# data[].attributes.body
I'm from Cuba Missouri, majoring in sports medicine, I also play football. And a fun fact about me is that I like blink-182.

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max maddex

Sports management major, football

Get a A

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Audrey Johnston

Secondary Biology education

Softball

Being able to write more

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Name: Lacie Clark

Major: Business communications

Hobbies: singing, makeup artistry

Goal: Get faster at writing

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What’s up my goofy goobers

I like learning languages and drawing

my goal is to get faster at writing

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Jose Cortez

business administration

playing games and basketball

to pass with an A

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Josh Alcorn

Business administration, record collecting

get better at forming paragraphs

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Jacob Reynolds (he/him)

Education major and I play baseball

Have better organizational skills with essays

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Shelly He/him  Education history  Writing better

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Shelly He/him  Education history  Writing better

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Hi my name is Aidyn and I'm from Macks creek, MO. I’m majoring in Finance and marketing, I’m also on wrestling for Westminster. Something interesting about me is I enjoy fly fishing and bow hunting. A goal I have for the class is being able to write longer and better essays.

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Frank Sintra “Way of Life”

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Zach Top - Bad Luck (Official Music Video)

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Zach Bryan - I Remember Everything (feat. Kacey Musgraves)

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Back in my bs bigXthaplug

Pad lock 21 Savage

Both ways Juice world

4k El Alfa

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I’m from Oklahoma, majoring in sports management, and I want to excel in writing essays better.

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https://youtu.be/HqiZRQHhqQs?si=qJTe5UQoSMC4Wvsn

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Gunna - one of wun [Official Visualizer]

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-All The Stars by Kendrick Lamar

-Fistfight by The Ballroom Thieves

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-Finance and Financial planning

-Playing volleyball and fishing

-Become a better writer

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My name is Emily Heigham. I’m a business major and I play tennis. I want the learn how to make my writing more organized.

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tv off: Kendrick

https://youtu.be/U8F5G5wR1mk?si=lFcqrath14nJAe08

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Kendrick Lamar - tv off (Official Audio)

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I’m Good luv, enjoy- Aaron may

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Calm and collected!

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Riley

Major: Psychology

Goal: Stay interested in my research paper

My tattoos are my personality

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Lil poppa -Therapy

Loe shimmy- for me

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I’m from Oklahoma, I am majoring in sports management, and I want to write essays better

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Alex

Major: Environmental Biology

Hobbies: music, arts, and video games

Unique: My favorite older gaming system is the Gameboy Advance SP

Goal: I want to get faster at writing my essays without dropping in quality.

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Mos Flowers - a dude

Business communications and TBD

Take skills i learn from here into other classes

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James Duckworth

I’m a Chemistry major I play baseball and like to fish. The goal that I Have for this class is I would like to become a better more fluent writer and get and A in the class.

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1) How much can a middle man make

2) Why is day trading one of the hardest jobs

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1. Is the two party system hurting our democracy?

2. Fine line tattoos: worth it or not?

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My names Jocelyn, I’m majoring in elementary education. I enjoy hanging out with my dog, and I hope to pass the class with an A.

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1. What is a movie? What makes a movie a movie? What is the history? What interests us?

2. How could movies affect the future?

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What is the motivating factor for an athlete that isn’t allowed to play due to grades or performance issues?

Should coaches be forced to bring in kids that wont end up on the team in season?

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Hunting- History of hunting and trapping in the United States.

Fly fishing- History of how fly fish and how it became a style of fishing.

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1- Why do we dream / nightmare ?

2- Do dreams come true?

Why do we dream / night mare is my top pick I want to know if things in our lives will affect what we dream/ nightmares about. Also who was the one who named it and why.

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What is the hardest position to play in volleyball?

Is it coaching or injuries that make kids quit sports?

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How does science and engineering depend on creative thinking and artistry?

Where does art and math join to create our sciences?

Does enforcing the push for athletic funding and athletic scholarships put our young creators at risk of failing?

Should artists in school get academic scholarships to the degree that Student athletes do?

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Coaching - how does a coach affect his athletes?

Fitness - what is the reccomended amount of cardio a person needs in a week

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1. Is baseball more popular world-wide than basketball?

2. What is the history of Yankees organization through the years?

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What is the history of welding like who invited it?

What is the best method of welding or outside

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Broad topics:

history

Culture

Linguistics

Art

Narrowing:

How 1950’s America actually sucked and why people assume it was instead the “golden age” of American history.

Why does China have over 200 different dialects that can almost be classified as different languages?

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What is the history of rap music in the US?

Why don’t academic coaches get paid more?

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What are the differences in techniques between Saltwater and Freshwater fishing.

What is the history of the start and rise of baseball.

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How did tinting windows come about in the world?

Why do we tint windows with different shades?

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What is the history of weight lifting? How did the fitness industry evolve?

I chose these questions because it seems like something that many people wonder and don’t know?

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I’m Chris Durden, my pronouns are he/him

My major is pe+ coaching and I play lots of sports but Im only playing football atm.

A goal of mine for this class is to get a good grade!

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History of tattoos. Why tobacco is so important to our economy.

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History of tattoos. Why tobacco is so important to our economy.

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How long should you rest between sets?

What time of rest works in relation to what exactly you are doing?

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How can the attitude of a teacher effect the learning of students?

How can a coach positively and negatively effect a team or player?

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Im Tayden, I am a physical Education major. I am a baseball player here, and some of my other hobbies are gaming, hanging out with friends and being with my family. Goal I have is to enhance my writing skills.

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1. What workout split builds the most amount of muscle in the least amount of time?

2. What diet is best for fatloss?

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My name is Dylan- that guy

My majors are business and education

I want to take the writing skills and techniques I’ve learned from you from the first semester and this semester to any writing paper I have.

My hobbies are football, lifting, hunting, and fishing

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How does a rubik’s cube work?

Who invented the first Rubik’s cube?

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K:

I’ve always used art and creativity to make my work standout/to think of new ways to improve what I do.

I built miniature robots, painted, sketched, sang, and eventually ended up in technical theatre. All of these gave me different skills and many different perspectives on problem solving/learning.

I plan to major in environmental biology though, applying creative thinking and new ideas that haven’t been explored or developed on. The ability to be creative and explore ideas is a fundamental of scientific thinking and engineering.

In one of my visual arts classes, I had to learn a lot more on Leonardo Da Vinci and gained a lot of interest in the connections between science, engineering, and artists.

W:

Are creative thinkers being pushed out of higher education do to funding and scholarships being poured into student athletics instead of student artistry?

Are the arts and stem truly different/opposing fields?

Just how much overlap is there in artistic persons and the scientific fields?

Why do schools and institutions put so much funding in student athletes instead of equal funding between arts and science, nurturing both the creative and physically active just the same?

L:

Da Vinci has contributed much to the fields of anatomy, neuroscience, and engineering. All of these findings being presented in his artistry.

Many professors at Ivy League colleges that teach sciences have also worked in a craft that includes the arts. Ex.) a physics professor whose hobby was ceramics.

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https://www.trine.edu/academics/centers/center-for-sports-studies/blog/2021/coaching_styles_and_their_impact_on_athletes.aspx

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https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19691365/

https://www.healthline.com/health/fitness/rest-between-sets

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Hobson, J.Allan. Dreaming : An Introduction to the Science of Sleep. Oxford University Press, 2002. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=sso&db=cat09962a&AN=rla.oai.edge.westminster.college.folio.ebsco.com.cs00000001.0025.9601d08b.0f0b.577c.afdd.65d3281f9824&authtype=shib&site=eds-live&scope=site

https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=sso&db=cat09962a&AN=rla.oai.edge.westminster.college.folio.ebsco.com.cs00000001.0025.9601d08b.0f0b.577c.afdd.65d3281f9824&authtype=shib&site=eds-live&scope=site&custid=014-800

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https://eds.p.ebscohost.com/eds/viewarticle/render?data=dGJyMPPp44rp2%2fdV0%2bnjisfk5Ie4pq9Mq66uSKzj34HspON88bavR7GnrUquqLM4trCwS7iqrjjOw6SM8Nfsi9%2fZ8oHt5Od8u6ewSrCnr0m3pq8%2b8d%2fiVeLZs3uvqt9Jq62yebajsn2vr6t6t6%2byRbTa5EiyqrRQ5K3hT77o43zn6aSE3%2bTlVePkpHzgs%2byE49jpPvLX5VW%2fxKR57LOxS7Knr0y3nOSH8OPfjLvc84Tq6uOQ8gAA&vid=12&sid=dc5c14a1-74a8-4e19-b994-6df04468f7c7@redis

https://eds.p.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=22&sid=dc5c14a1-74a8-4e19-b994-6df04468f7c7%40redis&bdata=JkF1dGhUeXBlPXNzbyZhdXRodHlwZT1zaGliJnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d

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Da Vinci and contributions

https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=sso&db=edb&AN=180019827&authtype=shib&site=eds-live&scope=site&custid=014-800

Artistry developments in science

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https://artofproblemsolving.com/blog/articles/knowing-vs-understanding-rubiks-cube-difference?srsltid=AfmBOoohJiR2xU6gmRt0_IOFv4cOGrZdtK1-y_WM2g_-QzXvCw2X1CA3

https://cjme.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s10033-018-0269-7

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Knowing Versus Understanding: How the Rubik’s Cube Taught Me the Difference

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What’s your strategy for solving the Rubik’s cube? We layout the terms and sequences to memorize to show how understanding outweighs knowing.

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https://seafwa.org/sites/default/files/journal-articles/BROOKS-673.pdf

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Key points

Coaches should continually evaluate and improve their coaching style, just like players continually evaluate and improve their skills.

Coaches should avoid inadvertently projecting their own anxiety onto their players.

Allowing players to be creative can help build team chemistry.

As a coach for over 30 years, I often reflect on when I was a younger coach; my style was very hard-core and old school. I pushed my players but also created a bond with them. They always knew that it came from a good place no matter how hard I was on them.

In retrospect, I am not the same coach today as I was then. I was very green and did not consider the differences in learning styles and extenuating circumstances of my players. However, my players always gave me 150 percent effort. I do not find that a coincidence.

Recently, I have gone out to watch high school and club coaches work with their players in various sports. Some coaches seem to communicate in a manner that creates a positive environment. In contrast, other coaches were berating players and creating an environment governed by fear.

Experience and reflection

When an athlete is in an environment where they can take risks or make an error without being reprimanded, it helps them grow. Athletes learn by their mistakes, just as coaches learn by their mistakes. It is all about the experience.

Many coaches will yell at a player and immediately take them out of the game. Then, the coach wonders why the player made the same mistake during the next game and is not growing. When an athlete is not told the "why" and "how," they repeat the same errors. The coach needs to pose the question: Am I asking too much of my player? What am I doing as a coach that's making these mistakes keep happening?

I have seen coaches take a player out after one error and leave other players in after several. When they take their players out, coaches should let their players know that they believe in them and tell them to stay focused, what to do better next time, and play with confidence.

Coaches often feel the pressure to win throughout the season, sometimes inadvertently projecting their anxiety onto their players. Regardless, this can break down a player mentally and physically. It will eventually generate a domino effect where one player will shut down, and then another, etc. The player will begin to second guess their every move resulting in poor decisions and errors. Consequently, the team starts losing cohesiveness, quality of play, and overall confidence.

When this happens, the coach's job is to recognize and correct what is happening with the team. Now, I am not saying that players do not deserve to be taken out of games for specific mistakes. The point is that in order for a player to grow, they must identify their weaknesses and work on them. The coach must do the same regarding their coaching. There is a balance. Coaches and players alike get better through reflection and experience.

How to help athletes with coaching styles

When I work with athletes questioning their self-confidence, I provide them with different mental strategies for their psychological toolbox. Often, a player's lack of confidence is a feeling created and manufactured by the coach. Although some coaches might be great at the X's and O's of the game, some fail to see the harm they cause with their coaching style. Oftentimes, a coach will negatively interact with their team with a "you better or else" mentality. A perfect example is when they take a player out of a game after a mistake without explanation and continue to do so throughout the game thereafter. This behavior leaves a player confused, wondering why they came out of the game and what they are doing wrong.

So, what do I tell my athletes to do when this situation arises? I tell them that they all have roles on the team. But, if the coach is shutting the player down and they are one of the premier players, they should continue to create opportunities and score when an opportunity presents itself. Athletes need to believe in themselves and their abilities. If an athlete feels their coach does not believe in them, they have to show the coach confidently and respectfully that they can. This does not mean the athlete should be a selfish player; it means they should be confident and play "their" game. Being able to do this requires mental training. An athlete must know what they can and cannot do and play with relentless effort and confidence. Athletes should understand that training the mind is just as important as training the body.

Coaches at the middle and high school levels should not limit their athletes. From my coaching experience, some athletes will continue to grow and aspire to play at the collegiate level, where some will stop putting forth the effort. Coaches should recognize the difference in their players and not sell them short of their dreams. It is pivotal for a coach to recognize who should be on the field and/or court and who should not, based on their attitude and effort. A coach can change the athlete's mindset either positively or negatively.

As a coach, allow your players to be creative; this will build team chemistry. Players should not be questioning their every move and fear being pulled out of the game. These athletes have practiced enough that they could run the plays in their sleep. So, in order for them to get in the zone, all fear needs to be eliminated. A coach can be tough and still build up their athletes. This will promote a relaxed team that is playing hard and having fun doing so.

Coaches can breathe life into the sport experience and play the most crucial role in shaping the sport mentality for athletes. A coach can be challenging and have high expectations, but it is essential to know that even professional athletes make errors. Positivity is contagious. The more a coach inspires their players and allows for open communication, the more successful a team will be.

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How a Coach's Attitude Can Affect an Athlete's Mentality

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Coaches should continually evaluate and improve their coaching style, just like players continually evaluate and improve their skills. Coaches should avoid inadvertently projecting their own anxiety onto their players. Allowing players to be creative can help build team chemistry.

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You should probably leave - Chris Stapleton

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My questions asked properly

“ How did tinting windows become a a thing into today’s world”.

“Why we use didn’t type of shades depending on the vehicle?”

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Edwards, Scott. "Nightmares and the Brain" Harvard Medical School. Autumn 2025.https://hms.harvard.edu/news-events/publications-archive/brain/nightmares-brain

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Spraul, Tyler. “Why the Fitness Industry Is Growing.” Exercise.Com | Software to Grow Your Fitness Business, 4 Aug. 2023, www.exercise.com/grow/why-the-fitness-industry-is-growing/.

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Stanford Report Article, Science Meets Art

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Science and art are often regarded as distinct - either a person can't be serious about both or an interest in one must relate somehow to work in the other. In reality, many scientists participate in and produce art at all levels and in every medium.

Here are just a few of these people - students and faculty - who study the sciences at Stanford University but also take part in the arts, both professionally and casually. From first-time dancers to life-long painters, these scientists give us a glimpse into the many ways science and art intersect.

Image credit: Kurt Hickman

Hideo Mabuchi, professor of applied physics

Hideo Mabuchi grew up in a culture that values traditional craft and began collecting it himself during his travels. So, although he began making ceramics on "a bit of a whim," it was another way of engaging with what he'd long appreciated. As for being a physicist to boot, Mabuchi has always had broad interests.

"I remember going to college thinking maybe I would do economics or aeronautical engineering, and I had a period of deep interest in linguistics and philosophy," he said. "In the end, I really liked the activity and community I found in physics."

Getting into wood-firing solidified Mabuchi's devotion to ceramics. Intrigued by the transformation of uniform, bare clay into a riot of colors and textures, he has made many hundreds of wood-fired pieces, built his own blown-ash kiln on campus and studied the physical and chemical process of wood-firing using electron microscopes at the Stanford Nano Shared Facilities. He has recently curated several displays at Stanford, including a gallery of his electron microscope images and an exhibition of East Asian ceramics. During his residency at the Haystack Mountain School of Craft two years ago, Mabuchi started loom weaving. Some of his recent work combines clay and textiles.

For undergraduates, Mabuchi teaches a course on ceramics, physics and the creative process. He feels that teaching at this intersection is an opportunity for him to contemplate broader questions about "meaning and meaning-making," while also showing students that science and art aren't mutually exclusive.

"It's very natural to have interests both in artistic pursuits and in scientific ones," he said. "And it's great for those of us in the sciences, engineering, math who are interested in pursuing art to make ourselves visible to our students ... to provide a role model of that and to give each other permission to do that."
Mabuchi is also a member of the Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute.

Kalanit Grill-Spector standing in front of four of her paintings holding a paint palette and paintbrush

Kalanit Grill-Spector, professor of psychology

Painting and drawing were always a part of Kalanit Grill-Spector's childhood. But it wasn't until college, when she was looking for a mental escape from her engineering classes, that she began taking formal art classes. "I really enjoyed the intellectual part of engineering but I needed a more creative outlet," she said. She continued taking art classes throughout her undergraduate and graduate education.

With bold colors and thick lines, Grill-Spector paints vivid images of people, animals and scenes. She describes her art as expressionism. "I don't try to be precise. It's more emotional and helps my mind both wander and concentrate," she said.

Grill-Spector was originally intent on becoming an engineer but found she was more interested in computations. She shifted her focus to computer vision, which then led her to neurobiology, where she ended up modeling the brain using her computer skills. Now, as a cognitive neuroscientist, professor of psychology and member of the Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute at Stanford and Stanford Bio-X, she studies how visual recognition works. "I think I have a really good visual understanding of things, and that's why I like painting and why I like studying vision," she said.

Grill-Spector finds there is a clear relationship between understanding art and being able to communicate science effectively. "Having good visuals really helps convey ideas and information in a clear way - it's a really good way to get people to understand your idea," she explained. This is one of the reasons she incorporates an art project into the curriculum for her undergraduate class, Introduction to Perception. For their final assignment, students build or draw an illusion. Grill-Spector said she enjoys witnessing the creativity of her students and seeing how they relate art and science. "They're both really creative processes," she said.
By Kimberly Hickok

Alice Lay sitting at a counter with her art supplies, various kitchen objects are in the foreground to the left

Alice Lay, graduate student in applied physics

As a young girl, Alice Lay would find ways to incorporate an element of crafting into her class assignments. "I was always the one who would do more than the teacher asked," she said. She once purchased an expensive wood burner just to create designs on an art piece she wanted to incorporate into her history class project.

Lay returned to her artistic roots as an undergraduate at the University of California, Berkeley to make personalized thank-you cards for her professors. She enjoyed making the cards so much that now, as a graduate student in Jennifer Dionne's lab, she continues the practice for members of her research group - but she's taken it up a notch.

"Now, as I work on them, I get more and more crazy ideas like, I can make this flip up or this light up," she said. Recently she incorporated tiny electronic LED bulbs that light up on the card when you press three small buttons. For another card, she wrote hidden messages in invisible ink.

While creating cards is her main artistic medium, she enjoys finding creative ways to make her scientific data more visually appealing. "I find that to be really nice because I can use my artistic skills for my papers and my presentations, and be creative on that point," she said.

But crafting cards also serves as an escape from her science career, she said. When experiments are failing and troubleshooting isn't working, she feels stuck and frustrated. "But my cards are feasible," she said. "The mechanics aren't very complicated so I feel like whatever I can think of is doable."

Every card she makes is unique to the person she's making it for. She includes things like an image of the person in a favorite outfit and references to inside jokes. "It's always fun to incorporate those because I think it's so much more personal," she said. "And it's my way of thanking them for influencing my life."
By Kimberly Hickok

Meredith Fields watercoloring

Image credit: Kurt Hickman

Meredith Fields, graduate student in chemical engineering

Like many people, Meredith Fields was introduced to art as a toddler. That was when she began drawing and working with watercolor - and she never stopped.

"Back when I was in school, I was always known as the 'artistic kid' and it really wasn't until I got into college that I decided to even try science," said Fields, a graduate student in chemical engineering at Stanford, who added papercut art to her repertoire in high school. "I wanted to do something that was practical but also I wanted to take the one chance I had at college to try my hand at something technical and become qualified at that."

Fields's first internship was at NASA designing aerogels for the thermal protection of space probes and other instruments. She then worked on battery technologies. As part of the Nørskov lab at Stanford, she currently uses computational models to assess the efficiency with which different catalysts assist chemical reactions.

Although Fields imagines possibly combining her art and her science in the future, she purposely engages in them separately for now.

"There have been phases of my life where I go in and out of art and, especially being a graduate student, it's hard to manage your time in a way where you can continue to pursue art," Fields said. "So, what art means to me has changed over time. Right now, it's my stress release. It's my way of thinking in a way that's not math or equations."

Fields said that the more she talks about her dual interests in art and science, the more she meets others who have similarly varied pursuits. Even for those who feel exclusively drawn to science, she encourages further exploration of art, believing that it touches everyone's lives and there is something for everyone to appreciate in it.

Susan McConnell photographing a moose

Susan McConnell, professor of biology

As a child, Susan McConnell remembers rifling through National Geographic at her grandparents' home and coming upon an article about Jane Goodall's chimpanzee research in Tanzania. Goodall's work looked exciting and exotic - and quite glamorous - and it opened up a world of possibilities for McConnell. "I became completely and romantically enamored with the idea of being out in Africa with wild animals," recalled McConnell, a professor of biology at Stanford University. "I'd always been an animal-crazy kid, and the idea that you could study animals scientifically was what drew me into science." That article eventually led to two careers for McConnell: one as a neurobiologist and another as a conservation photographer.

Her early efforts to study animal behavior in the laboratory led McConnell to focus on solving the fundamental mysteries of the genes and cellular mechanisms that form neural circuits, which are the underpinnings of all behavior. She was more tentative about pursuing photography until a moment in 2005, when she was photographing a polar bear jumping across ice floes in the Arctic north of Norway. Although she was freezing cold, she realized that it was the happiest she had ever been.

"In wildlife photography, there are often hours of just sitting and waiting. Then, all of the sudden, two, three herds of elephants come to a watering hole and you have two cameras out and everything is happening," said McConnell. "Those moments where everything comes together, the moments that make an image really special, are very rare."

In addition to her biology classes, McConnell teaches an IntroSem on conservation photography and runs a year-long capstone project where seniors in the natural sciences express science through art. She was also the first non-art faculty member to have a show - on elephants and the ivory crisis - in the Stanford Art Gallery.

And, like Goodall, her work has been featured within the pages of National Geographic.

McConnell is also a member of and the Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute.

Vivian Wang, BS '17, electrical engineering

Although Vivian Wang has long enjoyed making art in her free time, she nearly missed her chance to take advantage of Stanford's art course offerings. "I felt like I'd been taking too many engineering and math classes, so I decided I should take at least one art class before I graduated!" she said. She took a digital printmaking class, and has since had work from that course accepted to the Bridge conference, an international effort to highlight math within other disciplines. Previously, Wang's beaded art sculptures were featured in the 2015 and 2016 conferences.

One of the pieces featured a latticed, curving combination of two prints depicting famous mathematicians. From one side, you see the face of David Hilbert - from the other, that of Wacław Sierpiński. The form of Wang's Faces of Hilbert and Sierpiński could serve as an analogy for her love of both science and art. These passions sometimes overlap. But even when they don't, they strike a certain harmony. "My art isn't always necessarily a visualization of science, but it's a skill that is very complementary to what I do in the sciences," Wang said.

In both art and science, she finds joy in experimentation. She sees research as an opportunity to unearth, shape and reshape knowledge through discovery and analysis, while art offers her restorative lessons in embracing mistakes and disorder.

As a recipient of the Churchill Scholarship, Wang is working on a master's of philosophy degree in physics at the University of Cambridge. After that, she plans to return to the United States to earn a doctorate in electrical engineering. Wang also thinks she'll continue exploring new art forms, and is already experimenting with pottery and sketching.

Image credit: Kurt Hickman

Parag Mallick, associate professor of radiology at the Stanford University School of Medicine

Parag Mallick's love for magic started with simple toys, the kind you can buy at a convenience store. He then picked up juggling in college, which he calls "a gateway drug to the circus arts." Through lessons at the legendary Magic Castle during graduate school in Los Angeles, Mallick developed his skills as professional performer.

And he was doing all of this while working toward becoming an astronaut.

"I got into my specific area of research because I wanted to understand how human physiology works and, in particular, what happens to people on the ground and in space," said Mallick, now an associate professor of radiology at the Stanford University School of Medicine, focusing on systems biology, personalized medicine and cancer diagnostics. "Being a Stanford professor was kind of my back-up plan."

For years, Mallick kept his two worlds completely separate, concerned that other performers would question his dedication to his craft and that scientists wouldn't take him - or his research - seriously. It's only recently that he's unified his dual life. The change has been overwhelmingly positive. "Being able to talk about magic openly and being able to discuss concepts from magic in science - like the fundamentals of perception and misperception and how that might influence our ability to draw conclusions from data - I think it's really made me both a better scientist and a better magician," he said.

Close-up magic, like the Three Card Monte trick, are Mallick's specialty. He loves the intimate, shared experience of these performances and their dependence on meticulousness, a talent he applies to his science and his art. Both passions have also refined Mallick's skills as storyteller, communicator and performer. Whether he's juggling machetes or teaching his students about bioinformatics, Mallick hopes to encourage people to try out new perspectives and embrace their sense of wonder.

Mallick is a member of The Canary Center @ Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford Bio-X, the Stanford Cancer Institute and a faculty fellow of Stanford ChEM-H.

Stephanie Fischer composing

Stephanie Fischer, BS '18, Earth systems; BA '18, music composition

Stephanie Fischer has been singing for longer than she can remember. "Even before I could talk, I was singing something in some kind of language," she said.

A veteran of the stage, she considered minoring in performance at Stanford but fell in love with the challenges and opportunities of composition. "It's a new way to articulate my ideas through a medium that's different from speaking with someone or performing someone else's music," she said. "It'd also be lovely to be an example that other people who look like me, women and people of color, can compose if they want to."

Fischer also pursued Earth systems studies before Stanford. She was originally involved in paleoclimatology research but her interests shifted when, in 2012, Superstorm Sandy destroyed much of her family's home in Long Island.

"That experience reminded me that changes in the climate are not confined to a thousand years ago, that these processes that cause mass extinctions aren't something that's removed from the present day," Fischer said. "It's something that can happen now and in a very personal way ... just like how it affected my family, as well as many other families."

As an Earth systems major, Fischer focused on human experience and how those narratives, particularly those of low-income communities and communities of color, are often ignored in Earth systems research.

People often ask Fischer how she "switches brains" between the arts and the sciences - a concept she once believed. "It was a little hard going through the day, feeling like I was bouncing between two minds," she said. "It got better once I realized that there's no concrete divide. It's just a different way to look at the same thing, and together you get a more nuanced approach to solving problems."

2016-17 Stanford Chinese Dance

Image credit: Hai Yan Jackson

Annie Hu, BS '17, biology

Karen Huynh, BS '18 electrical engineering

Ariel Liu, '19, major in product design

Unlike most dance groups at Stanford, Chinese Dance requires no prior experience, no auditions. That is what drew Annie Hu, Karen Huynh and Ariel Lu to the troupe. "Growing up, I never had the chance to be involved in dance or any Chinese cultural activities," Huynh said. "It was an opportunity to connect to my culture and learn more about dance."

Hu, Huynh and Liu were the leaders of the 2016-2017 Chinese Dance group. Hu has long been interested in microbiology and immunology, enthralled by the complex actions and reactions of microscopic organisms in the human body. Huynh become an electrical engineering major after learning about climate change and renewable energy in a Sophomore College course. Liu intended to major in biology but switched to product design after taking a mechanical engineering course on visual thinking. "I really like the mindset product designers have: using design thinking and engineering methods to break down the problems they face," Liu said. "It's really inspiring to think that you can do almost anything if you break it down."

For all three, dancing is an opportunity to learn about and experiment with physical expression. It's also a stress reliever. "There's this stark difference between studying from a textbook and the creativity that comes with dancing and actually using your body," said Hu. "By the end of practice, I'm so focused on the choreography and my body that it takes my mind off other worries."

The close bonds formed among these teams is another perk that keeps students eager to meet up and work on their art. Hu, Huynh and Liu all plan to pursue careers in their majors but they also hope to continue dancing even after they leave Stanford.

Image credit: Riley Suhar

Riley Suhar, graduate student in materials science

For Riley Suhar, a graduate student at Stanford University, science and art are complementary pairs, rooted in the pursuit of understanding and connection between people.

"Science and art are linked for me in that they represent ways to frame the world and share that - in a very real way - with those around me, whether aesthetically or translationally," she said.

Working in digital painting, photography and graphite, much of her inspiration comes from gaming art. From a young age she was mesmerized with how the art in games could build stories, stir emotions and establish entire universes through clever manipulations of light and color. Of her own work, Suhar's favorite pieces are those that reach out to the viewer in a gripping, often emotional way.

"What I find so compelling about artwork is that it is a way for me to condense a lot of the things that I find beautiful or moving and share those with others," Suhar said.

As an undergraduate, she worked on metal alloys and hoped to eventually apply that to advanced prosthetics in graduate school. But, told she was lacking the proper biomaterials background, she nearly gave up. Suhar was readying herself for a Peace Corps assignment in Zambia when the Heilshorn lab at Stanford invited her to join. Suhar is now working on a project where she leverages recombinant proteins to help with peripheral nerve repair.

"For me, studying science and performing research is no different than learning another language in that it enables to me communicate with more people - with the added benefit of being able to work on projects that may go to helping someone, somewhere," she said.

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Trapping may be one of the oldest methods of hunting. Since prehistoric times, man has trapped wild animals for food, fur, sport, and survival. In our country, Native Americans were the first trappers. Their catch provided meat for food, and fur and leather for clothing.

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Abstract

Loading recommendations for resistance training are typically prescribed along what has come to be known as the "repetition continuum", which proposes that the number of repetitions performed at a given magnitude of load will result in specific adaptations. Specifically, the theory postulates that heavy load training optimizes increases maximal strength, moderate load training optimizes increases muscle hypertrophy, and low-load training optimizes increases local muscular endurance. However, despite the widespread acceptance of this theory, current research fails to support some of its underlying presumptions. Based on the emerging evidence, we propose a new paradigm whereby muscular adaptations can be obtained, and in some cases optimized, across a wide spectrum of loading zones. The nuances and implications of this paradigm are discussed herein.

Keywords: high-load, low-load, strength, hypertrophy, muscular endurance

1. Introduction

Loading recommendations are typically prescribed along what has come to be known as the "repetition continuum," also known as the "strength-endurance continuum" [ 3] (see Figure 1). The repetition continuum proposes that the number of repetitions performed at a given magnitude of load will result in specific adaptations as follows:

1. A low repetition scheme with heavy loads (from 1 to 5 repetitions per set with 80% to 100% of 1-repetition maximum (1RM)) optimizes strength increases.

2. A moderate repetition scheme with moderate loads (from 8 to 12 repetitions per set with 60% to 80% of 1RM) optimizes hypertrophic gains.

3. A high repetition scheme with light loads (15+ repetitions per set with loads below 60% of 1RM) optimizes local muscular endurance improvements.

Figure 1.

Schematic of the repetition continuum proposing that muscular adaptations are obtained in a load-specific manner. Repetition maximum (RM).

2. Strength

Strength can be broadly defined as the ability to produce maximum force against an external resistance [ 7]. The leftward aspect of the repetition continuum has been referred to as the "strength zone" (see Figure 1), indicating optimum gains in this parameter are attained by the performance of 1 to 5 repetitions per set. It is theorized that training in the "strength zone" enhances neuromuscular adaptations that facilitate force production [ 3]. In support of this theory, Jenkins et al. [ 8] demonstrated greater increases in percent voluntary muscle activation and electromyographic amplitude when performing leg extension RT to failure with 80% 1RM compared to 30% 1RM over a 6-week study period. Psychological factors are believed to be involved as well, as repeated heavy load lifting may help lifters acclimate to exerting a maximal effort; however, the psychological contribution to strength-related adaptations remains equivocal [ 9].

Strength is most commonly assessed via 1RM testing that involves the performance of dynamic constant external resistance exercise using either free weights or exercise machines. Meta-analytic data of this metric shows a clear advantage to using heavier compared to lighter loads when the number of sets are similar between conditions. For example, a recent meta-analysis [ 10] reported a moderate to large effect size (ES) difference (ES = 0.58) favoring high- (>60% 1RM) vs. low- (≤60% 1RM) load training based on pooled data from 14 included studies. Results held true independent of whether testing was conducted in exercises for the upper or lower body. A meta-analysis by Csapo et al. [ 11] reported similar results in older individuals, with an overall pooled effect size difference (ES = 0.43) that indicated a moderate magnitude of effect in favor of heavy load training. Importantly, all included studies showed a strength-related advantage to using high- compared to low loads (i.e., effect sizes from all studies resided in the "favors high-load" side of the forest plot).

The strength-related benefits of heavier loads are generally observed independent of RT volume, whether expressed as the number of sets performed or the total work performed, commonly termed "volume load" (sets × repetitions × load). This is an important point of note as heavier load training necessarily results in fewer repetitions performed on a set-equated basis compared to light loads. Thus, it can be inferred that load is the dominant variable for increasing 1RM, with other variables seemingly of secondary consequence [ 12].

When considered in total, the literature does seem to support the existence of a "strength zone" for increasing 1RM, consistent with the concept of a repetition continuum. The apparent dose-response relationship provides further evidence for the causality of the adaptation. Some researchers have proposed that the periodic "practice" of lifting with heavy loads is sufficient to maximize strength adaptations [ 16, 25], but this hypothesis remains speculative. Further research is necessary to determine how frequently one needs to lift in the leftward portion of the repetition continuum to elicit maximal 1RM increases.

Although testing on a neutral device (e.g., isometric dynamometer) suggests that the magnitude of load may not influence strength-related adaptations, the question remains as to whether this has meaningful implications from a practical standpoint. Such testing generally isolates strength assessment to a single joint (e.g., knee extensors, elbow flexors, etc.). However, strength is most often applied as the coordinated effort of multiple joints in the performance of functional activities. Thus, it remains speculative as to how results from isometric/isokinetic assessments translate to athletic performance or the ability to carry out tasks of everyday living. The topic warrants further investigation. A summary of studies on the topic is presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Study

Participants

Training Groups (Sets × Load)

Training Duration; Training Frequency

Strength Test

Findings

Campos et al. 2002 [ 19]

Young untrained men ( n = 27)

4 × 3-5RM
3 × 9-11RM
2 × 20-28RM

8 weeks; 2-3 times per week

1RM squat
1RM leg press
1RM knee extension

1RM squat: significantly greater gains in strength in the high load (3-5 RM) group.
1RM leg press: significantly greater gains in strength in the high load (3-5 RM) group.
1RM knee extension: significantly greater gains in strength in the high load (3-5 RM) group.

Dinyer et al. 2019 [ 89]

Young untrained women ( n = 23)

2-3 × 80% 1RM
2-3 × 30% 1RM

12 weeks; 2 times per week

1RM knee extension 1RM shoulder press 1RM knee flexion
1RM lat-pull down

No significant between-group differences in any of the 1RM tests.

Jessee et al. 2018 [ 31]

Young untrained men ( n = 40)

4 × 70% 1RM
4 × 15% 1RM

8 weeks; 2 times per week

1RM knee extension
Isokinetic knee extension
Knee extension MVIC

1RM knee extension: significantly greater gains in strength in the high load group.
Isokinetic knee extension: no significant between-group differences.
Knee extension MVIC: no significant between-group differences.

Kerr et al. 1996 [ 15]

Untrained postmenopausal middle-aged woman ( n = 46)

3 × 8RM
3 × 20RM

1 year; 3 times per week

1RM hip extension
1RM hip flexion
1RM hip abduction
1RM hip adduction
1RM leg press
1RM wrist curl
1RM reverse wrist curl
1RM wrist pronation/supination1RM elbow flexion
1RM elbow extension

No significant between-group differences in any of the 1RM tests.

Lasevicius et al. 2018 [ 78]

Young untrained men ( n = 30)

12 weeks; 2 times per week

1RM leg press
1RM elbow flexion

1RM leg press: significantly greater gains in strength in the high load (60% and 80% 1RM) groups.
1RM elbow flexion: significantly greater gains in strength in the high load (60% and 80% 1RM) groups.

Mitchell et al. 2012 [ 73]

Young untrained men ( n = 18)

3 × 80% 1RM
1 × 80% 1RM
3 × 30% 1RM

10 weeks; 3 times per week

1RM knee extension
Knee extension MVIC

1RM knee extension: significantly greater gains in strength in the high load groups.Knee extension MVIC: no significant between-group differences.

Morton et al. 2016 [ 16]

Resistance-trained men ( n = 49)

3 × 8-12RM
3 × 20-25RM

12 weeks; 4 times per week

Rana et al. 2008 and Schuenke et al. 2012 [ 14, 75]

Young untrained women ( n = 27)

3 × 6-10RM
3 × 6-10RM (low velocity)
3 × 20-30RM

6 weeks; 2-3 times per week

1RM squat
1RM leg press
1RM knee extension

1RM squat: no significant between-group differences.
1RM leg press: significantly greater gains in strength in the high load group.
1RM knee extension: significantly greater gains in strength in the high load group.

Tanimoto et al. 2008 [ 98]

Young untrained men ( n = 24)

3 × 80-90% 1RM
3 × 55-60% 1RM

13 weeks; 2 times per week

1RM squat
1RM chest press
1RM lat-pull down
1RM abdominal bend
1RM back extension

No significant between-group differences in any of the 1RM tests.

Van Roie et al. 2013 [ 29]

Young untrained males ( n = 14) and females ( n = 10)

1 × 10-12RM
1 × 60RM followed by 10-20RM

9 weeks; 3 times per week

1RM knee extension
Knee extension MVIC
Isokinetic knee extension

1RM knee extension: significantly greater gains in strength in the high load group.
Knee extension MVIC: significantly greater gains in strength in the high load group.
Isokinetic knee extension: significantly greater gains in strength in the low load group.

Van Roie et al. 2013 [ 28]

Untrained older males ( n = 26) and females ( n = 30)

2 × 10-15RM
1 × 80-100RM
1 × 60RM + 10-20RM

12 weeks; 3 times per week

Weiss et al. 1999 [ 99]

Young untrained men ( n = 28)

4 × 3-5RM
4 × 13-15RM
4 × 23-25RM

7 weeks; 3 times per week

1RM squat
Isokinetic knee flexion
Isokinetic knee extension

1RM squat: significantly greater gains in strength in the high load group.
Isokinetic knee flexion: no significant between-group differences.
Isokinetic knee extension: no significant between-group differences.

3. Hypertrophy

When attempting to draw inferences on the topic, one line of evidence to evaluate is the acute molecular and muscle protein synthetic (MPS) response to an exercise bout at differing loading zones. In this regard, research on the topic has produced somewhat discrepant results. Some studies show an impaired acute MPS response when training with lower loads [ 37, 38] while others report similar increases in mixed and myofibrillar protein synthesis rates [ 39]. Other research demonstrates divergent responses in intracellular anabolic signaling and myogenic gene expression when training in moderate- (from 74% to 85% 1RM) and lower (from 54% to 65% 1RM) loading zones, with selective activation of different kinase pathways observed between conditions [ 40, 41].

Early evidence from longitudinal studies suggested that light-load training produced suboptimal skeletal muscle hypertrophy. A 2007 review of the literature by Wernbom et al. [ 44] concluded a hypertrophic benefit to training with loads >60% 1RM. However, the conclusion was based on a limited amount of data that directly compared the effects of training with varying loads on muscle hypertrophy at that point in time. Multiple studies have subsequently been published on the topic, with the vast majority indicating similar hypertrophy across a wide spectrum of loading ranges. The aforementioned meta-analysis by Schoenfeld et al. [ 10] found no difference in whole muscle hypertrophy between studies comparing high loads (>60% 1RM) versus low loads (<60% 1RM). The trivial effect size difference (0.03) and relatively narrow 95% confidence intervals (−0.16 to 0.22) reinforce the lack of relevance of loading as a standalone variable for hypertrophic outcomes. Moreover, sub-analysis found these results held true independent of body region (i.e., upper and lower body musculature).

From an age-related standpoint, light load training appears to be at least as effective as heavier load training, if not more so, for inducing hypertrophy in older individuals. Meta-analytic data from Straight et al. [ 45] found that while older individuals responded to both higher and lower loading protocols, muscle hypertrophy was attenuated in type II muscle fibers when training with heavier loads; the difference between loading strategies explained ~15% of the variance in change in fiber size. A mechanistic explanation for these findings is not clear, but conceivably may be related to age-associated difficulty training with heavier loads due to joint-related conditions (e.g., osteoarthritis).

Although a majority of studies on the topic have been carried out in untrained participants, the available evidence indicates that findings hold true in those with RT experience. For example, our group [ 17] reported similar increases in muscle thickness of the biceps, triceps and quadriceps between moderate- (~10RM) and light- (~30RM) loads in a cohort of resistance-trained men performing a total body RT program over 8 weeks. Likewise, Morton et al. [ 16] found that training with 8 to 12RM vs. 20 to 25RM produced significant changes in lean body mass and type I and type II muscle fiber cross-sectional area (CSA) of the vastus lateralis in a group of resistance-trained men following a 12-week total body training program, with no observed differences between the groups.

The effects of volume must be taken into consideration when interpreting data on hypertrophic loading outcomes. Volume, expressed as the number of sets performed, is an important driver of muscle hypertrophy, with an established linear dose-response relationship [ 46]. However, some researchers have postulated that volume load may be the best metric for assessing exercise-induced hypertrophic changes [ 47]. On a set-equated basis, lighter load sets would necessarily result in greater volume loads compared to heavier loads due to the higher number of repetitions performed, therefore potentially influencing results.

Few studies have investigated the hypertrophic effects of high- versus low-loads when equating for volume load. Lopes et al. [ 48] found no differences in fat-free mass between volume load-equated low (3 sets of 20RM) and high (6 sets of 10RM) load training protocols in resistance-trained men who performed a total-body RT program for 6 weeks. These results must be interpreted with caution as body composition measures were obtained by skinfold analysis, and thus may not necessarily reflect changes in muscle mass. Alternatively, Holm et al. [ 49] reported a significantly greater increase in muscle CSA when training at 70% vs. 15% of 1RM on a volume load equated basis in a cohort of untrained young men over a 12-week study period. However, the low-load condition terminated sets far short of muscle failure, confounding the ability to draw relevant inferences. Given the paucity of well-designed studies on the matter, further research is warranted to determine how volume load may affect muscle growth with different loading schemes.

Although a majority of published research has focused on comparing moderate versus light load training, several studies have investigated potential differences in heavy- vs. moderate-load protocols. Our group [ 20] randomized resistance-trained men to perform volume load-equated RT using either a bodybuilding-type protocol (3 sets of ~10RM) or a powerlifting-type protocol (7 sets of ~3RM). Training was carried out 3 times per week for 8 weeks. While results showed similar increases in biceps brachii muscle thickness between conditions, participants in the powerlifting-type group displayed signs of overtraining and joint-related issues at study's end whereas no such symptoms were observed in the bodybuilding-type group. The findings suggest that although hypertrophy can be achieved using either heavy or moderate loads on a work-matched basis, heavy load protocols may not be sustainable for maximizing muscle growth due to negative consequences of the higher training volumes. In a related study, Klemp et al. [ 24] randomized resistance-trained men to perform the squat and bench press 3 times per week at a loading range of either 8 to 12 repetitions or 2 to 6 repetitions in a daily undulating periodized fashion. After the 8-week interventional period, similar changes in muscle thickness were observed between conditions for the pectoralis major and quadriceps. The results lend support to the theory that heavy loading can be an effective means to increase hypertrophy when combined with higher volume loads.

Some researchers have proposed that training across rep ranges may induce a fiber type-specific response whereby lower loads promote a preferential increase in hypertrophy of type I fibers and heavier loads favor hypertrophy of type II fibers [ 52]. Several lines of evidence provide a theoretical basis for this claim. For one, type I fibers are considered "endurance-oriented" fibers, with a high capacity to resist fatigue but relatively low force-producing capacity [ 53]. Thus, it is conceivable that longer times under tension associated with lighter load training may help to stimulate these fibers to a greater degree than heavier load training. Moreover, the greater acidosis and corresponding accumulation of H⁺ during higher repetition may interfere with calcium binding in type II fibers, thereby placing an even greater burden on type I fibers to maintain force output [ 54].

Evidence from low-load blood flow restriction (BFR) training lends further theoretical support to a fiber-type specific loading response, with several studies showing preferential hypertrophy of type I fibers [ 55, 56, 57]. Although low-load BFR training and traditional low-load training have inherent differences, some researchers have called low-load training a "milder form of low-load blood flow restrictive exercise" [ 58], suggesting the two forms of exercise may induce adaptations through similar mechanistic actions. Indeed, comparable increases in muscle size commonly are seen between traditional low-load training and low-load BFR training when sets are carried out to muscular failure [ 59, 60]. A detailed discussion of the hypertrophic effects of BFR is beyond the scope of this paper; interested readers are referred to recent reviews on the topic [ 61, 62].

Despite the seemingly solid logical rationale, results from both acute and longitudinal research comparing fiber type-specific hypertrophy in high- vs. low-load training have been mixed. A compelling body of studies using surface electromyography (EMG) have shown greater muscle activity with the use of high- compared to low loads [ 63, 64, 65, 66, 67]. However, the inherent limitations of surface EMG analysis precludes the ability to draw inferences as to motor unit recruitment [ 68]. To account for these issues, Muddle et al. [ 69] employed a decomposition technique that allowed extraction of single motor unit activities from surface EMG when training at high- (70% maximum voluntary isometric contraction) vs. low- (30% maximum voluntary isometric contraction) loads performed to failure. Analysis of the firing trains from more than 4000 motor units in the vastus lateralis muscle showed that heavier loads were required to recruit the full spectrum of higher threshold motor units, although these results varied somewhat between individuals. Conversely, Morton et al. [ 67] reported that glycogen was similarly depleted following high- (80% 1RM) and low- (30% 1RM) load training in both type I and type II fibers of the vastus lateralis, indicating similar recruitment across the available motor unit pool. Despite these discrepancies, it seems clear from the literature that a substantial percentage of high-threshold motor units are recruited with low-load training to muscle failure; whether recruitment is equal across loading zones remains somewhat equivocal.

Regarding longitudinal research, some studies show a fiber type specific response [ 70, 71, 72] while others do not [ 16, 73, 74]. Discrepancies between findings may be due to differences in the level of effort between studies; those showing similar fiber type adaptations were carried out training to volitional failure, whereas those showing preferential fiber type hypertrophy appear to have not trained to failure. As previously noted, evidence indicates that a high level of effort is requisite for achieving gains in low load training [ 42], and this may be due to fully stimulating the highest threshold motor units. Interestingly, two studies actually show greater hypertrophy in both type I and type II fibers when training with heavier loads [ 19, 75]. These results appear counterintuitive given the seemingly incontrovertible evidence that whole muscle hypertrophy is similar irrespective of the magnitude of load; if hypertrophy is in fact greater across fiber types when training at heavier vs. lighter loads, what would explain the consistently similar findings in magnetic resonance imaging- and ultrasound-derived measures of hypertrophy between conditions?

In an effort to achieve greater clarity on the topic, a recent study compared the effects of loading on the soleus (a muscle with a very high proportion of type I fibers) and gastrocnemius (a muscle with a mixed fiber type) [ 26]. Employing a within-subject counterbalanced design, participants performed 4 sets of standing and seated plantarflexion exercise twice per week using a heavy load (6 to 10RM) on one leg and light load (20 to 30RM) on the other leg. After 8 weeks, significant increases in muscle thickness were observed for both the soleus and gastrocnemius; the amount of load did not influence the magnitude of gains. These findings cast doubt as to a load-induced effect on fiber type adaptations. However, it should be noted that the study did not directly assess fiber growth via muscle biopsy, limiting the ability to draw definitive conclusions.

A recent meta-analysis included studies that performed muscle biopsies and compared the effects of low-load vs. high-load on type I and type II muscle fiber CSA with training carried out to muscular failure [ 76]. The analysis found no significant difference between low-load vs. high-load for type I muscle fiber CSA. While the effects favored high-load training for type II muscle fiber CSA, they were not statistically significant (effect size: 0.30; 95% confidence interval: −0.05, 0.66; p = 0.089), possibly because only five studies were included in the analysis. The results highlight the need for future research on the topic.

Table 2.

Study

Participants

Training Groups (Sets × Load)

Training Duration; Training Frequency

Hypertrophy Outcome

Findings

Campos et al. 2002 [ 19]

Young untrained men ( n = 27)

4 × 3-5RM
3 × 9-11RM
2 × 20-28RM

8 weeks; 2-3 times per week

Muscle fiber CSA (type I, IIa, and IIx)

Type I: significantly greater gains in the 3-5RM and 9-11RM groups.
Type IIa: significantly greater gains in the 3-5RM and 9-11RM groups.
Type IIx: significantly greater gains in the 3-5RM and 9-11RM groups.

Lasevicius et al. 2018 [ 78]

Young untrained men ( n = 30)

12 weeks; 2 times per week

Elbow flexor and quadriceps CSA

Elbow flexor: significantly greater gains in the 80% 1RM group compared to 20% 1RM group.
Quadriceps: significantly greater gains in the 80% 1RM group compared to 20% 1RM group.

Lim et al. 2019 [ 74]

Young untrained men ( n = 21)

3 × 80% 1RM (to failure)
3 × 30% 1RM (to failure)
3 × 30% 1RM (volume-matched to 80% 1RM)

10 weeks; 3 times per week

Muscle fiber CSA (type I and type II)

Type I: significantly greater gains in the groups training to failure.
Type II: no significant between-group differences.

Ogasawara et al. 2013 [ 13]

Young untrained men ( n = 9)

3 × 75% 1RM
4 × 30% 1RM

6 weeks; 3 times per week

Triceps brachii and pectoralis major CSA

Triceps brachii: no significant between-group differences.
Pectoralis major: no significant between-group differences.

Popov et al. 2006 [ 95]

Physically active men ( n = 18)

3 and 7 × 80% MVIC
1 and 4 × 50% MVIC

8 weeks; 3 times per week

Quadriceps and gluteus CSA

Quadriceps: no significant between-group differences.
Gluteus: no significant between-group differences.

Rana et al. 2008 and Schuenke et al. 2012 [ 14, 75]

Young untrained women ( n = 27)

3 × 6-10RM
3 × 6-10RM (low velocity)
3 × 20-30RM

6 weeks; 2-3 times per week

Muscle fiber CSA (type I, IIa and IIx)

Type I: significantly greater gains in the high load group.
Type IIa: significantly greater gains in both high load groups.
Type IIx: significantly greater gains in both high load groups.

Stefanaki et al. 2019 [ 96]

Young untrained women ( n = 13)

1 × 80% 1RM
1 × 30% 1RM

6 weeks; 2 times per week

Elbow flexor and quadriceps muscle thickness

Elbow flexor: no significant between-group differences.
Quadriceps: no significant between-group differences.

Tanimoto & Ishii 2006 [ 97]

Young untrained men ( n = 24)

3 × 80% 1RM
3 × 50% 1RM (low velocity)
3 × 50% 1RM

12 weeks; 3 times per week

Quadriceps CSA

Significantly greater gains in the 80% 1RM and 50% 1RM (low velocity) groups.

Van Roie et al. 2013 [ 28]

Untrained older males ( n = 26) and females ( n = 30)

2 × 10-15RM
1 × 80-100RM
1 × 60RM + 10-20RM

12 weeks; 3 times per week

Quadriceps CSA

No significant between-group differences.

4. Muscular Endurance

Muscular endurance can be expressed either on an absolute or relative basis. Absolute muscular endurance involves performing a set with as many repetitions as possible at a fixed load. For example, the National Football League combine employs a bench press test to assess muscular endurance, whereby the athletes lift 225 lbs (102 kg) to muscle failure; the load is independent of the athlete's weight or absolute strength levels. Alternatively, relative muscular endurance is assessed by lifting a load at a given percentage of 1RM for as many repetitions as possible. Although there is no generally accepted submaximal percentage for relative muscular endurance testing, it most commonly is assessed using loads between 40% and 60% 1RM.

Early work by Anderson and Kearney [ 5] lent support for the acquisition of muscular endurance along a repetition continuum. These researchers allocated 43 untrained young men to perform bench press training at either a high- (3 sets of 6 to 8RM), medium- (2 sets of 30 to 40RM) or low- (1 set of 100 to 150RM) load over a 9-week study period. Relative endurance was assessed at 40% of each participant's 1RM and absolute endurance was assessed at ~27 kg for all participants. Results showed that absolute muscular endurance increased by 41% and 39% (an increase of ~15 repetitions) in the low- and medium-load groups, respectively, while the high-load group realized a 28% gain (an increase of ~9 repetitions). Increases in relative muscle endurance were 22% and 28% for the low- and medium-load groups, respectively, compared to a decrease of 7% in the high-load group. Subsequent research by Stone and Coulter [ 6] found somewhat contradictory results on the topic in a cohort of untrained young women who performed 5 basic exercises (bench press, squat, lat pulldown, triceps pushdown, and arm curl) using either high- (3 sets of 6 to 8RM), medium- (2 sets of 15 to 20RM) or low- (1 set of 30 to 40RM) loads. Muscular endurance testing was carried out for the upper and lower body (bench press and squat) using both absolute and relative assessments. For the absolute assessment, the gains in upper body muscular endurance favored the medium-load condition compared to the high- and low-load conditions (44% vs. 31% and 20%, respectively), inconsistent with the repetition continuum. Alternatively, the lower body muscular endurance assessment showed findings in line with the proposed repetition continuum, with observed increases of 84%, 80%, and 137% for high-, medium-, and low-loads, respectively. Findings in the relative assessment of muscular endurance based on pretest RM were similar to those observed in the absolute assessment. Upper body results showed a U-shaped response, with increases of 58%, 67%, and 54%, for high-, medium-, and low-loads, respectively. On the other hand, lower body muscular endurance favored training with low- (83%) compared to high- (66%) and medium- (61%) loads. These findings suggest that a repetition continuum for local muscular endurance seems more relevant to the lower body than the upper body musculature. Note that the "medium" and "low" load conditions in both the Anderson and Kearney [ 5] and Stone and Coulter [ 6] studies employed repetition ranges >15RM, which encompasses the "endurance" aspect of the repetition continuum. Moreover, a progressively fewer number of sets were performed for the lighter load condition in these studies, raising the question as to whether an advantage would have been shown for muscular endurance if sets had been equated rather than volume load. It is not clear as to why there may be load-dependent differences in muscular endurance between the upper and lower limbs, while no such effect is seen with respect to strength or hypertrophy outcomes; further research is required to better understand this apparent phenomenon.

An important methodological consideration when interpreting the evidence is related to the use of pre-intervention or post-intervention 1RM values. Specifically, some studies that evaluated the effects of training with different loading schemes on muscular endurance used the pre-intervention (baseline) 1RM values to determine load for the endurance tests, whereas others used post-intervention values [ 20, 31]. For example, if one group of participants has an average 1RM in the bench press of 100 kg in the pre-intervention testing and we use 60% of the 1RM for the muscular endurance test, the load would be set to 60 kg. However, if the participants increase their 1RM in the post-intervention to 120 kg, then the 60 kg used in the initial testing would now correspond to 50% of the newly established 1RM, and this would naturally change some of the physiological demands of the test. Another option would be to re-adjust the weight in the post-intervention testing according to the newly established 1RM. In our example, 1RM in the post-intervention was 120 kg and the new load for the muscular endurance test would be set to 72 kg. However, a limitation of this approach is that it biases the values in the test towards the low-load condition. As noted previously, high-load training generally results in greater increases in 1RM and would therefore also require higher loads to be used in the muscular endurance assessment [ 10]. Indeed, our group [ 20] showed greater improvements in relative upper body muscular endurance (50% 1RM in the bench press) when training with low- (25 to 35RM) compared to moderate- (8 to 12RM) loads. However, post-study testing was based on post-study 1RM, conceivably biasing results in favor of the low-load condition.

Alternatively, studies in which local muscular endurance testing is based on pre-study 1RM tend to refute the benefit of low-load training for this outcome. Jessee et al. [ 31] showed similar increases in relative muscular endurance assessed at 42.5% of the pre-test 1RM in the unilateral knee extension following performance of an 8-week training program using loads of either 15% or 70% 1RM. More recently, Buckner et al. [ 79] found that assessing relative muscular endurance using elbow flexion at 42.5% of pre-test 1RM showed no effect of loading between high- (70% 1RM) and low- (15% 1RM) load conditions.

Given the differential findings observed between studies that use pre-intervention vs. post-intervention 1RM values for determining the load in the muscular endurance tests, future studies may consider using both methods of testing. Assessing muscular endurance while using both pre-intervention and post-intervention 1RM values would likely require multiple days of testing, which may present some logistical limitations. Still, such an approach was adopted by the early work of Stone and Coulter [ 6]. In that study, when using the pre-intervention 1RM values, all groups experienced an increase in muscular endurance. However, when the load was re-adjusted to post-intervention 1RM values, none of the groups experienced an increase in upper-body endurance, and for the lower-body, a significant increase was found in the group that trained with 6-8RM (31%; ~11 repetitions) and in the group that trained with 30-40RM (33%; ~10 repetitions). No significant differences were observed in the group training with 15-20RM, which would negate the theory proposed in the repetition continuum.

Another option is to use a muscular endurance test not influenced by the changes in 1RM values. For example, one study compared the effects of training with 80% 1RM vs. training with 40% of 1RM [ 29]. The participants performed an isokinetic test that evaluated total work, which was considered a proxy of muscular endurance. In this study, the group training with 40% 1RM experienced a 15% increase in total work, significantly greater than the increase observed in the 80% 1RM group (5%). Thus, the repetition continuum would seem to be valid when total work in an isokinetic task is used to measure muscular endurance. Still, this finding is based only on one study, highlighting the need for future research.

Table 3.

Study

Participants

Training Groups (Sets × Load)

Training Duration; Training Frequency

Muscular Endurance Test

Findings

Campos et al. 2002 [ 19]

Young untrained men ( n = 27)

4 × 3-5RM
3 × 9-11RM
2 × 20-28RM

8 weeks; 2-3 times per week

Relative endurance: 60% 1RM (post-intervention values) in the squat, leg press, and knee extension

Squat: significantly greater gains in muscular endurance in the low load group.
Leg press: significantly greater gains in muscular endurance in the low load group.
Knee extension: significantly greater gains in muscular endurance in the low load group.

Mitchell et al. 2012 [ 73]

Young untrained men ( n = 18)

3 × 80% 1RM
1 × 80% 1RM
3 × 30% 1RM

10 weeks; 3 times per week

Relative endurance: 30% and 80% 1RM (post-intervention values) in the knee extension

80% 1RM: no significant between-group differences.
30% 1RM: significantly greater gains in muscular endurance in the low load group.

Rana et al. 2008 and Schuenke et al. 2012 [ 14, 75]

Young untrained women ( n = 27)

3 × 6-10RM
3 × 6-10RM (low velocity)
3 × 20-30RM

6 weeks; 2-3 times per week

Relative endurance: 60% 1RM (post-intervention values) in the squat, leg press, and knee extension

Squat: no significant between-group differences.
Leg press: no significant between-group differences.
Knee extension: no significant between-group differences.

Stone & Coulter 1994 [ 6]

College-aged untrained women ( n = 50)

3 × 6-8RM
2 × 15-20RM
1 × 30-40RM

9 weeks; 3 times per week

Relative endurance: 45% 1RM (pre-intervention values) in the bench press
45% 1RM (post-intervention values) in the bench press
55% 1RM (pre-intervention values) in the squat
55% 1RM (post-intervention values) in the squat
Absolute endurance:
16 kg in the bench press
16 kg in the squat

Relative endurance (pre-intervention values): no significant between-group differences in the bench press or squat.
Relative endurance (post-intervention values): no significant between-group differences in the bench press. Significantly greater gains in muscular endurance in the 6-8RM and 30-40RM groups.
Absolute endurance: no significant between-group differences in the bench press or squat.

Van Roie et al. 2013 [ 29]

Young untrained males ( n = 14) and females ( n = 10)

1 × 10-12RM
1 × 60RM followed by 10-20RM

9 weeks; 3 times per week

Isokinetic knee extension maximum work

Significantly greater gains in muscular endurance in the low load group.

Van Roie et al. 2013 [ 28]

Untrained older males ( n = 26) and females ( n = 30)

2 × 10-15RM
1 × 80-100RM
1 × 60RM + 10-20RM

12 weeks; 3 times per week

Relative endurance: 60% 1RM (post-intervention values) in the knee extension

No significant between-group differences.

5. Conclusions

Despite the widespread acceptance of the repetition continuum as a loading paradigm, current research fails to support some of its underlying presumptions. The following evidence-based conclusions can be drawn when taking the body of literature into account, bringing about a new loading paradigm for exercise prescription (see Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Summary of current evidence on load-specific adaptations from resistance training.

Evidence supports the repetition continuum in regard to muscular strength as determined by 1RM testing using dynamic constant resistance exercise. This can be attributed, at least in part, to the fact that testing is customarily carried out on exercises used in the research protocol, which provides a better transfer of training consistent with the principle of specificity. Alternatively, when testing is carried out on an isometric device, there is little difference in strength-related improvements between loading conditions. The practical implications of these findings as they relate to athletic performance and the ability to carry out activities of daily living remain to be determined.

Evidence for a load-specific effect on local muscular endurance remains equivocal. Early work suggested a potential benefit of light load training on muscular endurance, particularly when testing on an absolute basis. That said, the evidence for such an effect is rather weak and seems more relevant to the lower body musculature. Alternatively, research investigating the effects of load on relative muscular endurance is conflicting and, for the most part, does not seem to support recommendations drawn from the repetition continuum.

Overall, there is a paucity of studies carried out in women on the topic. Given evidence that women possess a greater capacity to resist fatigue [ 87], it is conceivable there may be sex-specific differences in adaptations across the repetition continuum. Future research should endeavor to determine the potential for sexual dimorphism in strength-, hypertrophy-, and endurance-related outcomes when training with different loading schemes.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Adam Virgile for creating Figure 2 of the manuscript.

Author Contributions

B.J.S. conceived of the concept for the paper. All authors contributed to the writing of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors report no conflicts of interest in the preparation of this paper.

Footnotes

References

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Associated Data
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Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

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this is the a source about the start of baseball and who and when it started

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You may have heard that a young man named Abner Doubleday invented the game known as baseball in Cooperstown, New York, during the summer of 1839. Doubleday then went on to become a Civil War hero, while baseball became America's beloved national pastime.

Not only is that story untrue, but it's also not even in the ballpark. Baseball's real origins date back way further, to at least the 18th century.

Who Was Abner Doubleday?

Doubleday, who was born to a prominent family in upstate New York in 1819, was still at West Point in 1839, and he never claimed to have anything to do with baseball. Instead, he served as a Union major general in the American Civil War and later became a lawyer and writer.

In 1907, sixteen years after Doubleday's death, a special commission created by the sporting goods magnate and former major league player A.J. Spalding was set up to determine baseball's origins-namely if it was invented in the United States or derived from games in the United Kingdom. The commission used flimsy evidence-the claims of one man, mining engineer Abner Graves, who said he went to school with Doubleday-to come up with the origin story, which managed to stick.

Cooperstown businessmen and major league officials seized on myth's enduring power in the 1930s, when they established the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in the village.

What Are Baseball's Real Origins?

As it turns out, the real history of baseball is a little more complicated than the Doubleday legend. References to games resembling baseball in the United States date back to the 18th century. Its most direct ancestors appear to be two English games: rounders (a children's game brought to New England by the earliest colonists) and cricket.

By the time of the American Revolution, variations of such games were being played on schoolyards and college campuses across the country. They became even more popular in newly industrialized cities where men sought work in the mid-19th century.

In September 1845, a group of New York City men founded the New York Knickerbocker Baseball Club. One of them-volunteer firefighter and bank clerk Alexander Joy Cartwright-would codify a new set of rules that would form the basis for modern baseball, calling for a diamond-shaped infield, foul lines and the three-strike rule. He also abolished the dangerous practice of tagging runners by throwing balls at them.

Cartwright's changes made the burgeoning pastime faster-paced and more challenging while clearly differentiating it from older games like cricket. In 1846, the Knickerbockers played the first official game of baseball against a team of cricket players, beginning a new, uniquely American tradition.

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You may have heard that a young man named Abner Doubleday invented the game known as baseball in Cooperstown, New York, during the summer of 1839. Doubleday then went on to become a Civil War hero, while baseball became America's beloved national pastime. Not only is that story untrue, but it's also not even in the ballpark.

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https://www.du.edu/sport-sense/news/how-can-coaches-influence-players-and-motivate-athletes

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https://www.britannica.com/topic/New-York-Yankees

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Why do so much of the youth play video games?

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Edwards, Scott. "Nightmares and the Brain" Harvard Medical School. Autumn 2025.https://hms.harvard.edu/news-events/publications-archive/brain/nightmares-brain

This article will help me show more on the nightmare side of my project

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Don Charles, Author. A Practical Introduction to Day Trading. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2018. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=sso&db=nlebk&AN=1938107&authtype=shib&site=eds-live&scope=site.

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“Scoreboards – How Did Baseball Become America’s Favorite Sport?” Articles and News about Team Sports Scoreboards and More, www.electro-mech.com/team-sports/baseball/how-did-baseball-become-americas-favorite-sport/. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.

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