In Japanese, the ōdaiko literally means "big drum", and it is exactly what it sounds like: a huge nagadō-daiko (Rachel, 2013; Tentekomai, 2021). The size of an ōdaiko is significantly larger than that of a chū-daiko — its diameter usually ranging from 90 centimetres to 120 centimetres, and definitely way too heavy for one person to carry. As seen in the picture, the ōdaiko is played horizontally on an elevated stand. This allows up to two players to play the ōdaiko simultaneously. In a standard kumi-daiko performance, the ōdaiko acts as both a soloist and an accompanist. While ōdaiko players normally get to play a simpler rhythm than nagadō-daiko players, they require a lot more strength to hit the drum. Thus, it is crucial that taiko players keep fit and possess great stamina (Bender, 2012; Rachel, 2013).

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Note. The above depicts a tsukeshime-daiko, a type of taiko.

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Moving on, we have a small, high-pitched drum known as the tsukeshime-daiko. According to Tentekomai (2021), the term shime comes from the Japanese verb shimeru, which means "to tighten" or "to bind". As mentioned before, the drum can be tuned by tightening its heads with either ropes or bolts. The more the drum is tensioned, the higher the pitch becomes. Just as the tsukeshime-daiko is tightened and tuned before each performance, it is also loosened after the performance. In total, there are five different types of drum heads depending on the thickness of the skin, starting from the smallest namitsuke to the largest and heaviest gochō-gakke (Tentekomai, 2021; Varian, 2013).

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Note. The above depicts a shime-daiko, a type of taiko.

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The shime-daiko has a similar structure to the tsukeshime-daiko. The main difference between the two taiko is that the shime-daiko has thinner skins, making it lighter than the tsukeshime-daiko. In a kumi-daiko performance, the shime-daiko typically — but does not exclusively — functions as a metronome or a time keeper (Rachel, 2013; Tentekomai, 2021). Having a higher pitch that is able to cut through the lower frequencies of the nagadō-daiko and the ōdaiko, the shime-daiko can be heard over the entire taiko ensemble (Vetter et al., 2019). Apart from kumi-daiko performances, the shime-daiko is also used in various festivals as well as tradition Japanese theatre (Tentekomai, 2021). According to Linfamy and Head (2021), this drum is also referred to as the minyō shime-daiko thanks to its prevalent appearance in Japanese folk music.

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Note. The above depicts an okedō-daiko, a type of taiko.

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The okedō-daiko, which translates to "barrel drum", is something like a long shime-daiko (Rachel, 2013). Its stave-shaped body is made out of quarter-sawn Japanese cedar, whereas its head is stretched across an iron ring and tied to its body with ropes. This structure makes it relatively easy to tune an okedō-daiko (Tentekomai, 2021). Usually, medium-sized okedō-daiko are placed vertically on stands, whereas larger ones are placed horizontally as shown in the picture above. There is also a smaller type of okedō-daiko that can be carried on a strap hanging across the player's shoulder. This kind of okedō-daiko is known as the katsugi-okedaiko. Its light weight enables the drummer to move around freely, so much so that the musician may even incorporate dance into the performance.

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Note. The above depicts a tsuzumi, an hourglass-shaped drum.

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Finally, the tsuzumi is a type of hourglass-shaped drum that can be found in traditional Japanese theatre, folk music, and dance music (Varian, 2013). It is in a category of its own, and is considered neither a byō-uchi-daiko nor tsukeshime-daiko. While many people, including Bender (2012), consider the tsuzumi as a part of taiko, some researchers, such as Blades (1992), regard taiko and the tsuzumi as two completely separate components. The two tsuzumi that are most frequently used are the kotsuzumi and the ōtsuzumi. As reported by Tentekomai (2021), the smaller kotsuzumi is held on the player's right shoulder and hit with fingers of the right hand. On the contrary, the bigger ōtsuzumi is held in the left hand on the left thigh, and the player strikes the drum head using the right hand. Additionally, Linfamy and Head (2021) explain that the kotsuzumi is the smallest of the three drums used in noh and kabuki theatre, and is commonly used alongside the ōtsuzumi.

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Note. The above depicts three pairs of bachi, or Japanese drumsticks.

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Much like how an orchestra would not be able to perform without bows, a taiko ensemble would not be able to perform without bachi (Rachel, 2013). Bachi are straight, wooden sticks that players use to hit taiko with. They can be made of almost any type of wood, and the choice of wood plays a big part in how the taiko sounds like when it is struck. Most of the time, bachi are made of oak, magnolia, maple, bamboo, or cypress (Rachel, 2013; Varian, 2013). According to Varian (2013), there are several ways to hold the bachi. In kumi-daiko, players will generally hold their bachi in between the thumb and the index finger.

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Note. The above depicts a kumi-daiko singing the kuchi-shōga of Ready Set Kadon by Shoji Kameda.

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An interesting fact about taiko is that its repertoire is passed down orally, through a mnemonic system called kuchi-shōga (Bender, 2012; Rachel, 2013; Varian, 2013). In kumi-daiko, kuchi-shōga can be interpreted as mouth singing, and is also referred to as kuchi-shoka or kuchi-showa. It is a form of solmisation by which players are asked to vocalise taiko patterns and sounds (Hunter-Ishikawa, 2021). Something of note is that kuchi-shōga is not a standardised, universal system. Each instrument has its own syllables and this may vary depending on the ensemble or region. Since there are no written transcriptions or sheet music, it is crucial that players mimic the taiko as best they can in terms of dynamics, inflection, and phrasing. In taiko, an old adage that teachers often tell beginners is that "if you can sing it, you can play it". For this reason, taiko ensembles sometimes practise by singing the kuchi-shōga together before playing the piece on the taiko. The video I have linked portrays a kumi-daiko singing the kochi-shōga of Ready Set Kadon, a famous piece composed by Shoji Kameda.

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The Ho Center for Buddhist Studies at Stanford. (2020, March 6). Court Music and Dance from Japan [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/AzUE0xHZ_4A

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Note. By S. Toshimasa, 1887, painting, Amaterasu Emerges from the Heavenly Rock Cave, from Curious Ordinary.‌

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Last but certainly not least, taiko is said to have originated from a mythological story found in the Nihon Shoki (Stabbed Panda Music, 2021). Also referred to as the Chronicles of Japan in English, the Nihon Shoki is one of the oldest books of Japanese classical history. In Japanese mythology, Amaterasu was the Goddess of the Sun, and had two brothers: Tsukuyomi and Susanoo (Linfamy, 2019). Our story begins when Susanoo, the God of Sea, was expelled from heaven for neglecting his responsibilities. Before he was banished to the underworld, Susanoo visited his sister's court to say goodbye. However, being the notorious troublemaker that he is, Susanoo ended up causing a huge mess despite allegedly having pure intentions. Upset at this, Amaterasu shut herself inside a cave, plunging both Heaven and Earth into darkness (Bender, 2012; Linfamy, 2019; Stabbed Panda Music, 2021). This caused the world to go into chaos — crops were dying, men robbed convenience stores, women tore off their tops, and so on. Alarmed, all eight million deities gathered outside the cave and begged in vain for Amaterasu to come out of the cave. Eventually, it was Ame-no-Uzume who lured Amaterasu out of the cave by banging on an empty sake barrel and dancing on top of it. This is illustrated in the image above. According to Bender (2012) and Stabbed Panda Music (2021), many players believe that this very barrel was the first ever taiko drum, which makes Ame-no-Uzume, the Goddess of Dawn, the first ever taiko drummer.

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Note. By the Ho Center for Buddhist Studies at Stanford, 2020, video, Gagaku: Court Music and Dance from Japan, from YouTube.

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In Shinto, taiko is perceived as a multifaceted art form, and can be used in gagaku performances (Bender, 2012; Blades, 1992; Linfamy & Head, 2021; Varian, 2013). As maintained by Nettl and Rommen (2016), gagaku translates to elegant or refined music, and is the choral and instrumental music that has been patronised by the imperial court for centuries. Influenced by the traditional music of China and Korea, gagaku is possibly the oldest ensemble music in the world. Sometimes, gagaku is also used to accompany a traditional dance performed at the Tokyo Imperial Palace (Blades, 1992). In this context, gagaku is often referred to as bugaku (Nettl & Rommen, 2016). Among all the instruments used in a gagaku ensemble, the most impressionable gagakki is likely the da-daiko, a large drum that is commonly the central drum of the ensemble (Linfamy & Head, 2021; Nettl & Rommen, 2016; Varian, 2013). Another interesting gagakki is the tsuri-daiko. Nettl and Rommen (2016) describe the tsuri-daiko as a suspended two-headed drum that is used to indicate large phrase units. Blades (1992) adds that tsuri-daiko players typically use short mallets covered in leather knobs instead of bachi. Other instruments that are involved in the percussion section of gagaku include a small suspended gong called shōko, a small drum called kakko, as well as the san-no-tsuzumi (Bender, 2012; Nettl & Rommen, 2016). With that, a compilation of five Japanese imperial court performances has been attached above. In the video, a kakko, a shōko, and a tsuri-daiko are featured.

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The Ho Center for Buddhist Studies at Stanford

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Note. By AgoraVox France, 2011, video, O-Daiko by Kodō, from YouTube.

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Although kumi-daiko is a fairly modern way in which taiko is used, Bender (2012) claims that many of the early kumi-daiko pieces are deemed standard and are still performed by taiko ensembles to this very day despite the many changes and adaptation taiko has undergone. In essence, I would say that these pieces of music can be considered traditional repertoire. Some examples of these classics are Yatai-bayashi by Ondekoza, Isami-goma by Osuwa Daiko, as well as Zoku by Kodō which was played earlier on (Bender, 2012). The video attached features a traditional piece called O-Daiko that was performed by the legendary kumi-daiko, Kodō.

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Kodo - "O-Daiko" - HD (japanese drummers - Taiko - tambours géants Japon)

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The KANSAI Guide. (2022, February 1). Exclusive Expeditions, KANSAI Japan: Osaka [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/qHlNM3Xf1gE

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Exclusive Expeditions, KANSAI Japan - Osaka [4K]

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Note. The above depicts a poster of the annual Taiko of Japan event and the cover of Goddesses by Oya-Mayumi.

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Lastly, the biggest change in kumi-daiko I have noticed is that women are now allowed to perform in taiko troupes. According to Stabbed Panda Music (2021) and Bender (2012), taiko was exclusively a male pursuit when it first emerged in Japan. Traditionally, Japanese women were expected to be quiet and submissive. For this reason, female taiko drummers were not as largely supported as their male counterparts. However, this changed when the National theatre of Japan hosted the first night of the annual Taiko of Japan event in 1999. Upon naming the series "Women Play Taiko", organisers of the concert sought out various ensembles that featured female taiko players. As seen in the image on the left, the poster of the event presented an illustration of a semi-nude woman holding a pair of bachi, presumably to play the taiko that is fastened around her waist. Although the poster may be interpreted in a way that highlights the Japanese God of Thunder, Raijin, Bender (2012) suggests that the woman featured in the poster is actually Amaterasu, the female lead of the Japanese mythology from which taiko originated. Upon further research, I have found that the poster also plays on the cover image of Oya-Mayumi's book, Goddesses, which was first published in 1981. This information further supports the belief that the woman featured in the poster is the legendary Goddess of the Sun, Amaterasu. Anyway, let us get back to the point. Having featured female drummers in Taiko of Japan, many women were inspired to pick up taiko and this resulted in a dramatic rise in the number of women who participated in kumi-daiko. More importantly, they were very much approved and supported by taiko community as well as many others in society. Today, there are just as many female drummers as there are male drummers, if not more.

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Toshimasa, S. (1887). Amaterasu Emerges from the Heavenly Rock Cave [Painting]. Curious Ordinary.

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Varian, H. (2013). The Way of Taiko (2nd ed.). Stone Bridge Press.

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Vetter, R., Edwards, J., Hutchinson, G., Austin, T., Hays, E., & Chenette, J. (2019). Grinnell College Musical Instrument Collection. Grinnell College Musical Instrument Collection; Grinnell College. https://omeka-s.grinnell.edu/s/MusicalInstruments/page/welcome

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Xue, K., Hyun, S. J., & Chen, L. (2018). History of Taiko: Japanese Origin and Spread to America. Standford Taiko. https://web.stanford.edu/group/stanfordtaiko/cgi-bin/history.html

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Note. By J. Hill, 2021, photograph, the moment of remembrance was commemorated by a dancer and a taiko drummer, from the New York Times.‌

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By the year 1964, kumi-daiko was so popular that it was performed in the opening and closing ceremonies of the Summer Olympics in Tokyo, as shown in the image above (Bender, 2012; Miller & Shahriari, 2016; Stabbed Panda Music, 2021; Taiko Center Co., Ltd., 2017). According to Bender (2012) and Taiko Center Co., Ltd. (2017), this performance had resulted in a phenomenal taiko boom where thousands of taiko groups were formed. Locals began to appreciate their cultural heritage, and authoritative organisations took action to preserve taiko. By the end of the 1960s, taiko ensembles started to perform for Western audiences in Europe and the United States (Miller and Shahriari, 2016). Since then, taiko has made its appearance in several major national and international sporting events, including the 1970 Osaka World Expo, the Nagano Winter Olympics in 1998, as well as the FIFA World Cup that was co-hosted by Korea and Japan in 2002 (Bender, 2012).