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When talking about dyslexia, one of the most common questions that I receive from parents and educators alike is about letter reversals.

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Spotlight on Dyslexia (multiple articles)

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Spotlight on Dyslexia (multiple articles)

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Pinch and Flip Pencil Grasp Tip The Dyslexia Classroom

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Won’t Challenging Texts Discourage Young Readers? | Shanahan on Literacy

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Many teachers are concerned that students taught with challenging text will come to see reading as burdensome and will choose not to read. Even if such reading improves achievement, it may discourage independent reading. This blog entry explores some of the research on that topic and explains why those fears are not necessary.

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Word chaining has been around for decades, but there’s a renewed spotlight on why it’s so powerful, especially in the early stages of reading and spelling development.

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Don't Confuse Reading Comp & Learning to Read

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Don't Confuse Reading Comp & Learning to Read

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Don’t Confuse Reading Comprehension and Learning to Read (and to Reread) | Shanahan on Literacy

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This blog entry explains why immediate comprehensibility is the wrong standard for determining a good instructional text. The correct issue is what kind of text is most likely to increase students’ reading abilities. In other words, learnability is more important that comprehensibility. The importance of rereading is explored.

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11 October, 2025
Teacher question: I'm confused. I've understood your message that we should stop obsessing about deriving an independent or instructional reading level. But I've also read that you feel that there is a place for F&P style running records (many schools still use them!). If a running record is producing a reading level, isn't this going against the idea that we should do away with the instructional level? Aren't there other problems with these tests, too (design problems, large standard errors, etc.)? Shanahan responds:
You have it right, sort of. I thought my position on this was adroit and artful and you seem to find it to be abstruse and confusing. Hmmm... let's take it step by step.

First, you are correct that I believe it is a big mistake to try to teach most kids reading at their supposed instructional level. The instructional level is meant to identify a text that will be maximally effective in teaching. You know the routine. The teacher is supposed to test students to identify this level by listening to their oral reading and asking questions. Different schemes have different criteria (90, 93, 95 percent word accuracy, 75 percent comprehension). No matter the criteria, placing kids in texts in this way does not boost their learning. There is, in fact, a growing body of evidence suggesting that it lessens learning.

Second, you are also correct that I claim it can be useful to collect this kind of information, and I admit that sounds at least a bit contradictory. Why measure the instructional level if you aren't going to use that to choose the books you are going to teach?

My reasoning here has to do with what it means to NOT teach at the instructional level. I've come to believe that the instructional level is a device that results in both minimized learning and teaching. If kids are placed in texts that they can comprehend reasonably well, there isn't much about reading that can be learned from those texts. The differences between their performance levels and the text demands are likely so small that the kids should be able to figure out what is unknown without much teacher help.

But what if the books are hard for the kids? That means they may not be able to accomplish high comprehension without some instruction and other teacher support. I think it can be helpful to a teacher to have some idea as to how much difficulty a text may pose for their students. The greater the gap between texts that can already be read reasonably well by the kids and the texts to be used for teaching, the greater the scaffolding and support that will be needed.

Administering oral reading fluency tests and informal reading inventories can provide a rough estimate of that gap. The further behind a student is in their reading performance, the more assistance that will be provided. This information might encourage a teacher to place certain kids closer at hand. Or it may be used to help decide which kids should have the opportunity to try reading the text aloud before taking it on for comprehension's sake. The teacher might want to offer more word instruction before or after to these students or may direct more questions to them. Perhaps, teachers will go out of their way to select instructional texts that would be an especially good match to the background knowledge of the kids likely to be far behind.

Let's be careful here. I'm not claiming that those tests will specifically identify missing or underdeveloped skills, except in the most general sense. The tests will give me a gross estimation of how fluently students can read this book and whether there will be a small or large overall gap between an easy text and the instructional text.

Some teachers may forego such testing. This would not be a tragedy. With a little care, they could launch into teaching the grade level texts and monitor closely how well the kids' do with them. It doesn't take long to figure out which kids need the most assistance.

Another possibility is to "test" their students using the texts they intend to teach. That was the original idea of the informal inventory. The teacher was supposed to determine how well kids could read the instructional text (not some other text that would predict performance with those teaching texts).

In any event, this information whether drawn from a published informal reading inventory or from a DIY version, can only offer a rough gauge of the lag that may exist. As you noted to me in your letter, the standard error of measurement of a typical IRI can be pretty big.

In the best cases, such a test may be accurate within plus or minus a half-grade level. For instance, if a test says the students' level is second grade, that means that we can be 95 percent certain that their actual instructional level is somewhere between Grade 1 and Grade 3. Not a very helpful indicator.

Such test info may help you get started. However, keep your eyes open. Believe what you see day to day, rather than the initial test. If it says youngsters will struggle and they don't or vice versa, adjust your plan.

I hope that clarifies what at first blush may sound inconsistent or contradictory.

However, like you, I'm not a big fan of running records. Research has not been especially kind to them.

I'd recommend against evaluating oral reading errors - the useless efforts to determine their orthographic-phonetic, syntactic, semantic accuracy. There will be serious reliability problems with such analyses - and there is no validated instructional protocol based on differentiated responses to these.

In terms of the reliability of running records, research has varied. Studies estimate at best you would need to have students read four passages per level to get a reliable estimate of reading performance - some studies indicated that it would take a whopping eight to ten passages per level (D'Agostino, et al., 2021; Fawson, et al., 2006). Which teachers would have the time to do that? Even if they did, there is no clear value to having done so.

Matt Burns and his colleagues have found similar problems with typical informal reading inventories, too (Burns, et al., 2015). I don't disagree with that prescient evaluation, but I don't see it as a death sentence.

There is reason to believe that lengthening these tests can make them much more reliable. For instance, if a teacher wants to check kids out on their reading textbook, it would be wise to have the students read for 3-minutes (Valencia, et al., 2010), calculating reading levels from that, rather than from the brief passages in most published IRIs.

Even better, I think, would be to have students read 3 different passages for a minute each. How many words students can read correctly per minute is a useful statistic, that when averaged can do a reasonably good job of predicting performance.

Another reason IRIs may struggle with reliability has to do with the inclusion of comprehension questions. Comprehension can be affected by how well that text reflects students' knowledge. Two equivalent passages on different topics may provide very different reading level estimates. Interest in a topic - which correlates with knowledge, of course - can have a similar effect. There simply aren't enough passages and questions in this kind of testing to provide a sufficient estimate of comprehension ability.

Nevertheless, I trust oral reading tests a lot more when the students know they will be questioned or expected to retell (my preference) what they have read. I don't necessarily invest a lot of confidence in any scores that may result from their responses, but I do trust the oral reading performance more when students are reading for comprehension rather than trying to show me how fast they can read.

So... indeed, it is useful pedagogical information to have estimates of the distance between texts students can read well and those used for teaching.

The problem of leveled reading instruction isn't the books (all books have some average level of difficulty - so, let's not throw away the books that have level estimates), nor is it that kids don't have levels (let's face it, there are books one finds to be easy and those that are a slog). No, the problem is that we are taking these levels - both of students and texts - too serious and are using them to reduce opportunity to learn. Instead of staying focused on teaching kids how to read grade level books, we are limiting learning through wasteful testing regimes and misguided policing efforts aimed at protecting kids from challenging books.

It seems to me that informal oral reading tests can provide valuable insights to teachers as to how hard a text may be for students. Not to identify the specifics of what may need to be taught, nor to hold kids back to some mythical optimal level, but to help the teacher to monitor and guide to success all students.
References
Burns, M. K., Pulles, S. M., Maki, K., Kanive, R., Hodgson, J., Helman, L., McComas, J., & Preast, J. L. (2015). Accuracy of student performance while reading leveled books rated at their instructional level by a reading inventory. Journal of School Psychology, 53(6), 437-445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2015.09.003Je

D'Agostino, J. V., Rodgers, E. Winkler, Johnson, T., & Berenbon, R. (2021) The generalizability of running record accuracy and self-correction scores. Reading Psychology, 42(2), 111-130. https:/doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2021.1880177

Fawson, P. C., Ludlow, B. C., Reutzel, D. R., Sudweeks, R., & Smith, J. A. (2006). Examining the reliability of Running Records: Attaining generalizable results. Journal of Educational Research, 100(2), 113-126. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.100.2.113-126

Shanahan, T. (2025). Leveled reading, leveled lives. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

Valencia, S. W., Smith, A. T., Reece, A. M., Li, M., & Wixson, K. K. (2010). Oral reading fluency assessment: issues of construct, criterion, and consequential validity. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(3), 270-291. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.45.3.1

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Considering Running Records, and No, I Don't Beat My Wife Anymore

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This blog entry explore the value of running records and informal reading inventories. It explains why, even though you should not place students on the basis of these tests, they still may have some value.

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Unlocking Reading with Word Chaining: Building Connections that Stick

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Building early literacy is about more than just teaching children to recognize letters or sound out words; it’s about helping them make meaningful connections between speech, print, and language. When we link sounds to letters and attach those words to meaning, we give students a full understanding of how written language works. This integrative approach supports the development of the reading brain, fosters long-term word storage, and creates pathways for comprehension. By intentionally connecting phonology (speech sounds) to orthography (written letters) and semantics (word meaning), we can lay a strong foundation for literacy that supports students in reading, spelling, and understanding language more deeply. When we think of phonemic awareness, we often imagine oral activities like isolating, segmenting, or blending sounds. These skills are not just early literacy exercises—they are the cognitive underpinnings of both reading and writing. Phonemic awareness allows students to understand that spoken words are made up of individual sounds (phonemes), which is essential for orthographic mapping, or linking those sounds to letters when reading and spelling.
While these skills begin as oral tasks, we quickly move to sound-symbol connections as the bedrock of decoding (reading) and encoding (spelling). For many students, especially those with dyslexia or other language-based learning differences, moving from sound awareness to fluent reading and writing requires structured, multisensory experiences that make these abstract concepts concrete—tools that help them see the sounds in words and connect them to meaning. That’s where strategic, engaging instruction—like word chaining—comes into play. That’s where Links and Ladders becomes a game-changer. Here’s the twist: CVC Links and Ladders doesn’t just teach students to encode and decode through word chaining—it also brings words to life by highlighting meaning, vocabulary, and multiple-meaning words. This innovative approach deepens student engagement, increases vocabulary exposure, and builds the kind of flexible word knowledge that supports both decoding and comprehension.
Let’s delve into how this transformative approach can revolutionize your reading instruction. Whether you’re a parent, a classroom teacher, a reading specialist, an academic language therapist, or a speech-language pathologist, Links and Ladders® offers actionable steps for helping learners read and spell. What is Word Chaining? Word chaining is a dynamic and integrative literacy activity where students build a chain of words by changing one phoneme (sound) at a time. Each small change results in a new word, giving students a chance to apply phonemic awareness skills (segmenting, blending, substitution, manipulation) within the context of real words.
For example:
kit → kid → hid → hit → hot
In this sequence, the student is: Practicing phoneme substitution and manipulation (core phonemic awareness skills) Mapping phonemes to graphemes (phonics) Reinforcing letter formation and alphabet knowledge Developing orthographic mapping for long-term word storage Strengthening both decoding (reading) and encoding (spelling) simultaneously It’s an efficient, engaging, and research-supported way to layer foundational skills. But what’s often missing in traditional word-chaining tasks is meaning—and that’s where this method sets itself apart. Why Add Word Meaning? Adding word meaning to phonics and word chaining provides critical support for both working memory and semantic development.
1. Working Memory Support
In a traditional chaining task, students must hold onto the previous word in their mind while manipulating sounds to form the next one. For emerging readers—especially those with dyslexia or weak working memory—this cognitive load can feel overwhelming.
The illustrated cards in Links and Ladders reduce this burden by anchoring each word with a visual. The picture provides a semantic anchor, allowing the student to reference both the meaning and spelling of a word without losing their place in the chain. Students can independently check their written words against the images, strengthening the link between orthography (spelling), phonology (sounds), and semantics (meaning).
2. Context and Comprehension
Visuals bring abstract sounds and letters to life. When students see a picture of a hat or a bug, they’re not just connecting letters to sounds; they’re connecting those symbols to something they know and understand. This strategic process builds a bridge from code-based instruction to meaningful reading.
Let’s go back to the example above. How much more is added when the learner writes kit and sees? and writes hid and sees: Why Teach Multiple-Meaning Words? Beyond sound-symbol correspondence, children need exposure to rich, flexible vocabulary—and that includes words with multiple meanings. Teaching multiple-meaning words supports: Word retrieval: Helping students access and produce the right word from memory Oral and written expression: Strengthening expressive language and writing skills Deeper vocabulary knowledge: Understanding nuances in word use and meaning Comprehension: Recognizing how context changes meaning Consider the word bat. When a student sees an image of a bat swinging a baseball bat, they’re introduced to two meanings of the same word—one animal and one sports equipment. Want to go further? You can play with syntax and grammar by using the word in a sentence:
The bat bats the bat.
This gives you an opportunity to talk about nouns, verbs, and sentence structure in a way that’s playful and memorable. Integrating Language Components: A Multi-Layered Approach According to the multi-component model of reading fluency, skilled reading develops from the automatic integration of all the underlying components of language: Phonology – sound awareness, specifically targeting phonemic awareness, key foundational skills for reading and writing Orthography – written symbols Semantics – word meaning Morphology – parts of words (prefixes, roots, suffixes) Syntax – sentence structure Links and Ladders supports explicit instruction in all of these areas. Every card becomes an opportunity for a comprehensive and layered lesson. This approach ensures that all aspects of language are covered, providing a solid foundation for literacy development. Look at all that is addressed with this approach: Phonology and Phonemic Awareness: Identify and isolate the target sound; segment individual phonemes (sounds) in the word; phoneme manipulation of sounds to create new words in the chain/ladder Orthography: Spell the word using letter tiles or handwriting Semantics: Define the word and use it in a sentence Syntax: Identify its part of speech and role in a sentence Morphology: Add a suffix or prefix if applicable (e.g., jump → jumped) And when a card depicts a multiple-meaning word? That’s a golden opportunity for humor, creativity, and deeper understanding. Why This Matters When children see that changing one small sound (phoneme) creates entirely new words—with new spellings and meanings—they begin to grasp the flexibility and power of language.
They’re no longer just learning to read, they’re learning how words work.
Integrating phonemic awareness, phonics, spelling, vocabulary, and syntax doesn’t have to be complicated. With tools like Links and Ladders, it becomes fun, hands-on, and meaningful.
Final Thoughts
Word chaining is no longer just an encoding or decoding drill. When combined with word meaning and multiple-meaning exploration, it becomes a bridge, a link between sound and symbol, meaning and memory, playful learning and deep literacy.
Whether you’re a parent supporting your child at home, a therapist working one-on-one, or an educator leading small group instruction, word chaining with meaning offers an engaging way to build fluency, vocabulary, and confidence—one word at a time. Pop open the deck and let us know your experience!

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Want to make a power move?! In an Orton-Gillingham lesson, one of the most powerful shifts you can make as a teacher is allowing students to do the cognitive work. That's right, the student actually does the work! Yes, it may seem faster or more efficient to jump in and help. However, when teachers do the thinking, tapping, spelling, or decoding for Orton-Gillingham students, we rob them of the opportunity to build the very skills we're trying to teach. Luckily, teachers can still support Orton-Gillingham students while they take ownership of their learning.

Why Students Should Be Doing the Work

1. Active Learning Builds Neural Pathways

Reading doesn't just happen. It requires the brain to build and strengthen connections through repetition, effort, and multisensory engagement. If a student isn't saying, writing, tapping, or blending, those connections won't form.

Orton-Gillingham students learn by simultaneously seeing, saying, hearing, and touching. If teachers do all of the talking or modeling, the student's brain isn't fully engaged.

3. Diagnostic and Prescriptive Teaching Depends on Observation

Teachers are constantly restructuring or adjusting the lesson based on the students' needs. However, it is hard to adjust instruction if you can't see what the student really knows. Giving students the space and time to show their work, whether right or wrong, can help give you insight. This insight allows you to know what needs reteaching, reviewing, or reinforcing.

4. You're Building Independence, Not Dependence

Orton-Gillingham students are resilient. OG lessons set them up for success. However, if students are always waiting for the teachers to rescue or prompt them, they won't internalize the skills. Empowering students to try, fail, and try again builds confidence, ownership, and long-term success.

How to Shift the Work to Your Students

1. Establish Clear Routines

Predictable, student-centered routines give kids structure. From warm-ups to dictation, Orton-Gillingham students should always be the ones:
- Tapping out sounds
- Blending and reading aloud
- Marking and labeling words
- Explaining rules back to you

Consistency reinforces habits and reduces reliance on teacher prompting.

2. Explicitly Teach and Practice Strategies

Orton-Gillingham students may freeze or wait for help simply because they don't know what to do next. Teach them how to:
- Use a keyword deck
- Tap and blend sounds
- Break a word into syllables
- Use a vowel chart or sound wall

Then give them lots of chances to practice these tools independently.

3. Allow Productive Struggle

Give wait time. Resist the urge to fill in the silence. Let them work through it. Learning often happens during the struggle, not after the answer is given.

Pro tip: Use non-verbal cues like pointing to the tapping hand or vowel chart instead of giving the answer aloud.

4. Ask Questions That Prompt Thinking

Instead of telling, try asking:
- "What do you know about this pattern?"
- "What sounds do you hear?"
- "Can you try another strategy?"
These questions shift the mental work back to the student.

5. Use Retrieval and Repetition-The Student's, Not Yours

Have Orton-Gillingham students:
- Repeat rules in their own words
- Teach back what they've learned
- Practice multiple examples aloud
This type of retrieval builds memory far better than teacher repetition.

6. Give Students Tools to Be Independent

Arm them with:
- Mini anchor charts
- Keyword cards
- Syllable bookmarks
- Sound walls
And teach them how to use those tools without waiting for your instruction.

Create Independent Orton-Gillingham Students

One fantastic way to help students work independently is by using decodable reading passages. Thankfully, there are no-prep passages you can use that follow a systematic phonics progression. The Color Clues Decodable Reading Passages with Comprehension Questions give students a fun, hands-on way to build decoding, fluency, and comprehension skills, without constant teacher support.

In this bundle, Orton-Gillingham students become reading detectives by using red, blue, or yellow crayons or highlighters to find their answers right in the text. Then, they write those answers in the spaces provided. These passages are perfect for building student confidence and independence. Likewise, they work well in intervention settings or when you need meaningful work that students can do on their own. With 44 fully decodable passages included in this bundle, it's an ideal way to support Science of Reading-aligned instruction.

Want to learn even more about this approach? Watch this short video: Why Your OG Students Should Be Doing the Work

Take the Next Step

Looking for structured support and monthly tools to support your Orton-Gillingham students? Join the Building Readers for Life (BRFL) Academy. You'll get instant access to monthly decodable tools, video trainings, and more- for just $1 in your first 30 days! Learn more here or go straight to the checkout page.

You might also enjoy reading this blog post on 7 Techniques for Building Independence in OG Lessons.

Let Orton-Gillingham Students Work

Teachers are the guides in OG lessons, but Orton-Gillinham students should be the ones doing the heavy lifting. When kids are actively participating, they're not just learning to read... they're learning how to learn. So next time you're tempted to step in and help, remember to hit pause and think:
If you're doing the work, they're not learning it.
And when you're ready to support that shift, try the Color Clues Decodable Passages, or join the BRFL Academy to get everything you need to help your Orton-Gillingham students thrive.

Also, don't forget to pin this blog to your favorite OG Pinterest board! You will be able to come back to these tips when you are ready to hop in the backseat and let students do the driving in their with their learning.

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Why Your Orton-Gillingham Students Should Be Doing the Work-Not You

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Help Orton-Gillingham students build independence by letting them do the work. Learn why this shift matters and how to support it.

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Fluency in Reading: 5 Powerful Strategies for Your Classroom

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Unlock the magic of reading fluency! Discover how accuracy, expression, and rhythm transform reading into a joyful, confident experience for young readers.

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When you hear the word "multi-sensory," what comes to mind? For many who teach reading, especially to beginning readers, it may elicit images of hands-on activities, plastic letters, and sand trays. These are wonderful tools to incorporate into our structured literacy lessons ( read more here ), but there is so much more to multi-sensory instruction beyond the sand tray.

What Is Multi-Sensory Instruction?

Multi-sensory instruction means students simultaneously engage in two or more sensory modalities to take in and express information. These modalities are visual, auditory, kinesthetic/motor, and tactile. Multi-sensory teaching is often emphasized by those who work with dyslexic learners. Why? Most programs used with struggling or dyslexic learners are rooted in the Orton-Gillingham principles and include the direct, structured, systematic, and explicit teaching of the organization of language also referred to as Multisensory Structured Language Education (MSLE). These instructional practices embed multi-sensory strategies into lessons to engage the learner in techniques that connect visual-auditory-kinesthetic/motor-and tactile (VAKT) connections.

For those of us teaching structured literacy, we see the impact that multi-sensory strategies have on our learners. While it is difficult for researchers to tease out multi-sensory strategies from structured literacy instruction, it has been agreed upon that the positive impacts of multimodal methods in lessons are beneficial through the cognitive and neurological sciences.

Current research on working memory and cognition demonstrates the benefits of multimodal experiences with literacy elements. Incorporating multi-sensory strategies within a structured literacy approach to address phonemes, graphemes, letter knowledge, morphemes, etc., benefits students.

Simultaneous multisensory instruction purposefully integrates visual, auditory, and kinesthetic-motor (for speech and writing) pathways to support memory and learning of both oral and written language skills.

- Farrell, Mary L., White, Nancy Cushen; Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language Skills, Ch. 2, p.48

In addition, many students with learning differences, such as dyslexia, have coexisting deficits in working memory. One specific deficit for those with dyslexia is difficulties in phonological skills, and many students also struggle with rapid retrieval and short-term memory recall of verbal information. Using multi-sensory strategies supports connecting the oral language with visual language structures due to the activation of circuitry systems during language learning using a multimodal approach. When teaching reading and spelling, these multi-sensory experiences with linguistic units can activate more circuitry during language learning than if we only use one singular sensory experience. Read more about the reading brain here.

Multi-Sensory Instruction within a Structured Literacy Lesson

The science of reading is a collection of research about reading and the brain. This research is not new, but the term "science of reading" has become more mainstream as more people become aware of the decades of research and more in-depth reviews of curriculums. With this movement, we must be cautious that the science of reading doesn't become a buzzword. Structured literacy takes the science of research and puts it into action. The elements of Structured Literacy (phonology, sound-symbol associations, syllables, morphology, semantics, and syntax) set up ALL learners for success. Read more about Structured Literacy .

When planning for our structured literacy lessons and embedding multi-sensory instruction, we must be mindful of why we use different components and how they aid learning and teaching.

Multi-sensory strategies planned ahead of time can ensure that the chosen strategy supports students and moves learning forward. In addition, multisensory strategies will shift as students gain automaticity in reading skills. Knowing how we use these different strategies and pieces is essential in focusing our instruction.

We can break down the common components of a structured lesson and see how intertwined multi-sensory strategies are with learning to read and write. These strategies connect and activate the regions of the brain and aid in creating a new neural circuitry system for reading to occur.

Examples of multi-sensory strategies within a structured literacy lesson

*These graphics are a partial list of multisensory strategies used within structured literacy lessons but designed to highlight those common teachings among those practitioners, teachers, and therapists who implement the science of reading.

is the science of speech sounds. This includes studying speech sounds development in a language and phonological awareness and phonemic awareness tasks. Phonological awareness and phonemic awareness are parts of the larger phonological processing umbrella, which "includes many aspects of speech and language perception and production" (Scarborough & Brady, 2002). Under this larger umbrella, phonological awareness provides the underpinnings for reading and writing.

Phonological awareness is the umbrella term that includes: phonemic awareness, rhyming, syllables, word awareness, onset-rime, and phoneme manipulation. Incorporating multisensory strategies within phonological and phonemic awareness tasks includes the simultaneous engagement of the auditory-visual-kinesthetic/motor-tactile modalities to solidify sound knowledge. Phonemic awareness teaches students to hear and manipulate the smallest units of sound and understand that spoken words are made up of sequences of speech sounds.

We can support phonemic awareness with students and engage the senses by bringing awareness to the articulatory features of individual phonemes or speech sounds as we link sounds to print, engaging the auditory-kinesthetic/motor modalities. Having students look in the mirror to identify their mouth position, tongue movement, and breath, when a sound is produced engages all the multisensory strategies (VAKT). Asking students to identify the position of a sound within a word engages the auditory memory, and when adding manipulatives or letters, adds in visual, kinesthetic/motor, and tactile senses.

The National Reading Panel showed that connecting letters to sounds (graphophonemic connections) during phonemic awareness tasks benefited students in reading and spelling. Children, especially those with a language-based learning difference like dyslexia, need direct, strongly auditory-based instruction in each of the 44 English language sounds to build sound-symbol correspondences. Read more about articulatory features .

Teaching using as many learning pathways [multi-sensory strategies] in the brain simultaneously enhances memory and learning (IDA, 2008). See examples of multi-sensory strategies within the phonology component of a structured literacy lesson in the above image.

Sound-symbol correspondences encompass the alphabetic principle in connection to speech sounds. The connection of phonemes to graphemes is critical for learning to read and spell.

Linking sound to letter representation engages the auditory memory to the visual memory. Connecting to letter formations brings in a connection to the kinesthetic-tactile memory to help students remember the shape of a letter through muscle movement, feel of the letter, and sound. Tasks like segmenting, blending, manipulating sounds and letters are all examples of multisensory ways to connect sounds to letters. *See more on the image above.

Many educators use sand trays during this part of the structured literacy lesson. Sand trays provide a great VAKT connection to phoneme-grapheme correspondences; however, this is just way to bring multi-sensory strategies to our lessons. The purpose of the sand for letter formation is to provide that kinesthetic/tactile connection to feel the letter formation. For this reason, we want to use the pad of our fingertips when writing on a textured surface. If we use something else, we are removing the multi-sensory piece. In addition, we want to use multi-sensory strategies to move students toward the application of skills in the general education classroom and expectations.

Syllables + Syllable Knowledge

Syllables + Syllable Knowledge includes patterns and the rules of our writing system. Most structured literacy lessons include explicit teaching of syllables, syllable division, and spelling conventions. Activities like segmenting syllables, tapping syllables, breaking them apart, and building words with graphemes and letter patterns engage multiple senses simultaneously. Activities like coding letters and syllables, mapping speech to print, and segmenting syllables provide hands-on multi-sensory engagement within lessons and empower students with strategies to read new unknown words.

See the image above for more strategies.

Morphology addresses our understanding of the smallest units of meaning within our language. Students manipulate word parts (prefixes, suffixes, base words, and roots) to break down and build words. Hands-on activities like manipulating blocks with affixes and base words/roots/combining forms to create new words, building word matrices, and engaging in reading and spelling all encompass multimodal strategies. There are so many ways we can bring the senses into our learning! See the image for more examples.

Syntax aids in our communication, including parts of speech and grammatical conventions, order of words, and word usage. We can have students diagram and label sentences, engaging in visual-auditory-kinesthetic-tactile senses. Activities like building sentences with word cards or unscrambling word cards with cards or in written form apply multi-sensory learning pathways. During our sessions, we may have students complete tasks like these in oral or written form, engaging in reading and writing tasks. See the image above for more examples of multi-sensory strategies within a structured literacy lesson.

refers to the layer of our language connected to meaning. Comprehension is the connection of oral and written language and encompasses vocabulary, word meaning, and word relations at the word, phrase, sentence, and text level. Reading comprehension is our goal, and activities like drawing semantic webs, paraphrasing text, and use of graphic organizers engage multiple learning pathways. See the image for more examples.

As you can see, structured literacy lessons weave in multi-sensory strategies throughout every component. While these are not comprehensive examples of the many ways multi-sensory strategies are included in lessons, the visual-auditory-kinesthetic-tactile connections are evident. Within a structured literacy lesson, all levels of language are addressed, including sounds (phonemes), symbols (graphemes), meaningful word parts (morphemes), word and phrase meaning (semantics), sentences (syntax), longer passages (discourse), and the social uses of language (pragmatics) (IDA, 2008).

When using a multi-sensory approach, we are engaging multiple areas of the brain, so we have these complex connections among the areas engaged, which are highly activated and widely distributed across the brain. What are some ways that you weave multi-sensory strategies into your lessons?

References

Adams, M.J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge: The MIT Press.

Farrell, M., Pickering, J., North, N., & Schavio, C., (2004, Fall). What is multisensory instruction? The IMSLEC Record , 8 (3).

Farrell, Mary L., White, Nancy Cushen; Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language Skills, Ch. 2, p.48.

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Multi-Sensory Instruction: Moving Beyond the Sand Tray

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When you hear the word "multisensory," what comes to mind? For many who teach reading, especially to beginning readers, it may elicit images of hands-on activities, plastic letters, and sand trays.

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Facts and inclusive practices for Dyslexia, ADHD, & Dyscalculia

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Facts and inclusive practices for Dyslexia, ADHD, & Dyscalculia

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Step into the world of kids with ADHD, dyslexia, and dyscalculia. Gain new perspectives and access free tools to support them.

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How to Teach Writing Fluency | Shanahan on Literacy

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Although reading fluency is now recognized as important, writing fluency continues to be neglected. Studies increasingly are showing that writing quality depends greatly on writing fluency. This blog entry describes several ways that teachers can foster greater writing fluency.

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Building Phoneme Awareness: What Matters

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Building Phoneme Awareness: What Matters

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With an understanding that research in the future may provide even more powerful pathways for reading success, this fact sheet presents guiding principles for instruction informed by what we know from research today. Science evolves and is dynamic. As reading research progresses, and as understanding and interpretation of the research advances, educators and policymakers must periodically adjust or refine practices and policies. Now it is time to implement what accumulated evidence indicates regarding a key component of reading acquisition, phoneme awareness (also known as phonemic awareness). Students who are learning to read must become aware of the smallest segmented parts of spoken words (phonemes) that are represented by graphemes (letters and combinations of letters) in written words. Phoneme awareness is the ability to be aware of and consciously think about these individual speech sounds in spoken words. It is a critical foundational skill for reading.

This fact sheet discusses phoneme awareness, why it is necessary, and how it develops. In it you will find tips for effective practices to build children 's phoneme awareness in kindergarten, first grade, and beyond. Based on current understanding of research findings, this fact sheet also covers the importance of integrating phoneme awareness instruction that links phonemes and associated graphemes with letter names and handwriting instruction. It further raises important considerations regarding the interpretations of research in commonly used programs, standards, evaluation rubrics, and legislative requirements for literacy instruction. To unpack what is known, it is helpful to first review relevant terminology

Phonological Awareness is a broad term that refers to the ability to think about and be consciously aware of the sound structures in spoken words, ranging from larger, more noticeable structures (such as syllables and rhymes) to individual phonemes. Phonological awareness is sometimes used to refer to awareness of a subset of those sound structures, but it is clearer to use the more specific terms, phonological sensitivity and phoneme awareness to be more precise and avoid misunderstandings.

Note: when representing the phonemes in spoken words in writing, phonemes are bracketed by diagonal lines; for example, /k/ signifies the speech sound represented by the first letters in kitten and cop

Phonological Sensitivity refers to awareness of the larger, sometimes more easily noticed sound structures in speech, including whole words and sound structures within words: rhymes, syllables, onsets, and rimes.

Rhymes-consisting of the stressed vowel in a word and what follows-can extend across one or more syllables (for example, cat/bat; mountain/fountain). Syllables include a vowel phoneme and may have one or more consonant phonemes before and/or after the vowel phoneme (for example, I, am, go, sit, spot, script). The onset, if present, is the first phonetic segment of a syllable before the vowel sound; in the word cat, it is the /k/. The rime includes the vowel phoneme and anything that follows it in the syllable; in the word cat, it is the two phonemes that follow the /k/.

Phoneme Awareness (or phonemic awareness) is the ability to be aware of and consciously think about individual speech sounds (phonemes) in spoken words, as noted above. Phoneme awareness is a necessary component of early reading and spelling development. It goes beyond the hearing or perceiving of the speech sounds in spoken words. Phoneme awareness involves conscious awareness that allows a learner to notice and think about the phonemes in words they hear and pronounce. This skill develops gradually, almost always in the context of learning about phonemes and letters in written words.

Focus on Phoneme Awareness
Why Phoneme Awareness Is Important for Learning to Read
To understand how the English alphabetic writing system works, the learner must realize that letters (or combinations of letters) represent the individual phonemes in spoken words. This awareness is referred to as gaining understanding of the alphabetic principle. An awareness of individual phonemes, subsequently linked with corresponding letters, provides an insight about the nature of writing that is essential for learning to read and write. This insight usually begins by becoming aware of one or more of the first phonemes in spoken words (the /k/ in cat; the /s/ in soup). Awareness of each of the phonemes in English in the different positions in spoken words, and knowledge of the corresponding letters or letter combinations (graphemes), unfolds over time, bringing about expanded mastery of the alphabetic system. In short, phoneme awareness is a critical cornerstone of that process. Without awareness of phonemes and the ways in which they are represented in print, written words would seem to be arbitrary sets of letters that must be memorized.
Why Phoneme Awareness Is Challenging to Acquire
Children's abilities vary in terms of how difficult it is to acquire phoneme awareness; this is unrelated to intelligence. Speaking and listening do not require being aware of the individual speech sounds in spoken words. Instead, those language skills are processed automatically by the language system in the brain. However, to learn to read, children must acquire a new metalevel skill that requires consciously thinking about words as a sequence of individual speech sounds rather than just attending to the meaning of what is being said, as they have been used to doing.

Contributing to the challenge of becoming aware of the individual phonemes, the articulation of a phoneme usually overlaps to some extent with the articulation of other phonemes that precede and/or follow it. This overlap happens because phonemes are produced with combinations of muscle gestures, such as opening and closing the lips, raising, or lowering the jaw, and vibration of the vocal cords; gestures that yield one phoneme may occur at the same time or overlap with the production of adjacent phonemes (known as coarticulation). For example, consider the pronunciation of the words see and sue: at the start of saying the /s/ in see, the lips are already wide for the long e vowel sound; for sue, they are rounded in anticipation of the u vowel sound. The difficulty of becoming aware of individual phonemes may stem in part from this coarticulation of the gestures across phonemes, given that the pronunciation of a phoneme in a word generally carries some information about neighboring phonemes as well. At the same time, focusing children's attention on the key articulatory components of a phoneme can be beneficial for fostering awareness of phonemes. As an example, even with the slight variation in lip position in the pronunciation of /s/ in see and sue, students can notice that /s/ in both cases is a hissy sound made by placing the tip of the tongue close to the upper front teeth and pushing air out at that location-the key articulatory components of that phoneme.
Phoneme Awareness as the Starting Point
Early research found that first-grade students had awareness of phonemes, but preschoolers did not. Because approximately half of the preschoolers tested demonstrated awareness of the larger phonological element of syllables, it raised a question: Must children first become aware of these larger chunks of speech sounds before developing phoneme awareness? Over the years, an assumption was widely embraced by researchers-and implemented by practitioners-that instruction should follow a developed that instruction should follow a sequence from larger to smaller phonological elements. However, research has confirmed that phoneme awareness can be taught to children who lack phonological sensitivity, demonstrating that acquiring phoneme awareness does not require students to first gain syllable segmentation skills. Multiple findings also corroborate that programs are effective when they begin with a focus on phoneme awareness rather than phonological sensitivity, and highly so when instruction then links phonemes with graphemes. This is documented both for beginning readers and for students who have struggled with acquiring reading skills. This research indicates that phonological sensitivity instruction (with larger units such as rhyme, syllables, and onset-rime) is neither a prerequisite nor a causal factor in the development of phonemic awareness.
How Phoneme Awareness Develops
Phoneme awareness develops gradually, most often as children are learning to read and spell. Direct instruction in phoneme awareness, promptly linked with letter knowledge, facilitates reading acquisition, and learning to read reciprocally expands awareness of phonemes.

Correspondingly, acquisition of the alphabetic principle unfolds gradually. It develops in tandem with the phoneme awareness ability to isolate and identify phonemes in spoken words, provided that phoneme awareness instruction is linked subsequently with letter knowledge (letter names and letter sounds). Blending and segmenting at the phoneme level are essential skills because they are central to decoding and encoding (spelling). Therefore, when teaching and practicing phoneme awareness skills, once the student has become aware of the phoneme, linking each speech sound with the grapheme that spells it will facilitate the transfer of skills to reading and writing.
Beginning Phoneme Awareness
The location of a phoneme influences the ease with which students become aware of that phoneme. It is easiest for students to isolate the initial phoneme in a spoken word, regardless of length of the word, if the first phoneme is not part of a consonant blend. For example, beginners can identify the initial phoneme /b/ in the spoken words bus and banana more easily than they can in blue or brown.

A simple syllable (such as bus or keep) is one that does not include a consonant blend. After becoming aware of initial phonemes (such as the /b/ in bus or the /k/ in keep), students generally become aware of final phonemes in simple one-syllable spoken words (the /s/ in bus, the /p/ in keep). The next level is becoming aware of the medial vowel phonemes in simple syllable words such as these. In short, explicit instruction in phoneme awareness (including phoneme segmentation) with words that are simple syllables facilitates a student's beginning awareness of phonemes.

Instructional Goal: With appropriate instruction, full acquisition of beginning phoneme awareness-awareness of each of the phonemes in simple syllables-is a realistic goal for kindergarten students, coordinated with instruction that links the phonemes with targeted letter names, letter sounds, and letter writing.
Later Phoneme Awareness
Once students master awareness of phonemes in simple syllables, they are ready for explicit instruction in words that are complex syllables. A complex syllable is one that includes one or two consonant blends (for example, clap, felt, crisp, splash). Note that long vowels can be included when doing an oral segmentation task (with words such as float or claim) once the child's spelling skills have advanced to include the graphemes that will spell that phoneme. Becoming aware of initial or final external consonants (the /k/ or /p/ in crisp) is easier than becoming aware of the internal consonants in two-phoneme blends (the /l/ in clap or felt; the /r/ and /s/ in crisp), or in three-phoneme blends (the /p/ and /l/ in splash).

Instructional Goal: Once awareness of phonemes in simple syllables is confirmed for individual students by the end of kindergarten or early in first grade, awareness of phonemes in complex syllables is an appropriate goal for first grade. Beyond first grade, a student who has not attained full phoneme awareness will need further instruction, first determining where the student is in their development of phoneme awareness and going forward from there.
Teaching Tip
Be alert to a student's spelling and reading errors that reflect a phoneme awareness weakness. Omission of a speech sound is a flag that the student may be unaware of one or more phonemes in the spoken word. For example, spelling bed as "bd" often reflects lack of awareness of the medial vowel; spelling plan as "pan" is an indication that the student is having difficulty being aware of the /l/ in the blend and needs to do activities that will foster awareness of internal consonants.
Why It Is Important to Coordinate Phoneme Awareness Instruction with the Teaching of Grapheme-Phoneme Correspondences, Spelling (Encoding), and Handwriting
When a child demonstrates awareness of a phoneme (for example, being able to isolate and pronounce an initial phoneme), this can be followed by introducing the letter or combination of letters that represents that phoneme. This sequence builds an understanding of the alphabetic principle, as noted earlier. The value of incorporating graphemes when building phoneme awareness (for example, in a spelling activity) has been verified both for beginning readers in kindergarten and students who have deficits in reading at any age who have phoneme awareness weaknesses. Further, this sequential pairing facilitates the links between phonemes and letters needed for orthographic mapping of words (storing the spellings of words in memory). Likewise, it is beneficial to work consistently on handwriting practice that is coordinated with the grapheme-phoneme relationships that have been learned, and to apply these skills in spelling, reading, and writing activities. This, too, strengthens students' mastery of phoneme-grapheme correspondences and is a key foundation for writing fluency.

This approach is an example of an important concept of Structured Literacy: student learning of foundational reading skills is facilitated by instruction that is integrated-that coordinates the development of phoneme awareness with the learning of letter and grapheme names and sounds and that includes instruction in handwriting along with practice writing the targeted letters. This approach helps students gain awareness of the alphabetic principle, supports the learning of each component, and lays a foundation for decoding, word recognition, and spelling. Once a student has early phoneme awareness and letter knowledge for a small set of consonants and one or two vowels (for example: a, m, s, f, l, i, t, p) they can begin to read and spell many words (sat, map, lip, fit, ...). With a set of vowels and consonants such as these, kindergarteners also can (and should) practice encoding and writing words that use the learned set of phonemes and letters. Likewise, they can (and should) practice applying these skills to read decodable text with these same phonemes/letters and with a small number of high-frequency words necessary to compose sentences. The exciting accomplishment of reading text is rewarding - and helps consolidate the skills being learned.

You might be surprised by the recommendation to coordinate letter knowledge and writing skills with phoneme awareness tasks in light of the fact that a number of programs do not. The practice of not incorporating letters stemmed from early findings showing that good readers are better than poor readers at doing oral phoneme manipulation tasks without letters (for example, what is smile without the /s/?). At the time, there was widespread agreement on the implications of this research, and the practice of attempting to develop phoneme awareness skills without any connection to graphemes was an appropriate interpretation of what was known at the time. However, further research indicates that such skills are the consequence of spelling and reading development: when good readers are asked to manipulate the phonemes in a spoken word by substituting, deleting or adding a phoneme, they automatically access their knowledge of the spelling (the orthographic representation) of that word. Students who can do manipulation tasks orally for words that are complex syllables are likely to be good readers and spellers who are beyond the need for phoneme awareness instruction. For other students who do need to increase their awareness of phonemes, research still is needed to determine whether oral-only manipulation of complex syllables (without including letters) is beneficial. Given the lack of evidence to support oral-only phonemic awareness manipulation activities and because existing research shows those tasks associated with stronger effects when integrated with print, incorporating letters in phoneme manipulation tasks is recommended to enhance awareness of phonemes in spoken words and to support memory of letter-sound correspondences.

Note that this is not to say that all oral phoneme awareness tasks are inappropriate. For example, it's fine to ask students to isolate and/or identify an individual phoneme or to say each phoneme in an oral segmentation measure, if these activities are introduced at the appropriate point in students' phoneme awareness development. Keep in mind that, even with these tasks, it can be helpful to promptly make connections to the graphemes that spell the phonemes. Using letters helps establish the functional value of the phoneme awareness task because it connects phoneme awareness with reading and spelling.
Teaching Tip
Whenever phoneme manipulation tasks are used to build awareness, provide letter tiles or written letters in some form to represent the spellings of the phonemes in the word and the phoneme being manipulated. Asking students to do such manipulation without letters can strain working memory, putting a counter-productive, unnecessary burden on beginners and struggling readers.
The Impact of Speaking a Second Language or a Different Dialect
Whenever there is a difference between the language or dialect background of a student learning to read and write in General American English (GAE), the student will have extra language and cognitive learning demands. In U.S. schools, approximately 400 different languages other than English are spoken; Spanish is the most common. The second language learner must become consciously aware of the phonemes in English, including any English speech sounds that are not in the student's native language.

A similar situation exists for speakers of English dialects, with a significant case being the African American English (AAE) dialect in which phonological rules differ from GAE regarding how certain phonemes are pronounced in particular contexts (for instance, consonant clusters in final position in a word may be reduced to a single final consonant). Linguistic analyses have long established that AAE meets all the systematic, rule-governed characteristics of a spoken language, reinforcing the need for positive attitudes about this dialect.
Teaching Tip
Teachers need to be well informed about the phonemes of English and be aware of which speech sounds are particularly challenging for the second language learner depending on the child's first language. This awareness will enable them to provide extra support to help the student gain mastery of those phonemes. For example, when students whose first language is Spanish encounter the phoneme /sh/ (a phoneme not in the Spanish phonology), they may confuse it with the similar phoneme that is present in both Spanish and English: /ch/ (spelling ship as chip). Attention to how /sh/ and /ch/ differ in articulation may be helpful, as may be sorting activities with cards depicting objects that in English start with one or the other of these phonemes.

Likewise, teachers may be better able to teach AAE speakers if they gain an understanding of when and how particular phonemes are pronounced differently in the two dialects and provide extra support as needed pertaining to phoneme awareness, as well as to other differing linguistic aspects of AAE and GAE. With that understanding, teachers can respectfully help students learn how spoken GAE differs, while also explicitly linking it to written English.

Other Questions You May Have
What to Do if Students Lack Phonological Sensitivity
Lack of phonological sensitivity (awareness of the larger sounds structures in spoken words such as rhymes, syllables, etc.) and phoneme awareness is particularly common for young children and for children coming from low socioeconomic circumstances. Though phonological sensitivity can be taught to young students, doing so delays the instruction needed to build students' phoneme awareness and corresponding letter knowledge-skills that are necessary to become successful readers. It can also introduce confusion for learners when they switch to a focus on phonemes. Because an instructional continuum from phonological sensitivity to phoneme awareness is not necessary, delaying phonemic awareness instruction by starting with phonological sensitivity activities is unlikely to be the most direct and beneficial path to launching students' phoneme awareness skills and reading success.
Teaching Tip
Start right away with activities that target phoneme awareness, focusing first on initial phonemes, the easiest phoneme position in a word for beginners to isolate. Two practical guidelines should influence which phonemes are selected to be in the words used.

First, the instructor (and ideally, the curriculum) should begin with words in which the phonemes are easier to become aware of because they are produced in the front of the mouth (and hence are more visible in a mirror or when produced by another speaker) and can be stretched out-such as the /m/ in "mmmmmmap." Phonemes such as these can be used to make a number of common one-syllable words.

Second, the phoneme awareness program should not be disconnected from the district's foundational skills program and thought of as an add-on to the curriculum. Rather, the district should follow a logical scope and sequence for foundational skills curricular materials and decodable books, and the phonemes targeted for phonemic awareness should be coordinated with that sequence to systematically link phoneme awareness, letter skills, and reading development.
W hen to Provide Instruction in Syllable and Rhyme Structures
There can be benefits to teaching students about syllable and rhyme structures, but mostly for reasons unrelated to phoneme awareness. Young children notice rhyme and alliteration as part of hearing and remembering nursery rhymes and songs. The rhyme concept also can be a focus later if students are writing poems. When targeting awareness of an initial phoneme, generating alliterative sequences can help bring that phoneme to children's attention (for example, Tommy talks to Tess- /t/-/t/-/t/-/t/!), which can foster early phoneme awareness. Introducing syllables is valuable when focusing on spelling; teachers can explain that words may have more than one syllable and that each syllable has a vowel. Syllables are also the focus when introducing spelling patterns for syllable types and for syllable division tasks. Thus, these concepts are useful for other purposes.

Implications for Instruction and Assessment

Early success at learning to read fuels interest in reading in the years that follow, whereas a slow, difficult process of reading acquisition does not. Research has provided exciting insights into early phoneme awareness instruction that have the potential to launch more successful readers in kindergarten and first grade.

Three points are evident:

1. Educators should begin right away with phoneme awareness instruction in kindergarten (and when working with older students with phoneme awareness deficits). The best use of instructional time in kindergarten and beyond is to focus on phonemic awareness while greatly reducing time spent on phonological sensitivity elements. Educators do not need to follow a continuum that requires instruction in each element of phonological sensitivity (counting the words in a sentence, rhyme recognition and production, syllable counting, syllable segmenting/blending, and so on) prior to beginning instruction to develop phoneme awareness.

2. By focusing immediately on phoneme awareness instruction coordinated with letter/grapheme knowledge and handwriting, teachers can assess and teach the key skills connected to reading success and thus help students build foundational reading skills more effectively and quickly. These activities provide students with direct instruction and insights about how the writing system works, boosting motivation, confidence, and success.

3. Whenever phoneme awareness instruction is needed, either for beginning readers or for older struggling readers, teachers should focus on phoneme awareness at the level appropriate for the student, keeping these recommendations in mind: start with initial phonemes, then final phonemes, followed by medial vowel phonemes in words that are simple syllables; after these beginning levels of phoneme awareness are accomplished, next work on awareness of the internal consonants s in complex, one-syllable words that include consonant blends.

This fact sheet has focused on phoneme awareness and related instructional elements that are critical beginning steps for reading and writing proficiency. However, we want to acknowledge that these components, plus letter knowledge and handwriting, are only part of a comprehensive Structured Literacy program. The content and instruction described in this fact sheet should, of course, be a component of fully integrated and robust instruction in reading, spelling, and writing.

The methods summarized here can contribute to impressive literacy gains in the first year of school and can offset the reading difficulties too often observed for socioeconomically disadvantaged students. Moving forward, it will be important to make changes in materials, literacy standards, evaluation rubrics, legislation, and teacher preparation to reflect these gains in understanding about optimal practices for teaching the foundational skills of reading.

Hallmarks of a Strong Phoneme Awareness Program

To summarize, the key points regarding phoneme awareness instruction are as follows:
Representative References (organized by topic) Importance of Phoneme Awareness When Learning to Read

Focuses on building phoneme awareness, rather than phonological sensitivity, from the beginning;

Systematically links phoneme awareness instruction to grapheme and letter knowledge from the beginning and throughout later manipulation activities;

Integrates practice of phoneme awareness, letter and grapheme knowledge, and handwriting;

Works toward mastery of beginning phoneme awareness in simple syllables in kindergarten, progressing to later phoneme awareness of internal consonants in complex syllables in first grade

Provides instruction informed by assessment of students' phoneme awareness skills, determining where students are in their development of phoneme awareness and differentiating instruction accordingly;

Provides instruction for second language learners and speakers of English dialects (such as AAE) that builds awareness of variations in pronunciation and of phonemes not occurring in their first language or dialect; and

Assesses the extent of phoneme awareness in struggling readers in any grade, and if weaknesses in phoneme awareness are evident, calibrates intervention to follow the sequence of phoneme awareness development.

Brady, S. (2020). A 2020 perspective on research findings on alphabetics (phoneme awareness and phonics): Implications for instruction. The Reading League Journal, 1(3), 20-28.

Ehri, L., Nunes, S., Willows, D., Schuster, B., Yagoub-Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T. (2001). Phoneme awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel's meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36(3), 250-287.

Hulme, C., Bowyer-Crane, C., Carroll, J. M., Duff, F. J., & Snowling, M. J. (2012). The causal role of phoneme awareness and letter-sound knowledge in learning to read: Combining intervention studies with mediation analyses. Psychological Science, 23(6), 572-577.
Lack of Necessity to Teach Phonological Sensitivity Skills before Teaching Phoneme Awareness
Shankweiler, D., & Fowler, A. (2004). Questions people ask about the role of phonological processes in learning to read. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 17(5), 483-515.

Ball, E., & Blachman, B. (1991). Does phoneme awareness training in kindergarten make a difference in early word recognition and developmental spelling? Reading Research Quarterly, 26(1), 49-66.

Brady, S. (2020). A 2020 perspective on research findings on alphabetics (phoneme awareness and phonics): Implications for instruction. The Reading League Journal, 1(3), 20-28.

Cary, L., & Verhaeghe, A. (1994). Promoting phonemic analysis ability among kindergartners: Effects of different training programs. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 6(3), 251-278.

Gillon, G. (2018). Phonological awareness: From research to practice (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

Geudens, A., & Sandra, D. (2003). Beyond implicit phonological knowledge: No support for an onset-rime structure in children's explicit phonological awareness. Journal of Memory and Language, 49, 157-182.

Nancollis, A., Lawrie, B. A., & Dodd, B. (2005). Phonological awareness intervention and the acquisition of literacy skills in children from deprived social backgrounds. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 36, 325-335.

Savage, R., & Carless, S. (2005). Learning support assistants and effective reading interventions for 'at-risk' children. Educational Research, 47(1), 45-61.
Importance of Connecting Phonemes with Letters in Phoneme Awareness Activities
Ukrainetz, T., Nuspl, J., Wilkerson, K., & Beddes, S. (2011). The effects of syllable instruction on phonemic awareness in preschoolers. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26(1), 50-60

Boyer, N., & Ehri, L. (2011). Contribution of phonemic segmentation instruction with letters and articulation pictures to word reading and spelling in beginners. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(5), 440-470.

Brady, S. (2020). A 2020 perspective on research findings on alphabetics (phoneme awareness and phonics): Implications for instruction. The Reading League Journal, 1(3), 20-28.

Brown, K. J., Patrick, K. C., Fields, M. K., & Craig, G. T. (2021). Phonological awareness materials in Utah kindergartens: A case study in the science of reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 56(S1), S249-S272.

Ehri, L. C. (2004). Teaching phonemic awareness and phonics: An explanation of the National Reading Panel Meta-Analyses. In P. McCardle & V. Chhabra (Eds.), The voice of evidence in reading research (pp. 153-186). Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Ehri, L., & Roberts, T. (2006). The roots of learning to read and write: Acquisition of letters and phoneme awareness. In D. K. Dickinson & S. B. Neuman (Eds.), Handbook of Early Literacy Research (Vol. 2, pp.113-131). Guilford.

Gillon, G., McNeil, B., Scott, A., Denston, A., Wilson, L., Carson, K., & Macfarlane, A. H. (2019). A better start to literacy learning: Findings from a teacher-implemented intervention in children's first year at school. Reading and Writing, 32, 1989-2012.

McCandliss, B., Beck, I., Sandak, R., & Perfetti, C. (2003). Focusing attention on decoding for children with poor reading skills: Design and preliminary tests of the word building intervention. Scientific Studies of Reading, 7(1), 75-104.
Influence of Orthographic Knowledge on Phoneme Awareness Tasks
Møller, H., Mortenson, J., & Elbro, C. (2022). Effects of integrated spelling in phonics instruction for at-risk children in kindergarten. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 38, 67-82.

Castles, A., Holmes, V. M., Neath, J., & Kinoshita, S. (2003). How does orthographic knowledge influence performance on phonological awareness tasks? The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 56(33), 445-467.

Ehri, L., & Wilce, L. (1980). The influence of orthography on readers' conceptualization of the phonemic structure of words. Applied Psycholinguistics, 1(4), 371-385.
Impact of Speaking a Second Language or a Different Dialect on the Process of Learning to Read
Shankweiler, D., & Fowler, A. E. (2004). Questions people ask about the role of phonological processes in learning to read. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 17(5), 483-515.

Brown, M., Sibley, D., Washington, J., Rogers, T., Edwards, J., MacDonald, C., & Seidenberg, M. (2015). Impact of dialect use on a basic component of learning to read. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1-17.

Kester, E. S. (2014). Difference or disorder? Understanding speech and language patterns in culturally and linguistically diverse students. Bilinguistics, Inc.
Importance of Handwriting
Washington, J., & Seidenberg, M. (2021, Summer). Teaching reading to African American children: When home and school language differ. American Educator, 45(2), 26-33, 40.

Graham, S., MacArthur, C.A., & Fitzgerald, J. (2007). Best Practices in Writing Instruction. (See chapters by David Coker Writing instruction for young children: Methods targeting the multiple demands that writers face, Ch. 5, pgs. 101-118) and by Bob Schlagal (Best practices in spelling and handwriting, Ch. 9, pgs. 179-201). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Puranik, C. S., & Al Otaiba, S. (2012). Examining the contribution of handwriting and spelling to written expression in kindergarten children. Reading and Writing, 25(7), 1523-1546.

Ray, K., Dally, K., Rowlandson, L., Tam, K. I., & Lane, A. E. (2022). The relationship of handwriting ability and literacy in kindergarten: A systematic review. Reading and Writing, 35, 1119-1155.

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International Dyslexia Association (IDA). For copyright information, please click here

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Building Phoneme Awareness: Know What Matters - International Dyslexia Association

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With an understanding that research in the future may provide even more powerful pathways for reading success, this fact sheet presents guiding principles for

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Teaching Summarizing in the Early Grades

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Teaching Summarizing in the Early Grades

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How to teach summarizing in the early grades

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Learn how it looks when teaching summarizing in the early grades - this technique is simple and doable!

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Strategy for when Students Omit Phonemes or Graphemes

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Strategy for when Students Omit Phonemes or Graphemes

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Tips for Sound Omission of Consonant Clusters in Reading and Spelling

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How to Use a Word Matrix - Sarah’s Teaching Snippets

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Boost morphology instruciton with a word matrix! Learn what they are, how to use them, and engaging activities to build vocabulary.

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J Adolescent   Adult Lit - 2024 - Shanahan - What role  if any  should phonics play in a middle school or high school  The

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Do you remember when you first learned to drive a car? There is a lot of thinking going on! The number of things you had to think about - how to start the vehicle, checking the mirrors, making sure the seat was in the correct position, looking carefully at the dashboard, making sure you used your blinker, the list goes on and on.

Learning to write legibly is similar to learning how to drive a car. At first, it takes a lot of practice and cognitive energy, but once automatic driving and handwriting are done easily, it frees up mental energy for other things. A lot is going on.

Handwriting instruction is essential for all students, especially those with dyslexia and dysgraphia. Until students can form letters with reasonable legibility and speed, their concentration and focus are often spent on letter production. When students have not reached automaticity of letter formation, it taxes the working memory and places higher demands on cognitive resources.

Teaching handwriting helps students with letter learning, word reading, and writing. When kindergarteners are explicitly taught letter formation linked to the concept that letters represent speech sounds, syllables, and words, these images are stored in the brain's language center (Beringer & Wolf, 2015).

We want to ensure our earliest learners are presented with the necessary skills and language to create these stored linguistic symbols that lead to automaticity in writing, to move to the complex core skills that later writing demands. A LOT goes into handwriting instruction, from body and paper position to pencil grasp and letter formations. I'm sharing some of the tools and strategies that I use in my dyslexia therapy sessions.

Have you ever been to a class or conference where you were required to take notes, yet the set-up was unconducive to comfortable writing? This happened to me recently when I had to sit with my back to the speaker and ended up with my writing paper on my lap, turned around in my chair, and struggled to feel comfortable in my note taking.

Reflecting on this moment, I realized how many of my clients must feel when asked to sit still, attend to the lesson, produce work, and focus when they are not in a supportive sitting position at the table.

I often talk to parents and teachers about how poor posture and positioning can impact a student's ability to produce quality work. Something as simple as having their feet positioned flat on the ground can make a big difference-things like a desk or table height, chair comfort, and height and lighting all impact handwriting.

Addressing Posture

Sitting with poor posture can stress your muscles, joints, and ligaments. Children with unstable postures use excess energy to maintain their stability and balance, affecting their ability to complete fine motor tasks and school work. We may see this when students rest their heads on their non-dominant hands, complain or show fatigue when writing, slouch in their chairs, lean forward close to their paper, and hang their non-writing hands to their side. All of these show poor core strength and body position for writing. Sitting with a good writing posture increases stability and provides a sturdy foundation for written output.

Setting the stage for handwriting work is essential for all students and is achieved with proper positioning at student seats and desks. Once at their seat, we want students to follow the "90-90-90 angle rule" to set the stage for optimal handwriting performance.

feet rest flat with a 90-degree angle at the ankles

knees at a 90-degree angle, 1-2 inches away from the edge of the table

hips at the back of the chair, 90-degree angle

Desks or tables that are too high or low can be adjusted. If a chair is too high, placing boxes under the feet will provide stability at the ankles.

Addressing Paper Position

Once students are in the proper position with their bodies following the 90-90-90 angle rule, then the position of the paper should be monitored and addressed. The proper placement and tilt of the paper allow students to comfortably write, stabilize the paper, and see what they are writing.

Tilting the paper allows students to see what they are writing as it is being put on paper and promotes proper pencil grasp and wrist placement. The paper tilt for right-handed students is at a 20-45 degree angle. For left-handed students, the tilt of the paper is 30-45 degrees to help with proper hand placement. As a scaffold, I will draw an arrow or place a sticker in the bottom corner to indicate that this should point to their stomach. This helps remind students of the paper placement. I use this scaffold as needed and will gradually release the scaffold as students become automatic with their paper placement.

The non-dominant hand is used to stabilize the paper. Students use this hand to aid in moving the paper upwards as they write. This prevents the writing hand from moving down, falling off the desk/table, or bending at the wrist. The goal is to have students move the paper up with their non-dominant hand instead of moving their writing hand down - allowing for better fluidity and comfort when writing. Find the below resource in the library.

Developing Proper Pencil Grasp

To hold a pencil correctly, a child must have control of hand muscles, especially the pincer grasp. Developing large and fine motor skills is the basis for handwriting skills and proper instruction. There are pre-strokes to handwriting that can be observed to help drive instructional needs. Often when working with older or early elementary students who struggle with handwriting, I will embed some work with fine motor skills.

Once students have fine motor control, we can begin explicit handwriting instruction. We know that the knowledge of letter names and fluency in letter naming in kindergarten are among the best predictors of later reading success (Catts et al., 2015). Handwriting, in turn, helps students store letters as linguistic symbols. 📝

When students have the precise motor sequence for forming each letter, it is automated and recalled without conscious effort. This automaticity leaves mental energy for the written composition of writing. Students who struggle with automatic letter writing will also struggle with putting thoughts onto paper because their energy is expended on forming letters instead of content. Read more about explicit handwriting here.

Using different pencil grips can benefit students who struggle with the proper pincer grasp or have weakness in their hands. I have several different pencil grips available to students and allow them to choose the one that feels best AND addresses their unique needs. You can find lots of different grips online. I have added my favorites to my Amazon list. *affiliate list

Sometimes a student doesn't need a pencil grip but a simple reminder as to where to place their fingers. For this, an easy scaffold is to put a sticker where the fingers go. So simple - yet effective!

Spatial Relationships

When we ask students to engage in handwriting, they need to draw on their memory of what each letter looks like, develop a motor plan for writing that letter, and think about sizing, formation, alignment, and spacing - it's a lot. Prior to writing letters, students need development of pre-writing strokes. Read more about these and grab the development chart in the freebie library

For many students, controlling the alignment and spacing of letters is a challenge. My older students with dysgraphia often struggle to properly space letters and words on the page. This spatial relationship causes the inability to utilize space properly. For many students, they will have letters or words run together or fall off the lines and edges of the page. If you have students who struggle with managing or controlling letters on the line, this is a quick and easy way to engage students. I find this especially helpful for my older students as it honors their age and doesn't come across as baby-ish.

To help develop this spatial awareness, we play the game "The Line is Lava!". It is a simple and effective way to bring awareness to the spatial needs of letters and words on the page in relation to the line and the margins.

Simply highlight the lines to the space needed and have students work to keep the letters out of the lava. While you can purchase premade highlighted paper, I prefer to quickly make my own so that I can tailor the vertical spacing as needed. Students often begin with larger vertical spacing, and as they gain control of their fine motor skills and letter movements, we condense the space.

We also discuss those letters that "dip" into the lava, and the kids like to make a silly hissing sound as they dip those letters (f, g, j, p, q, y, and cursive z) into the lava. So fun!

Explicit Handwriting Instruction

Whether you choose to work on print or cursive, providing explicit instruction and ample practice is critical for creating the necessary muscle memory to build letter formations. Cursive instruction has gotten more attention over the last few years, and with good reason! Research also shows that there are considerable benefits to teaching cursive.

Read about the benefits of cursive writing with instructional tips .

Want to learn more? Check out these related blog posts and grab the cursive handwriting poster in my freebie library! Sign up here.

I hope these handwriting tips and scaffolds are helpful. Let me know if you play "The Line is Lava!" or use any of the other scaffolds or tips with any students.

You can also learn more about handwriting instruction in the Together in Literacy podcast episode 2.12

Some handwriting resources you may find useful:
Print cards Cursive cards
Freebie cursive anchor chart - in the freebie library! Join HERE!

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Tips and Scaffolds to Aid Handwriting Skills

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Do you remember when you first learned to drive a car? There is a lot of thinking going on! The number of things you had to think about - how to start the vehicle, checking the mirrors, making sure the seat was in the correct position, looking carefully at the dashboard, making sure you used your blinker, the list goes on and on.

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On Eating Elephants and Teaching Syllabication | Shanahan on Literacy

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This blog entry explores the research on the teaching of syllabication. Studies reveal the value of teaching syllabication, but it also offers important cautions about neither overdoing nor treating it as a rigid set of rules.

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Ackerman, P.T. & Dykman, R.A. (1996). The speed factor and learning disabilities: The toll of slowness in adolescents. Dyslexia, 2, 1-21.

Beck, I.L., & McKeown, M.G. (1991). Conditions of vocabulary acquisition. In R. Barr, M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, and P.D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research, Vol. II (pp. 789-814). White Plains, NY: Longman.

Catts, H.W., Fey, M.E., Zhang, X., & Tomblin, J.B. (1999). Language basis of reading and reading disabilities: Evidence from a longitudinal investigation. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 331-361.

Cunningham, A.E. & Stanovich, K.E. (1997). Early reading acquisition and its relation to reading experience and ability 10 years later. Developmental Psychology, 33, 934-945.

Curtis, M.E. & Longo, A.M. (1999). When adolescents can't read: Methods and materials that work. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.

Fischer, P. (1999). Concept Phonics: Objectives and Activities, levels One and Two. Farmington, ME: Oxton House Publishers.

Greene, J.F. (1996). LANGUAGE!: The effects of an individualized structured language curriculum for middle and high school students. Annals of Dyslexia, 38, 258-275.

Henry, M. (1997). The decoding/spelling continuum: Integrated decoding and spelling instruction from pre-school to early secondary school. Dyslexia, 3, 178-189.

Lyon, G. R. (1998). Why reading is not a natural process. Educational Leadership, 55 (6), 14-18.

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel, Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. Washington, DC: NICHD. (1-800-370-2943)

Shankweiler, D., Crane, S. Katz, L., Fowler, A.E., Liberman, A.M., Brady, S.A., Thornton, R., Lindquist, E., Dreyer, L., Fletcher, J.M., Stuebing, K.K., Shaywitz, S.E, & Shaywitz, B.A. (1995). Cognitive profiles of reading-disabled children: Comparison of language skills in phonology, morphology, and syntax. Psychological Science, 6, 149-56.

Shankweiler, D., Lundquist, E., Dreyer, L.G. & Dickinson, C.C. (1996). Reading and spelling difficulties in high school students: Causes and consequences. Reading and Writing: An interdisciplinary journal, 8, 267-294.

Shankweiler, D., Lundquist, E., Katz, L., Stuebing, K.K., Fletcher, J.M., Brady, S., Fowler, A., Dreyer, L.G., Marchione, K.E., Shaywitz, S.E., & Shaywitz, B.A. (1999). Comprehension and decoding: Patterns of association in children with reading difficulties. Scientific Studies of Reading, 31, 69-94.

Shaywitz, S.E., Fletcher, J.M., Holahan, J.M., Shneider, A.E., Marchione, K.E., Stuebing, K.K., Francis, D.J., Pugh, K.R., & Shaywitz, B.A. (1999).

Persistence of dyslexia: The Connecticut Longitudinal Study at Adolescence. Pediatrics, 104 (6), 1351-1359.Stanovich, K. & Siegel, L. (1994).

The phenotypic profile of reading-disabled children: A regression-based test of the phonological-core variable difference model. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 24-53.

Torgesen, J.K., Alexander, A.W., Wagner, R.K., Rashotte, C.A., Voeller, K., & Conway, T. (in press). Intensive remedial instruction for children with severe reading disabilities: Immediate and long-term outcomes from two instructional approaches. Journal of Learning Disabilities.

Torgesen, J.K., Wagner, R.K., Rashotte, C. A., Alexander, A.W., & Conway, T. (1997). Preventive and remedial interventions for children with severe reading disabilities. Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 8, 51-61.

Williams, J. (1998). Improving the comprehension of disabled readers. Annals of Dyslexia, 48, 213-238.

Wilson, B. (1996). Wilson Reading System, Instructor Manual (3 rd Ed). Willbury, MA: Wilson Language Training Corporation.

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These research-based reading strategies can build a foundation for reading success in students in third grade and beyond.

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Tips for b and d Reversals | Emily Gibbons | The Literacy Nest

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Teaching Young Students How to Overcome Cognitive Overload

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Teachers can help students develop the metacognitive skills to avoid becoming overwhelmed by school demands.

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Transforming Literacy Tasks to Deepen Learning

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Transforming Literacy Tasks to Deepen Learning

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Literacy across the curriculum has evolved since its introduction in the middle of the last century, when it was called "content area reading." The emphasis at that time was on reading to learn, and strategies were not subject-specific. Today, there is an expanded understanding of the fundamental role that all the literacy domains-reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing-play in learning subject matter (Flood & Lapp, 1995). These disciplinary literacies, as they are now termed, are tailored to the characteristics and demands of each subject (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2017).

But the full potential of literacies cannot be reached if students are limited to surface-level knowledge acquisition. Students must do more than simply recall facts-through literacy tasks (reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing), students should be encouraged to think creatively, problem solve, and consider perspectives that are new to them. Once students have gained initial knowledge about a skill or concept, they need to discover the nuances of the topic. Doing so requires educators across levels and subjects to design literacy tasks that prompt students to think, not just replicate. In this column, we discuss four ways to transform literacy tasks to deepen student learning.

The first possible transformation is moving a literacy task from a closed response that prompts students to provide a single correct answer to one that provides multiple entry points and pathways to successful completion. Open tasks require the learner to entertain a variety of possibilities before settling on a particular solution. In doing so, they must make decisions about how they will approach the task while still meeting its success criteria. In the video that accompanies this column (see below), high school English teacher Marnitta George introduces an open task to her students. Earlier in the unit, they analyzed the podcast Serial for its features, such as author purpose, craft, and tone. They also did research on a subject of their choosing. Now they must make decisions about how they will develop an opening story for a podcast of their own design. In doing so, they draw on reading, writing, speaking, and listening as they plan their podcast and compose the script.

Low-level literacy tasks require that students learn information, such as matching vocabulary words with definitions. Understanding tasks, on the other hand, ask students to apply critical thinking skills to identify relationships and make connections among content. One method for doing so is to compare and contrast different phenomena. For instance, geography students might develop an infographic explaining how the Nile River and the Mississippi River are similar and different from one another. Science students may work together to create a screencast explaining how animal and plant cells are alike and different. In both cases, students gain a deeper understanding of the characteristics of the phenomena, while using various mediums of expression to show what they know.

Resist the urge to tell students information and instead provoke inquiry by using tasks centered on questions. Literacy tasks designed for extended discussion offer students speaking and listening opportunities as they form opinions, furnish evidence, and state claims. Well-known methods for doing so involve debate and Socratic seminars, such as discussing a current news event in social studies or examining a series of opinion articles from various viewpoints about artificial intelligence tools. Techniques like these can be motivating for students because they foster dialogue in the classroom. At the unit level, essential questions provide an organizational structure that allows students to explore a topic (McTighe & Wiggins, 2013).

Mathematical discourse is full of the kinds of cognitively challenging tasks that move students from a narrow view of procedures (e.g., applying a formula or using order of operations) to a broader view of how to use flexible thinking to solve problems that are rich in their complexity and conceptual demands. Such methods of flexible problem solving may require students to work with a rich mathematical task that provides insufficient information or includes irrelevant information that might potentially lead students in the wrong direction. Number talks that require students to publicly explain and justify their approach to a problem allow students to engage in critical thinking while exploring various routes to solving a problem.

Every subject builds knowledge using reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. But only by ensuring that literacy tasks are well designed to provoke critical thinking can we realize the full potential of leveraging literacy across the curriculum.

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Transforming Literacy Tasks to Deepen Learning

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Four ways to design literacy tasks-in all subject areas-that prompt students to think, not just replicate.

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Taking a Closer Look at Spelling Errors: How a Spelling Assessment Can Inform Your Instruction

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Giving your students a spelling inventory can be a useful tool to plan instruction. What can this spelling assessment tell you?

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Fidelity to a Program Requires Teachers Who Can Adapt

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Fidelity to a Program Requires Teachers Who Can Adapt

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Fidelity to a Program Requires Teachers Who Can Adapt

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By making informed instructional decisions, teachers can maintain fidelity to their curriculum while supporting and engaging their students.

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This post contains affiliate links. As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases.
Are you teaching young children to read using fiction and nonfiction readers?

If so, it's imperative that your learners get lots of practice with decodable text ... text with words they can sound out and not guess using the pictures.

A decodable text allows readers to practice the phonics skills they have already been taught.

In the past, I really resisted decodable readers.

I was sure they made no sense, would kill a love for reading, and got in the way of comprehension.

The fact is that there ARE some bad decodable books out there. But good ones are being created and shared all the time.

It's tricky to find nonfiction readers that kids can sound out ... so I've started creating very simple nonfiction decodable books for new readers.

I hope you'll add my nonfiction decodable books to your list of favorites!

How to get the printable books

When you click on a book, you'll be prompted to enter your email address to get the book sent to your email. You'll have the opportunity to purchase the accompanying resources ... take advantage of the special offer or skip it!

What's included in the full set?

The free books below are all you truly need to get started. But you'll be blown away by the supplementary materials, as pictured below.

When you purchase a complete set nonfiction books with accompanying resources, you will receive:

Each book in four different printing formats (includes two black and white versions)

A single-page lesson plan for each book with introductory activities and tips for reading the book with students

Word Ladders that focus on sound-spelling correspondences for the target phonics skill

A Roll & Read activity for building fluency

A sentence writing activity for promoting comprehension by having students write about what they read

Each book on a single page; use for partner reading and assessment at the end of the week!

Get the complete sets here!

Members of Reach All Readers Plus have access to all the books AND accompanying resources at no additional cost ... members can find the books in the membership here.

Set 1a: CVC Words

Set 1b: Blends and Digraphs

Set 2a: CVCE Words

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If you're looking for decodable books for young readers, you'll love this collection of free decodable nonfiction readers! Build confidence with these engaging books!

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This post contains affiliate links. As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases.
Are you looking for free decodable books to use with your learners in the classroom or at home?

You're in the right spot!

My experience with decodable books

I admit it. As a first grade teacher, I was in the anti-decodable books camp.

A big reason for that had to do with my misunderstanding of how children learn to read. I thought kids should use three-cueing as they read leveled books.

Now, however, I understand that students need to read decodable text so they get practice applying the phonics skills we've taught them.

Another reason I was anti-decodable was that I was less than impressed with the decodable books in the market. At the time (*ahem years ago), most decodable books were boring, stilted, and not something kids would want to read again and again.

Times have changed, and now you can choose from a huge variety of quality, decodable books.

I'm adding my free decodable books to the mix because I want everyone to have access to quality decodables, regardless of their budget.

At the end of this post, you'll find the foldable, color version of each book for FREE when you join my free newsletter.

What about comprehension and decodable text?

Another reason I used to be anti-decodable was that I thought kids would read them sooo sloowwwly they wouldn't be able to comprehend the text. (Either that, or the text was so stilted they wouldn't be able to comprehend it no matter how fast they read it!)

It turns out that I was partly right.

When you understand the Simple View of Reading, you know that reading comprehension is the product of decoding ability AND language comprehension. Students must become proficient decoders and understand the language to become fluent. Fluency is the bridge between phonics and comprehension.

When kids are first learning to read, decoding takes a lot of mental energy. As students become more fluent, their brains are freed up for comprehension.
But that doesn't mean that students shouldn't make sense of the decodable text that they read!
I hired a custom illustrator for these books because I wanted the full story to be available through the pictures. (After all, an author can only include so many words when kids only know six letter sounds.)

Don't get me wrong - students don't need the pictures to read these books - but the pictures themselves provide opportunities for predicting, questioning, inferring, and other higher level skills.

Each book comes with a set of low and high level comprehension questions on the final page.

Just check out this flip book to see the first book in action!

What's included in the full set?

The free books below are all you truly need to get started. But you'll be blown away by the supplementary materials, as pictured below.

When you purchase the complete set of level 1 books with accompanying resources, you will receive:

Each book in multiple printing formats (each includes black and white)

A single-page lesson plan for each book with introductory activities and tips for reading the book with students

Blending lines that give decoding practice before reading

A cut-and-paste retelling activity so students can retell the story using the pictures

A dictation exercise so students connect letter-sound knowledge to spelling

Each book on a single page with just one picture; use for partner reading and assessment at the end of the week!

Set 1a: Consonants, Short Vowels & Digraphs

Click on each book to get it for free! You'll see a pop-up to enter your name and email address so the book comes right to your inbox.

You'll also see a special offer to get the full set with supplementary materials (as described above).

P.S. Some people would rather not enter their email address for each book. We have a solution for that!

Don't want to enter your email address for each book? Purchase here!

Set 1b: FLOSS Rule, Blends, ng/nk, and more!

Click on each book to get it for free! You'll see a pop-up to enter your name and email address so the book comes right to your inbox.

You'll also see a special offer to get the full set with supplementary materials (as described above).

P.S. Some people would rather not enter their email address for each book. We have a solution for that!

Don't want to enter your email address for each book? Purchase here!

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Get a set of FREE decodable books that teach short vowels and simple digraphs! These are perfect for beginning readers!

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Free Decodable Story Generator for the Science of Reading · Project Read

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Generate a decodable story compatible with any Science of Reading-based phonics curriculum for free. Download a student-friendly PDF in seconds.

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By cultivating metacognitive reading habits, you can help students remain focused as they persist through challenging material.

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Layers of Vocabulary Learning: A Slice of Effective Vocabulary Instruction

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Discover effective vocabulary instruction with 4 proven strategies that help engage students in word learning and enhance comprehension.

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The Science of Reading Comprehension-Duke

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The Science of Reading Comprehension-Duke

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Is Comprehension Better with Digital Text?

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Is Comprehension Better with Digital Text?

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Is Comprehension Better with Digital Text? | Shanahan on Literacy

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Ths blog explores how well readers read digital text. Overwhelmingly, the studies show that digital text is harder to read than paper text. But what does the research have to say about teaching reading with digital text?

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The Key to Improving Working Memory and Dyslexia - Smart & Special Teaching

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Working Memory and Dyslexia are connected. Find Tips and resources to help improve struggling readers’ ability to improve working memory and phonemic awareness

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Successive blending is a great instructional strategy to use in the early stages of reading instruction, particularly for those who have difficulty blending sounds to read words. This technique helps students gradually combine individual phonemes or sounds in a word to build fluency, accuracy, and confidence in reading.

What Is Successive Blending?

Successive blending is a phonics strategy that teaches students to read words by blending one sound at a time in sequence. Instead of trying to blend all the sounds of a word at once, the child focuses on one sound, blends it with the next, and continues until they reach the end of the word. This gradual process allows students to build confidence as they progress through the word, making blending less overwhelming.

How Does Successive Blending Work?

Here's an example of how it works with the word "sat":

Identify the first two sounds: Your student starts by saying the first two sounds.

Blending the first two sounds: Next, your student blends the first two sounds together. For example, if the word is "sat," they blend /s/ and /a/ to say "sa."

Add the Next Sound: Repeat the first two sounds together ("sa") and then say the last sound. I recommend stretching the vowel sound. For example, "saaaaaa.....t"

Say the whole word: "sat".

This method helps students focus on one sound at a time, reducing cognitive load and making the task of blending less overwhelming, especially for beginning readers.

Click here for a video of me explaining this strategy along with another strategy.

Who Needs This Blending Strategy

Not everyone will need to apply this strategy to blend words successfully. I use it for students who are having difficulty with phoneme blending. Students may know the sounds that each letter makes, but when they go to blend the sounds, it is difficult to do so. So they might say the sounds /s/ /a/ /t/, but then they may say "at" or "sand" or even "tap".
Why Successive Blending Works
I also use this strategy if students are struggling to remember letter sounds. If they take a long time to recall each sound, then by the time they get to the third sound, they've lost the first two sounds. By blending the first two sounds, it makes it so that they only have to remember one bigger chunk of sounds as opposed to two different sounds.

Breaks down the task: Many early readers struggle with blending sounds, especially when blending an entire word. By breaking it down into manageable steps, students experience success more quickly and build confidence in their reading ability.

Reinforces phonemic awareness: Successive blending helps students become more aware of individual sounds in words, a crucial skill for both decoding (reading) and encoding (spelling).

Improves fluency: As students practice successive blending, they become more fluent at recognizing sound patterns and blending them automatically, which is key for reading speed and comprehension.

Scaffolded Learning: The strategy provides a natural scaffold. As I mentioned, I don't use this strategy with every student, but it sure is effective with those who need it!

Successive blending is effective because it:

Fun ways to practice Successive Blending

There are many ways to use this strategy. When I first introduce it, it is easiest to use letter tiles like these. I always have letter tiles on my magnetic white board so they are easy to access. I start by pulling down two tiles. I'll model blending those sounds then I'll move one more tile to finish the word. Then, I'll take that tile away and we'll repeat the first two sounds. Next, I'll replace it with another letter (as shown below).

Using a library pocket

I also like to use library pockets to practice slowly revealing the letters. Ahead of time, write words on a note card. One by one, put them in the library pockets . Slowly pull the word out, revealing one letter at a time. Say the sound as you see the letter. You can also make this a center or partner activity. Have a stack words pre-written and your students can put the cards in and practice successive blending.

Click here for a video explanation.

Using a pocket chart

Here is a way to practice this with a small group who needs this strategy to help them decode. Start at the top. Tap each sound and blend those sounds. (/s/ /a/..../sa/). Have your students repeat that as you flip over the card. Instruct them to say the sound as you flip it over.

Digital Options

I love using Google Slides to practice successive blending. This can used for independent practice or you can project it to be used with a larger group. Each slide adds a new sound.

You can find these slides here.

Gamify it

Adding dice or spinners to an activity is a fun alternative. This free resource is a simple way to practice successive blending and you can use it repeatedly because you will likely get different words each time. Start at the beginning. Blend the first two sounds. Then, roll the die. Repeat the first sounds you just said and add on the last sound. If it makes a real word, write hte letter you rolled in the gray space. If not, roll again. Find this free resource here.

And then again, you could also just fold a notecard!

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Phonics Intervention Automaticity and Fluency with Phonics Phonics Assessments
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Orthographic Dyslexia: Is It Always Phonological Awareness? – Dyslexia Training Institute

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When you hear someone say silent e words, do you automatically think of words where the silent e makes the first vowel say it's name? Did you know that silent e does so more than that? I did not know there were so many jobs of the silent e when I started teaching. In fact, I didn't know this even after teaching ten years! When I started learning some of the "secrets" to our language, I had so many aha moments. I call them secrets because it feels like they are secrets sometimes. Why aren't these rules taught to all teachers in education programs? Why wasn't I taught this? That mystery I cannot solve, but I can shed a little light on the other jobs of silent e.

Before I get into the many jobs of the silent e, I want to talk about how I introduce the concept of the silent e, focusing on the silent e's most common job: Making the first vowel make it's long sound (or "say it's name").

Introducing Silent e Words

I used to introduce this concept by starting with a CVC word and then adding the silent e. After reading more about the orthographic mapping theory, I now buy into the idea that we should start with the familiar pronunciation first, then break it down and show how the letters match up. For the "silent e", this is actually super helpful for building conceptual understanding.
This is the procedure I use for introducing silent e words:

1. Say a familiar word and have them break it down the same way they have been taught with other words.
For example, you may want to start with the familiar word, "like".

2. Students will count three sounds, so you will draw three sound boxes.

3. After filling in each box, you can then go back and point out that the vowel is making its long sound (or "saying its name").

4. Tell them that there are different ways to make a vowel say its name, but one common way is with the silent (or super or magic) e.

5. Show students how the e goes outside the box because it does not make a sound. Instead it has a job to do.

6. Repeat with other words. (Another example below)

Here we are connecting the sounds to the symbol (letter).

After that, I move from encoding (spelling) to decoding (reading) silent e words. I want my students to get used to seeing that VCe pattern because that is when the vowel will say its name.

Reading (Decoding) Silent e Words

You can find colored letter tiles for explicit phonics instruction here. They are free and now include a digital Google Slides option.

Below is another way to teach silent e words:

A common problem for students when they are first learning to read silent e words is forgetting to use the long vowel sound for the first vowel. The activity shown below is an idea that has helped some of my students in the past.

Mapping Silent e Word Parts

Just like I map word parts for CVC words, I want to spend some time mapping word parts with the silent e. Below are some ways that I did that. ( Read a blog post more in depth about orthographic mapping.)

Other Ways to Practice Silent e Words

Now that you've seen how I introduce the silent e, let's get into the many other jobs that silent e has.

The Jobs of the Silent e

Silent e Job #1: Silent e makes the vowel before it say its name.

This one is the classic job that we all know and love that I talked about above. When you see the pattern VCe (Vowel-Consonant-e), then usually the magic/super e will make the vowel say its long sound.

Silent e Job #2: E makes C says /s/ and G say /j/

This rule explained so much for me! The slide below explains how I introduce this concept and shows some great word and picture sorts. For that first sort with /s/ and /k/, I would also bring in some ck words so students can see -ce, -ke, and -ck together. They will learn that when there is a silent e, you never use c for the /k/ sound because -ce says /s/. (Click here for -ck resources.)

This is also a good time to teach -dge vs. -ge. Students will learn that English words do not end in J, so when we hear /j/ at the end, use -ge. If a short vowel comes before /j/, use -dge.

Silent e Job # 3: English Words Should Not End in the Letter V

Another job of silent e is to make sure words do not end in the letter v. That solves the mystery of the high frequency words have and give. They are not "rule breakers" at all! They are rule followers actually!

Side note: Actually this rule applies to z, i, and u also. Words are not supposed to end in these letters. That's why snooze, ooze, sneaze, breeze, pie, and blue have an e after it. I'll be honest, the i confuses me because isn't that what y is for? I can't elaborate on that one, but supposedly that is the rule. If you can shed light on that, I'm all ears! I do not teach those rules at this time though. I stick to just the -ve at this time. Later when we come across the few words that end in -ze I'll tell them the rule. There aren't many for a while so I let it go for now. I don't want to overload! (I end up just teaching ie and ue as graphemes to learn which solves that. )

Silent e Job #4: Adding e to words that end in the letter s.

This one is sort of confusing. Have you ever wondered why the word house and horse have an e at the end? Well, it's because usually when the letter -s is at the end of a word, it is a suffix. Other times, you'll see it doubled due to the Floss Rule ( hiss, pass, miss). The e is added after words that end in -s so that the reader will know it is not meant to be plural. Some examples are below. Exceptions are smaller high-frequency words like has, his, is, as, us. I know there are more exceptions that I can't think of !

Silent e Job #5: Add e to make sure every syllable has a vowel

One of the rules in our language is that every syllable must have a vowel. In the case of the syllable-type Consonant -le, the e is there so that the syllable is legit. It needs a vowel, so e is comes to the rescue again. Click here for information about syllable types.

Silent e Job #6: Adding e after -th gives th its voiced sound

I don't know a lot about this rule and I don't use it often either. When silent e comes after the grapheme th, the th makes its voiced sound (bathe, teethe, clothe vs. bath, teeth, and cloth).

Silent e Job # 7: Other jobs

Silent e is also used to help distingue the meaning of two words, like bye and by. Then there are unknowns like come and are. If you know why those are there, I'd love to hear why!

Reviewing the Jobs of Silent e

Here are a couple of activities you can do with a small group to review these jobs.

Incorporating Morphology

When you're teaching the silent e, it's essential you also practice adding suffixes to those base words! It can be tricky for a couple reasons:

When you add the suffix -s, kids have a hard time seeing that silent e. They are so used to looking for it at the end of the word and when you add the suffix -s, it's sort of hidden. Provide practice reading words with the suffix -s, where students practice finding that VCe pattern.

Before adding vowel suffixes like -ed and -ing, you need to drop the e. Again, kids need to practice reading and spelling these words so they get used to identifying words that have the long vowel.

Below are some suggested activities.

Silent e Resources

I just finished a new Systematic Phonics unit all about the silent e! This unit is basically a recap of this blog post, but in more detail. It also has posters, some printable activities, and a word sort. Click here for this Silent e unit.

You can find this here.

Supplemental Resources for more practice

Over the years I've created tons of other resources because my students needed them. It takes most students a bit of practice before they master the silent e, but for my students with dyslexia, it can take quite a while! I wanted to give them a variety of activities that vary with level of difficulty.

Click on the slides to get to these resources.

You can find these here.

You can find this here.

This resource is similar to the workbook pages found in my new Systematic Phonics Unit 3, but there is just a lot more! The workbook pages in the systematic unit should be sufficient for your "average" student. This intervention set is geared toward those students who need more practice. This set is packed with variety of activities that you can use in small group setting, independent practice, and homework.

I hope you've found some helpful snippets here! Below is a printable resource that you can grab by signing up for my email list.

Storage

This is how I store my resources. I love these bins!

Click the affiliate link below to snag these bins!

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The Jobs of Silent e - Sarah's Teaching Snippets

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Learn how to teach silent e words through explicit phonics instruction. Use orthographic mapping, connecting sound to symbol. Learn about the many jobs of the silent e!

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As you know, teaching sound-symbol associations, spelling patterns, and syllable constructions is essential for reading success. When I first got into what we call The Science of Reading, my main focus was integrating more phonics. Then, I started learning a bit about morphology and over the years I have been figuring out how to put it all together. I am now totally convinced that we need to teach morphology to our beginning readers early and often. If you haven't already, please check out my first post about morphology. This will give you a little background before you jump into how to teach morphology.

You can start teaching morphology as early as kindergarten. You can do this orally at first and then by introducing common inflectional suffixes (like -s and -ed) after they have become proficient with decoding CVC words.

Teaching Morphology: Introducing the Concept Orally

To begin teaching morphology, the first term I introduce is "base word". Believe it or not, I teach this in kindergarten! Here is a script you could use to introduce the concept of a morpheme using kid-friendly language.

You can then follow up by listening for word parts in your normal day: During calendar time, when a student announces the weather as "rainy", you can ask what they think the base word is. You can give prompts like, "It is raining" outside right now. Yesterday, it also rained. Will it rain tomorrow?" Use the hand motions (the fist and the two fingers) as visuals.

Teaching Morphemes in Written Language: Begin with Suffixes

I integrate morphology instruction right off the bat while students are reading CVC words. The easiest way to do this is with suffix -s. Kids understand the concept of plural, even if they don't know that exact term.

Begin introducing suffix -s orally.

Show one book and ask, "What is this?"

The students would then say, " a book".

Say, "Yes, this a book. Book is the base word." (Hold out your fist.)

Grab a few more books and ask, "Now what do I have?" Students would reply "books".

Then, bring their attention to what sound was added to the word "book". After identifying the sound /s/ was added, point out that that little sound tells the listener that there is more than one book.

Hold out your fist and say, "book is our base word. When I add the sound /s/, it becomes more than one book." Repeat the word book holding your fist, then add to two fingers to the fist as you say /s/.

To hear a longer explanation, click here (or on the picture below) for a video I made.

Teaching Suffixes: Connect to print

Ask your students: "What letter represents the sound that we added?"

The letter <s> can be used to show more than one when it is added to a base word.

When it is added to a base word, it is not just a letter. It is a word part called a suffix! There are many suffixes.

A suffix is not a word by itself. It is added to a word to slightly change its meaning.

Using colored letter tiles, build the word "cat". Read the word together.

Ask, "What do you picture when you say this word?" (one cat)

Add a purple tile with an -s. Read the word together. "What is the word now?" (cats) "What do you picture?" (More than one cat).

Point out that the suffix -s is a different color tile than just the letter <s>. Explain that you did that because it is not just the letter <s> that represents the sound /s/. It is also a suffix, that carries meaning.

Rewrite the word and ask, "What is the base word?" Underline "cat" to show the base word. Circle the suffix.

The goal here is to help kids become consciously aware of base words and suffixes that they are already using in their everyday speaking.

If you are interested in a detailed lesson and materials to teach suffix -s and -es, check out my morphology units.

Teaching Suffixes -es, -ed, and -ing

I teach suffix -es after I teach digraphs. Suffix -es is used in place of suffix -s when the base word ends with the following sounds: /s/, /z/, /ch/, and /sh/ so I teach my students that when a word ends with s, z, ch, sh, or x, then we use suffix -es in place of suffix -s. (Words that end with <dge> or <ge> also use suffix -es, but I teach that later with silent e.) To see two short video s explaining how I introduce suffix -es, click on the images below.

To give students practice with when to use suffix -s and when to use suffix -es, I do this activity. This activity is sold in my store or you can easily recreate it using note cards. Click on the picture below to watch a video about this activity.

I also continually have my students unline base words and circle suffixes. This particular page is used when I teach suffix -es. You can find it here.

Suffix -ed

After suffix -es, I teach suffix -ed and -ing after teaching consonant blends. (For my full sequence, click here.)

The suffix -ed is fun to teach because it has three pronunciations: /d/, /t/, and /id/. It is helpful to explicitly point this out to our students. Always start by explaining the meaning of the suffix. In this case, -ed shows that something happened in the past. Explain to your students that when we want to say that something already happened a second ago, hours ago, days ago, or a million years ago, we use the suffix -ed. When we're talking we use three different sounds to express this. I use this activity to teach this concept:

To do this activity: Say a word that has -ed. Listen for the ending. Sort the words based on the sound that the -ed makes. Practice identifying the base word.

There is an explanation for when to use each sound. I think it's a bit of a cognitive overload to ask kids to remember it (I can't even remember most of the time). However, if they ask I explain that:

/id/: Used when the base ends with /t/ or /d/

/t/: Used when the base ends with an unvoiced sound.

/d/: Used when the base ends with a voiced sound.

Again, I do not try to drill that info into my students' heads because it is too much to remember and I find that kids are great at being flexible with adjusting the sounds of -ed when they think about the meaning of whatever word you are using. I only explain that if there is a curious student. Students whose first language is not English will need more guidance with figuring out which sound to use so I just supply the correct sound when needed. I don't ask them to guess which is correct.

Teaching Morphology: Spelling with Suffixes

To help with decoding and spelling, I explain to my students that when we see or hear a suffix at the end of a word, it is helpful to read or spell the base word first, then add on the suffix. For example, when we see the word "bugs" on a page, we would cover the <s> and decode "bug" first. Then we simply add on the suffix -s sound. (I do go into the two sounds of suffix -s, /s/ and /z/ as well. I find that kids have no trouble at all quickly switching back and forth between the two as needed.)

When spelling words, it is even more important to encode the base word first, then add on the suffix. I also often have them underline the base and circle the suffix. They catch on surprisingly quickly!

In fact, when I'm working with sound boxes/phoneme-grapheme mapping, I only have them use the boxes for the base word. The suffix is always outside of the boxes. Here is why: Morphemes don't necessarily match up to pronunciation. You see it right away with suffix -ed making three sounds (/d/, /t/, and /id/). You also sometimes don't hear all of the sounds of the base word. Think about the word "bats". Kids often hear "bas" without the <t>. If they learn to identify the base word first, they can hear the whole word, spell it, and then add on the suffix -s. I want to drill this in early so I never have suffixes in sound boxes. I created an alternative spelling board to reinforce this. You can find this free spelling board here.

Teaching Morphology in Context

I like to weave in morphology instruction with my phonics instruction. I want to give my students ample opportunities to practice decoding connected text. Here are some examples of how you can integrate teach morphology while working on phonics.

Teaching Suffix -s Within in a Sentence

As you know, the suffix -s has two jobs: It makes a noun plural and it also is added to verbs to show. To illustrate this, I like to use this activity:

I move the suffix -s around to show how the sentence changes. It also shows students when a verb uses suffix -s and when it does not. This is a simple way of introducing grammatical structures in a sentence. This activity is done with kindergarten students. It uses the most basic sentences, but there is a lot of learning happening here!

Here is another way to do that same activity. Click here for a video explanation.

With a Suffix Search, students practice decoding and morphology. This page is part of my Suffix -s and -es pack, but I am also sharing this page with you for free! Click here to grab this free page.

Choosing the Correct Suffix

Another activity I like to do is choosing the correct suffix in a sentence. This activity can be done once you have taught -s, -es, -ed, and -ing.

Write sentences on chart paper. I like the make the sentences decodable, so students can practice decoding words with whatever grapheme of syllable type we are working on.

Leave out the suffixes from the verbs.

Write those same suffixes on sticky notes.

Students will read the sentence and choose the sticky note with the correct suffix.

In the picture above, we are working on silent e words. I left out the inflectional suffixes. This activity requires two steps:

1. They first have to choose the correct suffix based on the grammatical structure of the sentence.

2. They have to figure out whether or not to use the Dropping Rule. The Dropping Rule states that when a word ends with silent e, you must drop that e before adding vowel suffixes. So, in this case, they will use the sticky note to cover the e before adding -ing or -ed, but they will not cover the e when adding -s.

Introducing Prefixes

I don't teach prefixes as early as suffixes, but it can still be taught in the primary grades. I think second grade is a great time to introduce prefixes. In first grade, you will come across them in texts and I will use common and simple prefixes like "un" or "re" in word matrices (see below), but I don't usually explicitly teach until second grade.

I don't necessarily just begin with the most common prefixes. I start with the prefixes with a clear and obvious meaning and that can attach to single syllable base words. This can be tricky because most prefixes attach to root words, which isn't as straitforward for our younger learners. The prefix re- is a great one to start with becuase it has a consistent and easy-to-understand meanign (again) and it can be attached to several one-syllable base words. The others that can be introduced early are un-, dis-, pre-, and mis-. I find myself moving my prefix instruction up in my sequence a little each year. You see, I'm still experimenting with teaching morphology!

A simple activity that requires no prep is to write a bunch of base words on the board. Together read those words and connect to meaning by defining them or using them in a sentence. Next, write the prefix on the board. Combine that prefix with each base word. Write the new word. Discuss how the meaning changed (reheat means heat again) and use the new word in a sentence.

You can also make a simple word web. Have your students brainstorm words with re-. They don't need to be able to read or spell these words necessarily. It can be an oral activity where you write the words in the web. For each word, make sure to identify the prefix and base word and how the prefix's meaning affects the base word.

Other Ways to Showcase Morphemes

As much as possible, I want to show students how morphemes go together to make words. Once you have taught a few suffixes, you can start to show students how they all work together.

Mix and Match Base Words and Suffixes

This is an activity I like to do with first and second-grade students.

Write some base words that your students can decode on note cards. Place them in a pocket chart. Write the suffixes you have introduced. Early in first grade, I have introduced -s, -ed, -es, and -ing. Choose one base word at a time. Match the base word with each suffix. Decide which suffixes work with that base. For example, suffix -es does not go with "help" (you would use suffix -s), but it does go with "wish" (so you would turn over suffix -s since it doesn't work). Have students write a word sum on their whiteboards, as shown in that picture. (The idea of a word sum comes from Pete Bowers.) Use each word in a sentence with the different endings. Reinforce the terms base word and suffix.

Go on a Word Hunt for Suffixes

Most texts are filled with suffixes. A simple activity to do after teaching suffixes is to have your students go on a suffix search after reading a text. Again, this is weaving morphology instruction into your regular phonics lessons.

The phonics focus is vowel teams that spell long a. As you can see, there are plenty of words with familar suffixes. This activity just helps students take a moment to be conscious of them. There is also an opporunity to review another suffix rule. The 1:1:1 Doubling Rule states that you will double the final consonant before adding vowel suffixes if a short vowel comes before that consonant. It's called the 1:1:1 Rule because it must be a one syllable word with one vowel followed by one consonant. This formula tells the speller to double that consonant. Here, the word is already spelled for them, but they have to go backward and remember that the base word only has one of the consonants.

To get this free resource, click here.

This book is from PhonicsBooks.

Expand a Word

This is a fun way to show students how many different words you can make with the same base word. This will set the groundwork for later when they start looking at root words and all the different words you can make by adding different prefixes and suffixes. Mix and match different prefixes and suffixes to build new words. Discuss how the meaning changes.

Introducing Word Matrices

A great tool for teaching morphology is using a Word Matrix. As far as I know, Pete Bowers created the concept. It's brilliant! In my next post I will go more deeply into word matrices, but for now I want to show you how you can make a simple word matrix with our younger students.

The base word "hope" is a word students are able to decode in first grade (some in kindergarten). I teach silent e in first grade so this is when I would use this. Explain to your students that with a word matrix, the base (or root) goes in the middle. On the left, we will put any prefixes that go with that base word. On the right, we'll put any suffixes that go with that base word. It's always easiest start with the suffixes that the learn early on: -s, -ed, -ing. We would then brainstorm other words with "hope" in it. You can guide them by saying something like, "How do you feel when you are full of hope?"

The word matrix shows the morphemes that can be combined to make new words. A word sum (shown on the right) shows how to compbine those morphemes to spell the word correctly. This is where some suffix rules may or may not come into play. Notice how I slashed through the silent e before adding vowel suffixes. That shows the Dropping Rule.

Although at some point I will want to explicitly teach each suffix and prefix, I don't necessariy need to do so before using them in a word matrix. After all, our studnets are using these morphoemes every day in their own speech. For exmaple, to get to the word "hopefully", I'll show my students that we need to add two suffixes: -ful and -ly. I'll tell that that later we will explore those suffixes more, but for now I will just tell them that -ful means "full of" and -ly shows how something is done. I am laying some the groundwork here! What I notice is that by the time I get to some of the more complex morphemes (like -ion), my students have seen it over and over already and are primed to learn more about it!

To see a video about making this matrix for hope, click here.

To watch a video about making a word matrix for " luck", click here.

To watch a video about making a word matrix for " help", click here.

To watch a video about making a wrod matrix for " play", click here.

Stay tuned for my next blog post about teaching morphology in the intermediate grade. There, I will get into more complex word matrices!

To see all of my morphology resources, click here.

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Teaching Morphology to Beginning Readers - Sarah's Teaching Snippets

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Teaching morphology in the primary grades can set up our students for success. you can introduce morphology by teaching suffixes right away.

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Good morning! Today I'm excited to write about the most common vowel sound that I never knew even existed. That's right, I got through high school, college, grad school, and several years of teaching and I had never heard of the schwa! I figured I'm probably not alone, so I wanted to take some time to blog about this.

*Disclaimer* I am not a linguist, although I wish I was! I am not claiming to be an expert, just trying to share what I have learned and how I teach this to my students to help them understand our tricky language. I admittedly struggle with expressive language, spelling uncommon words from memory, and grammar. For that reason, I'm sure you will find grammatical errors in all of my posts! I'm just a teacher who loves to learn and wants to understand all of this. If you read something that is within your expertise (or even just an opinion) that you disagree with, please feel free to call me out on it. I consider that a learning opportunity and welcome open, respectful dialogue.

What is the Schwa?

First of all, what the heck is the schwa? Well, think of all those moments when a reader is attempting to sound out a word and they do it perfectly. They say the correct sounds and blend it together perfectly. But wait, they say the wrong word because one of those vowels sounds isn't quite making the sound it's supposed to make.

The schwa is a sound that is represented by all of the vowels.

It makes the /uh/ sound, but lazier and not as pronounced.
I would also argue it sometimes sounds like /i/ depending on how you pronounce words. I actually pronounce wagon like wagin, not wagun.

The schwa sound happens in the syllable that we are not fully pronouncing. This is called the unaccented syllable.

We always pronounce one syllable more that the others (more about that in a sec), so that leaves the other syllable(s) to not have as much emphasis.

Because of this, our mouths naturally take the lazy route, which is usually the /uh/ sound. Think of how little you have to move your mouth to make that sound.

Try saying this sentence enunciating every syllable, using the proper vowel sounds: The camel is pulling seven robins in an orange wagon. See what I mean? It sounds like a robot is talking. Now say it normally and try to focus on the vowel sounds that are sort of dropped or making the /uh/ sound. It probably sounds like this: The caml is pulln sevun robns in n orunge wagun.

One example I can think of that recently came up when I was teaching syllable division rules with 2-syllable words was pilot. Students are always stumped on that one because they are sounding out pi-lot with emphasis on the lot. I would say, "yes, but say it faster!" They would say pilOt again. I capitalize the O in that so you can hear how they are saying it. Some words, like wagon are easier to adjust. They may sound out wag-on, but then they usually can make that transition naturally. "Oh, wagun!" This isn't the case with pilot usually. So I would tell them how we pronounce it and I would always see confused looks. There are so many words like wagon that are easier to figure out and fix naturally but there are also a lot of words that are not as intuitive, like pilot. I would say the more a student struggles with reading, the harder it is to make those adjustments. I will get into more about the schwa and why it happens.

The Unaccented (Unstressed) Syllable

So now a little bit more about where we find the schwa: The unstressed or unaccented syllable of a word.

The schwa is found in the unaccented syllable of a word. Like I said, we only stress one syllable. That leaves the other(s) to not be as enunciated. I think these two words are super helpful in understanding that: CONtent and conTENT.

Say these two words in the sentences to hear how the stress changes. With the first example, That is good content, the stress is in the first syllable. We say con a little longer, louder, and even higher pitched. In the second sentence, I am content sitting here, we stress the 2nd syllable tent and sort of mumble con. There happens to be a scha in the con in this usage. Do you hear it? With our mumbling, we end up pronouncing it cun. Notice there is not a schwa in con in the 1st example.

Why do we have Unstressed Syllables?

Here is a little more about the accented/unaccented syllables:

English is stress-timed as opposed to a syllable-timed language.

In a syllable-timed language, every syllable takes about the same amount of time to say.

The syllables are about the same length.

Spanish and French are syllable-time languages.

In stress-timed languages, one syllable is longer. It sounds awkward otherwise!

Even within a sentence, not all words are stressed. Usually the content words are stressed and pop out in conversation. The function words usually get minimized (for becomes fr, and becomes n, etc.)

This website has a super helpful video that explains it well and gives examples so you can better understand the concept of a stress-timed language.

How to Identify the Schwa

Now that you know what it is and where you may find it, let's talk about some common places where you may find it. The tricky thing about the schwa is that there is no way to know exactly where it will be when you are reading. Students have to sort of sound out the word normally then make the adjustment to the schwa sound. This can be so tricky! So truly, my first tip is not the best around, but this has been the best solution so far with my students.

Tip #1 for Identifying the Schwa

I teach my students to decode the word as they normally would. If the word doesn't sound like one they know, try to substitute the /uh/ schwa sound in one of the vowels first. The schwa is more often in the 2nd syllabl e so I always encourage them to try that first.

For example, when they sound out bay-cOn, they can try substitute the /o/ for /u/ and say bay-cun.

I wish I had a tip that would work every time and make it easier, but... I do believe this is when context is so important. I always want my students to use their phonics and morphology knowledge but context is super helpful with the schwa. If you are reading the word bacon in a sentence, you're much more likely to self correct bacOn to bacun if it has words around it that provide context.

Tip #2 for Identifying the Schwa

This next one is one that I can say is almost always true. I say almost always because I can't think of a case when it doesn't work, but I know one of you will find one! There are always exceptions, right? Here's a cool tip for you that you may or may not know. English words should not end in u. Are there a few exceptions? Sure. But those are just that: exceptions!

Since English words should not end in u, then we know that when we hear /uh/ (short u sound) at the end of words, there has got to be a substitute. You probably are already thinking of long u subs (ue, ew, etc.). For the short u sound, we usually use the letter <a>. Since <a> is a substitute for the short u sound at the end of words, then we know that if we see an <a> at the end of words, then it likely will make the /uh/ sound. And yep, it's usually a schwa.

(This is always fun to teach because it explains why the letters <ay> usually makes the long a sound at the end of words. It's not just an open syllable a! It needs that y after it if it finishes a base word. Keep in mind that you can have an open A syllable without a y, just not a word. I digress, but I think it's important to note. In the word ba-sic, the <a> says its name on its own because it is an open syllable. However, if I want to write the word bay, I need that <ay> combo because it's the end of a word. Sorry for my huge veer off the road of this post but I think it's all relevant!)

Aaaaaaanywaaaay... this is one easy schwa tip that actually works (sofa, comma, panda are some examples).

Tip #3 for Identifying the Schwa

Here's another tip, but it's a bit trickier. Think about all of those high-frequency words like ago, again, away, about, around, across and how annoying it is that the <a> doesn't make its normal sounds. Do you have a lightbulb moment? Yep, all schwas! So technically, they are not rule breakers right? They are just schwas! Let's see if I can explain this correctly. When a word begins with the letter <a> and it is an OPEN syllable on its own (meaning its the only letter in the syllable), then it is usually a schwa (although I already thought of acorn as an exception).

Tip #4 for Identifying the Schwa

Here's another one that is always a schwa (as far as I know). At the end of words when there is a vowel then the letter <l>, that combo usually makes this sound: /ul/. I think this one is a little more natural to fix once you've tried sounding out words that end in <l>. So you can now tell your students that if it ends with a vowel then an <l>, that vowel will be a schwa and you say /ul/. Make sure you specify that it is at the end of words, because anywhere else in the word, all bets are off. LOL!

Tip #4 for Identifying the Schwa

This last one is not a rule or anything, but just a consistent pattern that you'll see when you start looking out for the schwa. Often the schwa comes before the letter -n. It's often an A or an O. (In fact it seems like a and o in general have more obvious schwas than the others). So if you see a word that ends with a vowel then n, that might be a good place to start looking for the schwa. When students are sounding out words, if they know that is a common place that the schwa might be, they can get used to quickly substituting the regular vowel sound for the schwa sound if they get stuck.

Here are all of those tips together:

(NOTE: I probably should put usually instead of always because the only always that is for sure is that there are always exceptions!)

Spelling the Schwa

Now spelling the schwa is a bit of a nightmare. There seems to be no real way to figure it out unless you just know which letter to use. Thank you spell check and dictionaries! That is a frustrating answer for our students who want the answers. It's true though. Can you think of any way to figuring out the o in wagon just from "sounding it out"? No! You have to sound out the sounds you hear and learn that o is there from seeing it a few times. If your memory can't hold all of those, that's where spell checkers are key.

And here is where I go on my soapbox about spell checkers being a great accommodation for our dyslexic learners. There are clearly so many words that need to be spell checked. We can equip our students with tools to come close to accurate spelling with phonics instruction and morphology instruction. But they will still get stumped. With a spell checker, they can still actively use phonics and morphology to get close and then find the actual spelling with the checker. In fact, they still have to have phonics and morphology knowledge in order for that spell checker to guess what they are trying to say. This might sound crazy, but I think by fourth grade our dyslexic students should have access to a spell checker. You can get them for like $10! Truth time? I need one! I can always come real close to spelling words correctly but my memory does not hold on to words that I don't use frequently. So I'm constantly double checking my spelling. Usually it's a schwa sound that gets me!

Activities for Practicing the Schwa

1. I use picture cards with the written word on them to first introduce the schwa. We look at the letter that seems out of place and that's how I explain what a schwa is.

2. Word building with letter tiles. I teach the schwa during my 2-syllable open/closed syllable word unit. I teach syllable division rules first, but after teaching the first few, I see the need to throw in a few lessons about the schwa because it comes up so much! Using letter tiles, we practice our syllable division rules to break apart a word into its syllable parts. Then I point out the syllable that follows the rule and we label that vowel with the short or long symbol (at this point I have only taught open and closed syllables). Then we look at the next syllable and I show them the label for the schwa and we talk about how to correctly pronounce the word. We don't actually say wag-on, we say wagun.

I give more opportunities to practice syllable division and labeling the vowels with the schwa. You can also just have them highlight the schwa.

This activity is really helpful to do with a small group. They write one word at a time on white boards. They have time to do syllable division to decode. Then together we find the schwa and highlight it using these strips (transparent colored overlay sheets cut up). You can skip the white board part and just decode together too if you want.

I do sorting activities with picture cards when I'm teaching the common places we see a schwa. Then I repeat with word cards.

As I learn more about the schwa I will add to this post. I need more study time! I do have a few books on the way, so now all I need is time to read them! 😉

If you are looking for some teaching resources on the schwa, click here.

I made a poster for the schwa that I'm sharing here today for free! Click here for this free schwa poster. You can download this poster by clicking on the PREVIEW.

If you have more knowledge about the schwa to share, please do so in the comments. I know there is probably loads that I haven't learned yet!

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What is the Schwa? - Sarah's Teaching Snippets

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The schwa is the most common vowel sound. It is found in the unaccented (unstressed) syllable of a word. It makes the lazy short u sound.

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Helping our readers identify accented syllables is an important part of helping them successfully read longer words. The concept of accented syllables is a higher level phonemic awareness skill and can be difficult for many of our struggling readers.

I hope that you'll find some helpful tips for teaching this concept in the post that follows.

Find more teaching tips for struggling readers.

Helping Readers Identify Accented Syllables
1. Start with rhythm.
My first go-to when teaching readers about accented syllables is with nursery rhymes.

Why nursery rhymes? First, because they are familiar.

Secondly, they contain rhythm. This rhythm is vitally important because rhymes and songs typically highlight the accented words and syllables on the accented beats.

For example, say, "Jack and Jill went up the hill." When it is recited, we naturally accent "Jack," "Jill, "up," and "hill" in a kind of rhythm.

The same is true of other poems and songs. Just try singing a few lines of "Jingle Bells" and you'll notice that the accented syllables and words fall on the accented beats.
2. Contrast accented words with unaccented words in sentences.
When teaching a concept, it is helpful to give non-examples. This is where you can focus on unaccented words in sentences.

Words like a and the are typically not accented in a sentence. We tend to say a like "uh" and the like "thuh."

This is called schwa, and it is always unaccented. {Schwa is typically marked as an upside-down e.} Ask learners to pay attention to unaccented words in our speech or in rhymes, poems, and songs.
3. Feel your chin drop.
Typically, we drop our jaw/chin lower when we say accented words or syllables. Ask learners to hold their hand under their chin and pay attention to when their chin or jaw drops lower.

If they struggle to do this just with their hand, looking in the mirror so they can actually SEE their jaw drop can be very helpful. This makes finding the accented syllable multi-sensory, meaning that learners are seeing, hearing, and touching their chin as they work on this skill.
4. Sing it. {Yes, I really did say "sing it!"}
Try singing the word. This might seem rather silly, but often it works. We tend to stretch out and/or sing the the accented syllables louder than the unaccented syllables.
5. Recognize common unaccented syllable patterns.
For example, le, el, and ion on the ends of words are pretty much a dead giveaway. They're going to be unaccented in the word. Words like about, appear, above, and away all follow the same pattern with an unaccented a in the first syllable.
6. Try the accenting the syllables in different ways.
Take a word like table. Try it like TA-ble. Stretch the first syllable out a tiny bit longer and say it a little louder.

Then try it like ta-BLE. Stretch the second syllable out a tiny bit longer and say it louder than the first syllable.

Which one sounds more natural?
7. Find the base word.
Typically the base word is the accented syllable of a two-syllable word. So a word like sweetly would be pronounced SWEET-ly because sweet is the base word.

A word like reread would be pronounced reREAD because read is the base word.
8. Pay attention to homographs.
Homographs are words that look the same but are pronounced differently and often have different meanings.

Think about the word record. It is pronounced reCORD when you say, "I can record my voice."

It can also be pronounced REcord when you say, "I have no record of your visit."
9. Use a dictionary.
Older kids can be taught how to use a dictionary to look for the accented syllable(s) in tricky words. Accented syllables might be in all caps, accented with bold letters, or have an accent mark over the top of it.
10. Practice, practice, practice.
Find accented and unaccented syllables is VERY tricky! Some adults even have trouble. That's why practice is important!

I have some NO PREP Schwa Sound Printables and Schwa Spelling Pages to help your learners with the schwa sound.

Enjoy teaching!
~Becky
Find More Free Printables...

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Helping Readers Identify Accented Syllables - This Reading Mama

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Helping your readers identify accented syllables is an important part of reading longer words. Find some helpful tips and tricks in this post!

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This morphology post has been a long time coming! I have started and stopped so many times because it feels so big! I have had an interest in morphology for years and have slowly been developing my understanding of morphology and dabbling with how to incorporate morphology in the elementary classroom. I've always been hesitant to complete and publish this post because I still don't have all the answers. But I decided a little snippet about morphology is better than nothing! Morphology is one of the components of a Structured Literacy classroom. To read more about Structured Literacy, click here.

I decided to split this blog post up into 3 blog posts. This first one will provide background knowledge about morphology. I've realized over the years that before I can truly help my students apply morphological concepts, I need to have a better understanding of morphology myself! I hope this first post can provide the background knowledge you need to get started. The second will be about teaching morphology in the primary grades (K-2) and then the third will be about teaching morphology the intermediate/upper grades.

What is Morphology?

Morphology is the branch of linguistics that deals with the structure and formation of words in a language. It focuses on the smallest units of within words, known as morphemes. So, morphology is the study of how morphemes are combined to form words. I have found huge benefits to teaching morphology early and often. Usually in elementary classrooms, we focus on phonology, or the study of sounds in our language. This is absolutely essential! However, I have also found that sprinkling in morphology in the younger grades can set our students up for success by providing a deeper understanding of how words work. Then, by third grade we start to shift our focus from phonology to morphology. If they have some instruction all along, they are primed for more!

Morphological Awareness is the ability to consciously recognize, comprehend, and manipulate morphemes (Kirby & Bowers, 2012). The key word there is "consciously". We manipulate morphemes all the time when we speak but we are not conscious of what we are doing or how we are doing it. My goal with younger students is to help them to become aware of this process.

What are Morphemes?

A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning. I always like to compare it to phonology, which is the study of sound patterns. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound. Letters and graphemes represent those sounds. By itself, a phoneme or grapheme does not carry any meaning. It is just a sound or a written representation of that sound. On the other hand, a morpheme does carry meaning. In her book, Beneath the Surface of Words, Sue Hegland says that "morphemes contribute to the overall sense of a word." She goes on to explain that "Morphemes cannot be further divided without losing the sense they contribute to words."

A morpheme can be an affix (like a prefix or a suffix), a base word, or a root. A morpheme can also be a function word like "to", "the", or "of".

Examples of Morphemes

A word can have only one morpheme or it can have several. I always think it's easiest to understand with examples.

Types of Morphemes

There are two types of morphemes: A free morpheme and a bound morpheme.

A free morpheme can be a word all on its own and it can also add additional morphemes to make new words.

A bound morpheme cannot be a word on its own. It has to have other morphemes added to it in order for it to be a real word.

The image below shows the types of morphemes and examples of each:

Base Words and Root Words

I get a lot of questions about the difference between base words and roots. Here is my understanding of the difference: Both carry the bulk of a word's meaning. Base words can be words on their own, whereas roots cannot.

Base words are the first type of morpheme that we teach. Base words are just regular words that do not have any additional morphemes attached to them. When I first introduce morphology, I begin with the concept of a base word. Base words are free morphemes, so they hold their own meaning and do not necessarily need any other morphemes attached to them to be a real word. Base words can have additional morphemes attached to them, but they don't have to. Roots, on the other hand, do need other morphemes. That is what makes them a bound morpheme. Examples of roots are "ject", "struct", "spect", and "rupt".

Bound morphemes carry their own meaning, but they are not a word on their own. They are simply a part of a word. This includes roots, prefixes, and suffixes. Take the root "ject". It means "to throw" but it is not a word on its own. But, you can add prefixes in-, sub-, or pro- to make the words "inject", "subject", and "project". You can also add suffixes to make the word even bigger: subjective, injection, projector. Because roots are not words on their own, I teach roots a little later. It is easiest to begin with base words with our younger students, then add on simple suffixes or prefixes.

Affixes: Prefixes and Suffixes

As I mentioned, base words and roots carry the bulk of the word's meaning. We tend to teach base words in the primary grades (k-2) and then get into roots later (starting in 2nd, but mainly 3rd grade and beyond). Prefixes and suffixes are both affixes. They are bound morphemes because they are not words on their own, but they are added to the beginning or end of a base word or root to change that word.

Prefixes

Prefixes are affixes attached to the beginning of words. Prefixes modify the meaning of words. "Prefixes negate the meaning of a word, intensify the meaning, or change the direction." (Unlocking the Logic of English by Denise Eide)

Take a look at the example below. All of these prefixes can be attached to the same root. The Latin root "port" means "to carry". They all change the meaning of the word slightly. When you report, you carry back information. When you "import" something, you carry it in. When you "export", you carry it out. Transporting is to carry across from one place to another and deport is to carry from a place. Pretty fun, right?!

The 4 most common prefixes (dis-, in-, re-, un-) in English "account for 97% of prefixed words in printed school English". (Scholastic source here)

These nine prefixes account for 75% of words that use a prefix.

Suffixes

Suffixes are affixes attached to the end of words.

The 4 most common suffixes (-s/-es, -ed, -ing, -ly) "account for 95% of suffixed words in printed school English." (Scholastic source here)

Ten suffixes (-s/-es, -ed, -ing, -ly, -er/or, -ion, -ible/able, -al/ial, -y, -ness) account for 85% of words that contain a suffix.

There are two types of suffixes: inflectional and derivational. (I do not get into these terms with my younger students. I simply use the term suffix. I am sharing this for your background knowledge.)

Inflectional suffixes change the verb tense (-ed, -ing, -s, -es), pluralize nouns (-s, -es), or show comparison (-er, -est). These endings do not change the part of speech.

Derivational suffixes create (or derive) a new word. It changes its meaning. These endings do change the part of speech.

I have created suffix posters (a small size for a morpheme wall and a larger size. You can find those suffix visuals here.

Suffix Changing Rules

Unlike with prefixes, adding suffixes isn't always straightforward. When you add a prefix to a word you just add it. It doesn't affect the base word at all. On the other hand, when adding, the base word can change. But don't worry! There are very consistent suffix-changing rules that you will see over and over again. The consistency of these rules makes them easier for kids to grasp and understand. The rule that applies to a suffix depends on what kind of suffix it is: a consonant suffix or a vowel suffix. ( Consonant suffixes begin with a consonant. Vowel suffixes begin with a vowel.) Most of time, when we add a consonant suffix to a root word, the spelling of the root word remains the same (except the y changing rule). No letters of the base/root are changed or added. However, when you add a vowel suffix to a base or root, changes often may be made.

I first teach the doubling rule at the end of my closed syllable unit. I review it again and again though, because it takes a while to get! I teach the drop e rules with my silent e unit. I teach the change y rule with my open syllables unit. (More about that in the next post!)

Here are some examples of those words in action. I hope it helps!

Morphemes Compared to Other Linguistic Terms

I posted this visual several years ago on Instagram and it seemed to help with understanding these terms.

There is often confusion about the difference between graphemes and letters. There are 26 letters of the alphabet. However, there are 44 sounds in our language. Graphemes are the written representation of those sounds. Graphemes can be one letter or they can be more than one letter. For example, the sound (phoneme) /b/ is represented by the grapheme <b> (which is also a letter). The sound (phoneme) /sh/ is represented by the grapheme <sh>. (The letters <s> and <h> together form the grapheme that spells /sh/.)

If you like those examples, I have created a few more and posted them on Instagram from time to time.

If you would like to download these examples, click here.

Morphemes vs. Syllables

Morphemes and syllables are easily confused. A syllable has to do with sound. It's like a beat in a word. It is chunk of sound that revolves around a vowel. With each syllable, our chin drops and it creates a separation. You can hear and feel syllables. You cannot always hear each morpheme. A morpheme is a piece of a word that has meaning. In short, a syllable is like a beat in a word, and a morpheme is a meaningful piece of a word.

A great example of this is with the syllable -tion. The syllable -tion consistently spells the sound "shun". However, did you know that the suffix is actually -ion?

Let's look at the word "instruction". When I break it up into syllables, I would say in-struc-tion. By contrast, when I break it up by morpheme, it is prefix in-, root "struct" (to build) and suffix -ion (in-struct-ion). The root is "struct" with that <t> being part of the root. The suffix is -ion. By itself, suffix -ion doesn't say "shun". It is only when it is combined with the <t> from the root that is says "shun".

The same is true for syllable -ture vs. suffix -ure. In the word "fracture", the syllables are frac-ture (with -ture saying "cher"), but the morphemes are root "fract" meaning to break and suffix -ure. This may seem confusing at first, but I've taught these same concepts to second and third graders and after much exposure and investigating lots of words, it clicks and makes sense to them. (More to come on that in the third blog post of this series.)

Influences on the English Language

One of the reasons why our language is so complicated (and interesting) is because it has many influences from other languages. The English language reflects English history. I don't get into this with my younger students, but it could be interesting for older students. Here is a quick breakdown. (Information is from Language Essentials for Teachers of Reading and Spelling LETRS: Module 4)

Why Should I Teach Morphology?

Understanding morphology involves exploring how words can be broken apart into meaningful units. Teaching morphology is beneficial for decoding unfamiliar words, expanding vocabulary, and enhancing language comprehension.

Improve Decoding of multi-syllabic words: It is so helpful to be able to quickly identify prefixes and suffixes and common roots or bases while decoding. By the age of ten, morphological awareness is a better predictor of decoding ability than is phonological awareness. (Mann & Singson, 2003).

Building Strong Vocabulary: Teaching morphology helps students break down and understand the meaning of words. By learning about prefixes, suffixes, and root words, our students can figure out the meaning of or have a deeper understanding of so many more words. For example, if our students know that the prefix re- means "again", they can figure out that "rewrite" means to write again. "60% of new words that students read are made up of familiar morphemes that can lead the reader to its meaning (Carlisle, 2000).

Improving Reading Comprehension: Morphological awareness is closely linked to reading comprehension. Teaching students to recognize word parts allows them to figure out complex words and infer meanings. "Researchers have found that a 5th grade student's understanding of word parts, or knowledge of morphology, is a better indicator of reading comprehension than his or her vocabulary level." (Kieffer et al, 2007)

Enhancing Spelling Skills: Understanding the structure of words can really help with spelling! Teaching morphology helps students understand spelling patterns, making it easier for them to grasp spelling rules and exceptions. Multi-syllabic words often are not spelled how they sound. Students who can identify morphemes are much more likely to spell the word correctly. Here are some examples:

If a student is struggling to remember how to spell the word "really" and keeps spelling it "realy" with one <l>, you can explain that the word is made up of two morphemes: base word "real" + suffix -ly. There are two <l>'s in that word because one <l> belongs with the base word and the other belongs with the suffix.

Another example I like to use is the word "different". It sounds like it should be spelled "difrent". When we use morphemes, we can see that it is base word "differ" plus suffix -ent. When we say "differ", we can hear that /er/ sound. There are endless examples like this one.

When spelling the word "rocks", a student may want to spell it like "box" or "fox". Afterall, it does sound the same. The understanding that "rocks" is really "rock" plus suffix -s, meaning more than one rock can help with understanding of the word and spelling of the word. (See Instagram post explaining here.) This is a basic example, but it serves as a foundation for later understanding with more complex words.

(Read more about spelling instruction here. )

English is Morpho-Phonemic

To wrap it all up... English words are made up of two components: phonemes and morphemes. English spelling represents sounds, syllables, and morphemes. Students need knowledge of both phonology and morphology to fully understand English words.

Although we must teach sound-symbol correspondences and spend ample time mastering decoding and encoding early on, we also should begin introducing the concept of morphemes. We want students to be thinking about structures along with pronunciation. Both are equally important.

Morphological elements are spelled consistently even though the pronunciation will vary. Pronunciation can change as we add or take away affixes, but the spelling remains consistent. A schwa sound may move, the stressed syllable may change, and vowels may represent different sounds depending on the affixes you add. "Bases and affixes can have multiple pronunciations, but use consistent spelling to mark relations of meaning." (Pete Bowers)

Pronunciation Changes, Spelling is Consistent

Let's take a look at two examples of related words that change pronunciation, but keep spelling:

In this first example, see how the letters <e> and <a> change pronunciation. You can also see how the letter <t> represents the /t/ sound and then changes to /sh sound when combined with the -ion. The base here is "relate". We add the suffix -ive to make "relative". We add suffixes -ion and -ship to make "relationship". The pronunciation changes but when we look at it through the lens of morphology, it's easy to see the relationships. The only change in spelling was the consistent suffix rule of dropping e before a vowel suffix.

Now, let's look at another example. Here the root is "nat", which means "birth". When suffix -ive is added, the <a> makes a long a sound and the <t> represents the /t/ sound. But, if you add -ion to the root, the letter <t> no longer represents the /t/ sound. Once you another suffix -al, the <a> changes from a long a to a short a. Add yet another suffix -ity, and that second <a> goes from a schwa sound to a short vowel sound and that syllable is not the stressed syllable. See how pronunciation varies so much but the spelling and meaning totally make sense! It's like putting puzzle pieces together.

Irregular Words or Just Misunderstood Words?

Here is another picture from an old post to illustrate the words "do", "does", "doing", "done", "undone", and "redo". Often the word "does" is super tricky for students and we consider it an irregular word. It does seem irregular if we are only considering the sounds in the word. If we were to do phoneme-grapheme mapping, we would break it up like this: d-oe-s with <oe> representing the /u/ sound. However if we were considering morphology, the spelling sure does make sense. The word "does" is base word "do" plus suffix -es. This is similar to "goes". As with other words, the pronunciation changed when a suffix was added but the spelling remains intact.

The word done is base word "do" with suffix -ne (similar to "gone"). I remember reading somewhere that -ne is an irregular version of the suffix -en? That one is a bit trickier but super interesting! I'm sure there is a historical explanation.

The word "said" has a similar structure to "paid" and "laid". Pronunciation of "says" is different, but the spelling shows it is base "say" plus suffix -s. That's much better than trying to "sound out" that word.

One last example is the word "two". The <w> seems like it comes out of nowhere. Long ago, the /w/ may have been pronounced. The /w/ sound is still pronounced in related words, like "twin", "twelve", "twenty", "twice", and "between". All are related to the meaning of two.

This all feels like a lot of information that may be too overwhelming to throw at our students. Well, you're exactly right! It would be too much to just throw at them all at once. This is why we want to give little snippets starting early and continue to review and show more and more examples often! We start very basic and slowly add on.

So how do we do that? Check out my next blog post on how to get started with teaching morphology. Then, read the third morphology post about how to teach morphology in the intermediate grades.

Resources:

I've posted a few videos on YouTube that may be helpful. Click here to get to my morphology videos.

I'm still working on a morphology unit with activities that build and break apart words with roots and affixes. I'm hoping it'll be done soon! In the meantime, check out my other morphology resources.

Acknowledgements:

Eide, Denise. Uncovering the Logic of English: A Common-Sense Approach to Reading, Spelling, and Literacy. Logic of English, Inc., 2012.

Hegland, Sue Scibetta. Beneath the Surface of Words: What English Spelling Reveals and Why It Matters. Learning About Spelling, 2021.

Moats, L, & Tolman, C (2019). Excerpted from Language Essentials for Teachers of Reading and Spelling (LETRS): Module 4

Zafarris, Jess, and Marco Marella. Once upon a Word: A Word-Origin Dictionary for Kids: Building Vocabulary through Etymology, Definitions & Stories. Rockridge Press, 2020.

Home, www.wordworkskingston.com/WordWorks/Home.html. Accessed 14 Dec. 2023.

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Understanding Morphology: Part 1 - Sarah's Teaching Snippets

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Morphology is the study of how morphemes are combined to form words. Understanding morphology helps with spelling, decoding, and comprehension.

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As you know, teaching sound-symbol associations, spelling patterns, and syllable constructions is essential for reading success. When I first got into what we call The Science of Reading, my main focus was integrating more phonics. Then, I started learning a bit about morphology and over the years I have been figuring out how to put it all together. I am now totally convinced that we need to teach morphology to our beginning readers early and often. If you haven't already, please check out my first post about morphology. This will give you a little background before you jump into how to teach morphology.

You can start teaching morphology as early as kindergarten. You can do this orally at first and then by introducing common inflectional suffixes (like -s and -ed) after they have become proficient with decoding CVC words.

Teaching Morphology: Introducing the Concept Orally

To begin teaching morphology, the first term I introduce is "base word". Believe it or not, I teach this in kindergarten! Here is a script you could use to introduce the concept of a morpheme using kid-friendly language.

You can then follow up by listening for word parts in your normal day: During calendar time, when a student announces the weather as "rainy", you can ask what they think the base word is. You can give prompts like, "It is raining" outside right now. Yesterday, it also rained. Will it rain tomorrow?" Use the hand motions (the fist and the two fingers) as visuals.

Teaching Morphemes in Written Language: Begin with Suffixes

I integrate morphology instruction right off the bat while students are reading CVC words. The easiest way to do this is with suffix -s. Kids understand the concept of plural, even if they don't know that exact term.

Begin introducing suffix -s orally.

Show one book and ask, "What is this?"

The students would then say, " a book".

Say, "Yes, this a book. Book is the base word." (Hold out your fist.)

Grab a few more books and ask, "Now what do I have?" Students would reply "books".

Then, bring their attention to what sound was added to the word "book". After identifying the sound /s/ was added, point out that that little sound tells the listener that there is more than one book.

Hold out your fist and say, "book is our base word. When I add the sound /s/, it becomes more than one book." Repeat the word book holding your fist, then add to two fingers to the fist as you say /s/.

To hear a longer explanation, click here (or on the picture below) for a video I made.

Teaching Suffixes: Connect to print

Ask your students: "What letter represents the sound that we added?"

The letter <s> can be used to show more than one when it is added to a base word.

When it is added to a base word, it is not just a letter. It is a word part called a suffix! There are many suffixes.

A suffix is not a word by itself. It is added to a word to slightly change its meaning.

Using colored letter tiles, build the word "cat". Read the word together.

Ask, "What do you picture when you say this word?" (one cat)

Add a purple tile with an -s. Read the word together. "What is the word now?" (cats) "What do you picture?" (More than one cat).

Point out that the suffix -s is a different color tile than just the letter <s>. Explain that you did that because it is not just the letter <s> that represents the sound /s/. It is also a suffix, that carries meaning.

Rewrite the word and ask, "What is the base word?" Underline "cat" to show the base word. Circle the suffix.

The goal here is to help kids become consciously aware of base words and suffixes that they are already using in their everyday speaking.

If you are interested in a detailed lesson and materials to teach suffix -s and -es, check out my morphology units.

Teaching Suffixes -es, -ed, and -ing

I teach suffix -es after I teach digraphs. Suffix -es is used in place of suffix -s when the base word ends with the following sounds: /s/, /z/, /ch/, and /sh/ so I teach my students that when a word ends with s, z, ch, sh, or x, then we use suffix -es in place of suffix -s. (Words that end with <dge> or <ge> also use suffix -es, but I teach that later with silent e.) To see two short video s explaining how I introduce suffix -es, click on the images below.

To give students practice with when to use suffix -s and when to use suffix -es, I do this activity. This activity is sold in my store or you can easily recreate it using note cards. Click on the picture below to watch a video about this activity.

I also continually have my students unline base words and circle suffixes. This particular page is used when I teach suffix -es. You can find it here.

Suffix -ed

After suffix -es, I teach suffix -ed and -ing after teaching consonant blends. (For my full sequence, click here.)

The suffix -ed is fun to teach because it has three pronunciations: /d/, /t/, and /id/. It is helpful to explicitly point this out to our students. Always start by explaining the meaning of the suffix. In this case, -ed shows that something happened in the past. Explain to your students that when we want to say that something already happened a second ago, hours ago, days ago, or a million years ago, we use the suffix -ed. When we're talking we use three different sounds to express this. I use this activity to teach this concept:

To do this activity: Say a word that has -ed. Listen for the ending. Sort the words based on the sound that the -ed makes. Practice identifying the base word.

There is an explanation for when to use each sound. I think it's a bit of a cognitive overload to ask kids to remember it (I can't even remember most of the time). However, if they ask I explain that:

/id/: Used when the base ends with /t/ or /d/

/t/: Used when the base ends with an unvoiced sound.

/d/: Used when the base ends with a voiced sound.

Again, I do not try to drill that info into my students' heads because it is too much to remember and I find that kids are great at being flexible with adjusting the sounds of -ed when they think about the meaning of whatever word you are using. I only explain that if there is a curious student. Students whose first language is not English will need more guidance with figuring out which sound to use so I just supply the correct sound when needed. I don't ask them to guess which is correct.

Teaching Morphology: Spelling with Suffixes

To help with decoding and spelling, I explain to my students that when we see or hear a suffix at the end of a word, it is helpful to read or spell the base word first, then add on the suffix. For example, when we see the word "bugs" on a page, we would cover the <s> and decode "bug" first. Then we simply add on the suffix -s sound. (I do go into the two sounds of suffix -s, /s/ and /z/ as well. I find that kids have no trouble at all quickly switching back and forth between the two as needed.)

When spelling words, it is even more important to encode the base word first, then add on the suffix. I also often have them underline the base and circle the suffix. They catch on surprisingly quickly!

In fact, when I'm working with sound boxes/phoneme-grapheme mapping, I only have them use the boxes for the base word. The suffix is always outside of the boxes. Here is why: Morphemes don't necessarily match up to pronunciation. You see it right away with suffix -ed making three sounds (/d/, /t/, and /id/). You also sometimes don't hear all of the sounds of the base word. Think about the word "bats". Kids often hear "bas" without the <t>. If they learn to identify the base word first, they can hear the whole word, spell it, and then add on the suffix -s. I want to drill this in early so I never have suffixes in sound boxes. I created an alternative spelling board to reinforce this. You can find this free spelling board here.

Teaching Morphology in Context

I like to weave in morphology instruction with my phonics instruction. I want to give my students ample opportunities to practice decoding connected text. Here are some examples of how you can integrate teach morphology while working on phonics.

Teaching Suffix -s Within in a Sentence

As you know, the suffix -s has two jobs: It makes a noun plural and it also is added to verbs to show. To illustrate this, I like to use this activity:

I move the suffix -s around to show how the sentence changes. It also shows students when a verb uses suffix -s and when it does not. This is a simple way of introducing grammatical structures in a sentence. This activity is done with kindergarten students. It uses the most basic sentences, but there is a lot of learning happening here!

Here is another way to do that same activity. Click here for a video explanation.

With a Suffix Search, students practice decoding and morphology. This page is part of my Suffix -s and -es pack, but I am also sharing this page with you for free! Click here to grab this free page.

Choosing the Correct Suffix

Another activity I like to do is choosing the correct suffix in a sentence. This activity can be done once you have taught -s, -es, -ed, and -ing.

Write sentences on chart paper. I like the make the sentences decodable, so students can practice decoding words with whatever grapheme of syllable type we are working on.

Leave out the suffixes from the verbs.

Write those same suffixes on sticky notes.

Students will read the sentence and choose the sticky note with the correct suffix.

In the picture above, we are working on silent e words. I left out the inflectional suffixes. This activity requires two steps:

1. They first have to choose the correct suffix based on the grammatical structure of the sentence.

2. They have to figure out whether or not to use the Dropping Rule. The Dropping Rule states that when a word ends with silent e, you must drop that e before adding vowel suffixes. So, in this case, they will use the sticky note to cover the e before adding -ing or -ed, but they will not cover the e when adding -s.

Introducing Prefixes

I don't teach prefixes as early as suffixes, but it can still be taught in the primary grades. I think second grade is a great time to introduce prefixes. In first grade, you will come across them in texts and I will use common and simple prefixes like "un" or "re" in word matrices (see below), but I don't usually explicitly teach until second grade.

I don't necessarily just begin with the most common prefixes. I start with the prefixes with a clear and obvious meaning and that can attach to single syllable base words. This can be tricky because most prefixes attach to root words, which isn't as straitforward for our younger learners. The prefix re- is a great one to start with becuase it has a consistent and easy-to-understand meanign (again) and it can be attached to several one-syllable base words. The others that can be introduced early are un-, dis-, pre-, and mis-. I find myself moving my prefix instruction up in my sequence a little each year. You see, I'm still experimenting with teaching morphology!

A simple activity that requires no prep is to write a bunch of base words on the board. Together read those words and connect to meaning by defining them or using them in a sentence. Next, write the prefix on the board. Combine that prefix with each base word. Write the new word. Discuss how the meaning changed (reheat means heat again) and use the new word in a sentence.

You can also make a simple word web. Have your students brainstorm words with re-. They don't need to be able to read or spell these words necessarily. It can be an oral activity where you write the words in the web. For each word, make sure to identify the prefix and base word and how the prefix's meaning affects the base word.

Other Ways to Showcase Morphemes

As much as possible, I want to show students how morphemes go together to make words. Once you have taught a few suffixes, you can start to show students how they all work together.

Mix and Match Base Words and Suffixes

This is an activity I like to do with first and second-grade students.

Write some base words that your students can decode on note cards. Place them in a pocket chart. Write the suffixes you have introduced. Early in first grade, I have introduced -s, -ed, -es, and -ing. Choose one base word at a time. Match the base word with each suffix. Decide which suffixes work with that base. For example, suffix -es does not go with "help" (you would use suffix -s), but it does go with "wish" (so you would turn over suffix -s since it doesn't work). Have students write a word sum on their whiteboards, as shown in that picture. (The idea of a word sum comes from Pete Bowers.) Use each word in a sentence with the different endings. Reinforce the terms base word and suffix.

Go on a Word Hunt for Suffixes

Most texts are filled with suffixes. A simple activity to do after teaching suffixes is to have your students go on a suffix search after reading a text. Again, this is weaving morphology instruction into your regular phonics lessons.

The phonics focus is vowel teams that spell long a. As you can see, there are plenty of words with familar suffixes. This activity just helps students take a moment to be conscious of them. There is also an opporunity to review another suffix rule. The 1:1:1 Doubling Rule states that you will double the final consonant before adding vowel suffixes if a short vowel comes before that consonant. It's called the 1:1:1 Rule because it must be a one syllable word with one vowel followed by one consonant. This formula tells the speller to double that consonant. Here, the word is already spelled for them, but they have to go backward and remember that the base word only has one of the consonants.

To get this free resource, click here.

This book is from PhonicsBooks.

Expand a Word

This is a fun way to show students how many different words you can make with the same base word. This will set the groundwork for later when they start looking at root words and all the different words you can make by adding different prefixes and suffixes. Mix and match different prefixes and suffixes to build new words. Discuss how the meaning changes.

Introducing Word Matrices

A great tool for teaching morphology is using a Word Matrix. As far as I know, Pete Bowers created the concept. It's brilliant! In my next post I will go more deeply into word matrices, but for now I want to show you how you can make a simple word matrix with our younger students.

The base word "hope" is a word students are able to decode in first grade (some in kindergarten). I teach silent e in first grade so this is when I would use this. Explain to your students that with a word matrix, the base (or root) goes in the middle. On the left, we will put any prefixes that go with that base word. On the right, we'll put any suffixes that go with that base word. It's always easiest start with the suffixes that the learn early on: -s, -ed, -ing. We would then brainstorm other words with "hope" in it. You can guide them by saying something like, "How do you feel when you are full of hope?"

The word matrix shows the morphemes that can be combined to make new words. A word sum (shown on the right) shows how to compbine those morphemes to spell the word correctly. This is where some suffix rules may or may not come into play. Notice how I slashed through the silent e before adding vowel suffixes. That shows the Dropping Rule.

Although at some point I will want to explicitly teach each suffix and prefix, I don't necessariy need to do so before using them in a word matrix. After all, our studnets are using these morphoemes every day in their own speech. For exmaple, to get to the word "hopefully", I'll show my students that we need to add two suffixes: -ful and -ly. I'll tell that that later we will explore those suffixes more, but for now I will just tell them that -ful means "full of" and -ly shows how something is done. I am laying some the groundwork here! What I notice is that by the time I get to some of the more complex morphemes (like -ion), my students have seen it over and over already and are primed to learn more about it!

To see a video about making this matrix for hope, click here.

To watch a video about making a word matrix for " luck", click here.

To watch a video about making a word matrix for " help", click here.

To watch a video about making a wrod matrix for " play", click here.

Stay tuned for my next blog post about teaching morphology in the intermediate grade. There, I will get into more complex word matrices!

To see all of my morphology resources, click here.

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Teaching Morphology to Beginning Readers - Sarah's Teaching Snippets

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Teaching morphology in the primary grades can set up our students for success. you can introduce morphology by teaching suffixes right away.

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This blog first appeared on February 22, 2020. It has been a while since I have written about how writing instruction can boost reading achievement. When I first started writing about that (almost 50 years ago), it was virtually an unknown topic. These days, most teachers tell me that they agree that writing can improve reading, though they don't seem to have much understanding of the concept and quite often they skip the writing because of pressures to get higher reading scores. So it goes. Given recent experiences with such conversations, I thought it would be a good time to revisit the topic. There was nothing to change or update here but the original had no references, so I cited some of my contributions in this arena. I still believe that a quarter of your language arts instruction should focus on writing - and this entry provides practical advice to help you accomplish that in ways that can build both reading and writing. Everyone says reading and writing are connected. But our school focuses on only reading. We have a reading program (we don't have a writing program). We test the students three times a year in reading, but never in writing. Writing isn't even on our report card, though I guess it is part of Language Arts. What should we be doing with writing? Shanahan response:
You came to the right place.

I think your school is making a big mistake not devoting sufficient attention to writing.

When I was a teacher my primary grade kids wrote every day. When I became a researcher, I conducted studies on how reading and writing are related. As director of reading for Chicago, I required 30-45 minutes per day of writing in all our classrooms.

There are, of course, a lot of good reasons why someone should learn to write. Many jobs, mine included, require it - and often jobs that require a lot of writing pay better (I'm sure many nurses would disagree with that last point). Of course, writing is also an important form of self-expression. Just as there are people who play musical instruments, dance, sing, paint, knit, cook, and so on, many use writing as a form of self-expression and to preserve memory. All those are terrific reasons for teaching writing.

I'm going to guess that the reason your school is ignoring writing is because someone thought that might help raise reading scores. That's a mistake because writing can be a path to higher reading achievement, so your kids (and your school) are missing out. Instead of elevating the reading scores, your school is probably squashing them.

So, there are lots of reasons for teaching writing, and this entry focuses on one of them: how writing can help kids to become measurably better readers.

Research has identified three important ways reading and writing are connected - and all three deserve a place in your curriculum.

First, reading and writing draw upon the same body of knowledge and skills. If you want to be a reader you must perceive the separable phonemes within words, recognize the most common spelling patterns, link meanings to the words in the text (vocabulary), understand the grammar well enough to permit comprehension, trail cohesive links accurately, and recognize and use discourse structure (texts are organized and recognizing this in a text improves comprehension). Of course, background knowledge plays a role in reading comprehension, too, so the more readers know about their world the better they may do in reading. Yep, learning to read requires all of that.

But think about it. That knowledge is integral to writing too. If kids can't hear the phonemes, match sounds and letters, and remember spelling patterns, they won't be able to get words on the page. The same can be said about all those other linguistic and content features of text needed for reading. That means when you are teaching the foundations of reading, you are also teaching the foundations of writing.

It is the same knowledge base, and yet, they play out differently because readers and writers start in different places. A reader looks at the author's words and starts decoding-matching the phonology in their head to the author's orthography. The writer thinks about the words he/she wants to write, thinks about the phonemes, and tries to remember what letters or patterns will represent those. The same thing happens with the other elements, too - one starts with ideas and turns them into written language, and the other marches in the opposite direction.

What is my advice about taking advantage of this overlap? Teach the reading skills that you teach now, but then think hard about them. How would kids use that skill in reading and writing? For example, when you teach letter sounds, you should be teaching kids to use those sounds to sound out words. It is a pathetic phonics lesson that includes no decoding practice. But also have your students try to write the words. Many programs include dictation, and that's great.

I'm partial to invented spelling because it provides such extensive and supportive practice with the sounds. Look at this simple K-1 message:
Hermet Krabs liv in shels sum tims tha lev on the bech.
[Hermit crabs live in shells. Sometimes they live on the beach.]

This piece of writing didn't take long to produce, but to accomplish it the student had to analyze 38 phonemes. He got most of them reasonably right, too. The most ambitious phonemic awareness lessons usually would NOT have any individual child practicing 38 phonemes, so encouraging this kind of writing is smart teaching.

You can do the same with older kids when you teach informational text structure. For reading, that would usually entail teaching how problem-solution texts are organized, and then having the students read texts with that structure to gin up comprehension. That can be even more effective if the kids try to compose their own problem-solution texts - and what a great opportunity to review science or social studies content at the same time.

Second, reading and writing are communication processes. Studies show that writers think about their audiences and what they need to tell their readers to communicate effectively. That might not be surprising, but there are also studies showing the value of having readers think about authors and authors' perspectives (this is emphasized in educational standards and is essential for reading history and for certain approaches to literary text, too).

Writing approaches that involve kids in reading and responding to each other's texts are beneficial in improving the quality of kids' writing. There are any number of ways that teachers can facilitate this kind of sharing and heighten awareness that texts are written by somebody. Doing this can sensitize young authors to the kinds of things that may confuse or entice their readers. Writing conferences, writer's workshop, and revision circles are just a few ways this can be done.

On the reading side, it can help to read texts in which authors have a strong voice and/or style. It is terrific when kindergarteners find that they can recognize Dr. Seuss books or when third graders can distinguish a Beverly Cleary from a Barbara Cooney with their eyes closed. I like to have these students write imaginary biographies of the authors, based only on the content and tone of the texts we are reading. Of course, as kids get older, these kinds of things are addressed by having students read primary source text sets in their social studies classes and evaluating the trustworthiness of this material based on who the authors are and when they recorded their ideas.

Being author can give students insights into what is happening off-stage (what is the author doing back there?), which can boost critical reading ability. Likewise, being a thoughtful writer gives writers insights into what their readers might need.

The third way that reading and writing can connect is through combined use. Reading and writing can be used together to accomplish goals. Most research on combined uses emphasize two specific academic goals, so I'll limit my comments to those; specifically, studying or learning from text and composing synthesis papers, like school reports.

In the first, writing is added to reading to increase understanding or improve memory. Research finds that writing about what one is trying to learn from text is beneficial. Often when students read for a test, they read and reread and hope for the best. Studies show that reading and writing summaries, analyses/critiques, or syntheses of the information has a powerful and positive impact on learning. We should be teaching students how to use writing in concert with reading to improve comprehension, increase knowledge, and conquer academia.

The second body of research explores synthesis writing. Teaching students how to collect information appropriately from text sources enables easier and more effective syntheses. Instead of just having kids write a report with three sources or something like that, guide them to plan a paper with a particular purpose or structure and then help them to read the texts in ways that will facilitate this writing. For instance, if students are to write some kind of comparison of sources, provide a summarization guide that facilitates the collection of comparable information from the two texts (such as charting which points on which the texts agree and disagree). Reading the texts in that way should enhance the writing.

Too many principals think that ignoring and even discouraging writing frees up time better devoted to higher reading scores. Too many teachers are anxious about writing because of the limited preparation they receive in this area. But having kids writing every day - in any and all of the ways described here is a good idea.

Not doing so leaves reading achievement points on the table.

As Vivian says in Pretty Woman: "BIG MISTAKE!"
References
Fitzgerald, J., & Shanahan, T. (2000). Reading and writing relations and their development. Educational Psychologist, 35, 39-51.

Shanahan, T. (1984). Nature of the reading-writing relation: An exploratory multivariate analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 466-477.

Shanahan, T. (1997). Reading-writing relationships, thematic units, inquiry learning... In pursuit of effective integrated instruction. The Reading Teacher, 51, 12-19.

Shanahan, T. (1998). Readers' awareness of author. In R. C. Calfee & N. Spivey (Eds.), The reading-writing connection. Ninety-seventh Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education (part II, pp. 88-111). Chicago: NSSE.

Shanahan, T. (2004). Overcoming the dominance of communication: Writing to think and to learn. In T. L. Jetton & J. A. Dole (Eds.), Adolescent literacy research and practice (pp. 59-74). New York: Guilford.

Shanahan, T. (2006). Relations among oral language, reading, and writing development. In C. A. MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 171-186). New York: Guilford Press.

Shanahan, T. (2016). Relationships between reading and writing development. In C A. MacArthur, Steve Graham, & Jill Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (2 nd ed., pp. 194-210). New York: The Guilford Press.

Shanahan, T. (2019). Reading-writing connections. In S. Graham, C.A. MacArthur, & M. Hebert (Eds.), Best practices in writing instruction (3 rd ed., pp. 309-332). New York: Guilford Press.

Shanahan, T. (Ed.). (1990). Reading and writing together: New perspectives for the classroom. Norwood, MA: Christopher Gordon.

Shanahan, T. & Lomax, R. (1986). An analysis and comparison of theoretical models of the reading-writing relationship. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 116-123.

Shanahan, T., & Lomax, R. (1988). A developmental comparison of three theoretical models of the reading-writing relationship. Research in the Teaching of English, 22, 196-212.

Shanahan, T., & Tierney, R. J. (1990). Reading-writing connections: The relations among three research traditions. In J. Zutell & S. McCormick (Eds.), Literacy theory and research: Analyses from multiple paradigms. (Thirty-ninth Yearbook of the National Reading Conference, pp. 13-34). Chicago, IL: National Reading Conference.

Tierney, R., & Shanahan, T. (1991). Reading-writing relationships: Processes, transactions, outcomes. In P. D. Pearson, R. Barr, M. Kamil, & P. Mosenthal (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research (vol. 2, pp. 246-280). New York: Longman.

Here is a link to the original posting of this blog in case you would like to see the 26 comments that were made in response to it.
https://www.shanahanonliteracy.com/blog/how-can-we-take-advantage-of-reading-writing-relationships

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Blast from the Past: How Can We Take Advantage of the Reading-Writing Relationship? | Shanahan on Literacy

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This essay explores the three kinds of relationship that exist between reading and writing -- they share knowledge, they are two halves of a communication process, and they can be combined to accomplish other goals. Practical suggestions for exploring each of this relationship are provided.

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Should your students use invented spelling? Here are the do’s and don’ts for temporary spelling!

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This post contains affiliate links. As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases.
A current debate in the science of reading community is whether teachers should build knowledge or teach reading comprehension strategies. In today's post I'll explain why both are necessary.

What's the science of reading?

But first ... what's the "science of reading," anyway? Five years ago, most teachers had never even heard the term. Now it's everywhere!

The science of reading is simply a body of scientifically-based research about reading. It's not a fad, a pendulum swing, or a curriculum. It's just a body of research.

If you follow "science of reading" influencers on Instagram or Facebook, you'll find that most of the conversation centers around phonics. Unfortunately, this has led many people to believe that the science of reading = phonics, which is simply not true.

The reason that much of the "science of reading" conversation centers around phonics instruction is that many balanced literacy approaches haven't done a great job with it. We know from the National Reading Panel that phonics instruction should be systematic and explicit. But many balanced literacy programs do not follow a phonics scope and sequence. They often teach phonics implicitly or through very brief mini-lessons. And they have students practice using leveled, predictable texts which give them very little opportunity to apply their phonics knowledge.

Phonics instruction has gotten a lot of attention because it needs a lot of attention. It's something many of us (I'm raising my hand here) needed to improve, and the way to do this is relatively straightforward.

The science of reading is more than phonics

But there's much more to the science of reading than phonics. A lot more. Such as vocabulary and comprehension.

Unlike phonics, which can be mastered in a few years, comprehension is much more complex. It's an unconstrained skill - which means that it continues to grow over one's lifetime.

Because comprehension is so complex, it's hard to pin down how to improve it. This makes the conversation a lot more nuanced.

Reading comprehension strategies ... and what I got wrong

Reading comprehension strategies are are deliberate mental actions to improve comprehension (Shanahan et al, 2010).

A great deal of research has shown that instruction in these strategies improves understanding (National Reading Panel, 2000).

The problem is that many teachers (including yours truly) have gone about strategy instruction backward. I remember compiling lists of books that lent themselves to a particular strategy - books that would help kids practice predicting, making connections, or inferring. Then I would spend days or weeks teaching a particular strategy. My main focus wasn't helping students learn from the text - instead, I focused on helping them master the strategy.

This was backward.

Instead of using the strategy as the starting point, I should have started with a quality text and then taught the strategies that would best help students understand it.

The importance of building knowledge

According to Daniel Willingham (2006b), "teaching reading strategies is a low-cost way to give developing readers a boost, but it should be a small part of a teacher's job. Acquiring a broad vocabulary and a rich base of background knowledge will yield more substantial long-term benefits."

If you're wondering why we need to teach information in a world where search engines and Siri are right at our students' fingertips, here's the scoop:

1. Background knowledge helps readers make inferences. Inferences are conclusions we reach based on the information we have. We get this information from the text itself and from our background knowledge (Adams et al, 1995).

2. Background knowledge gives us a place to attach new information. Marilyn Adams (2014) calls it "mental velcro."

3. Background knowledge frees up space in working memory. If everything you're reading is new information, it all takes up space in your working memory. Before long, you'll reach cognitive overload and comprehension will suffer (Willingham, 2006a).

4. Because background knowledge frees up working memory, our brains are freed to think more deeply. Therefore, background knowledge improves critical thinking.

Why reading comprehension strategies are still important

Knowledge building is incredibly important, and I'm thankful for Natalie Wexler's popular book The Knowledge Gap, which brought this to the forefront.

I also appreciate the work of the Knowledge Matters campaign and their accompanying podcast.

But I've seen an unintended side effect of their important work ... the tossing out of reading comprehension strategies entirely.

It's not that any of these experts would support that ... in fact, Natalie Wexler (2023) wrote, "it's not that there's anything inherently wrong with teaching strategies. The problem is that American schools have gone way overboard on teaching them."

We need to get the order right.

When we start with the text (and not the strategy), reading comprehension strategies are very useful tools for helping our students understand the content.

When teaching a strategy, use what you know about explicit instruction.

Identify the strategy.

Explain what it is.

Stress how it will help students take conscious steps to better understand the text.

As you read, think aloud by saying what you are thinking while you read.

Guide your students in using the strategy.

Eventually, have your students apply the strategy on their own.

Always keep in mind the end goal - that students create a mental model - an overall representation of the meaning of the text. Strategies are only useful insofar as they help students understand and remember what they read.

This post is the beginning of a series about comprehension strategies. Just click on the image below so you can see all the posts as they are published!

References

Adams, B. C., Bell, L. C., & Perfetti, C. A. (1995). A trading relationship between reading skill and domain knowledge in children's text comprehension. Discourse Processes, 20(3), 307-323.

Shanahan, T., Callison, K., Carriere, C., Duke, N. K., Pearson, P. D., Schatschneider, C., & Torgesen, J. (2010). Improving Reading Comprehension in Kindergarten through 3rd Grade: IES Practice Guide. NCEE 2010-4038. What Works Clearinghouse.

National Reading Panel (U.S.) & National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (U.S.). (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

Wexler, N. (2023, July 5). No, teachers don't have to choose between knowledge and strategies. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/nataliewexler/2023/07/25/no-teachers-dont-have-to-choose-between-knowledge-and-strategies/

Willingham, D. T. (2006). How knowledge helps. American Educator, 30(1), 30-37.

Willingham, D. T. (2006). The usefulness of brief instruction in reading comprehension strategies. American Educator, 30(4), 39-50.

Other resources

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Should we build knowledge or teach reading comprehension strategies?

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Should we build knowledge or teach comprehension strategies? The answer is: BOTH!

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We have been working on strengthening and refining our early literacy instruction to be in line with the science. This has me wondering about the middle level. What does the science prioritize for middle level ELA instruction? Is there a point when teaching into a phonics gap for students does not have a payoff? With limited time in a middle school classroom, I am thinking about what needs to be prioritized. Some parents are wondering if phonics instruction should continue into middle school. This may need to happen for some students, but I imagine that Tier 1 instruction would focus on higher levels of structured literacy like morphology. I would be interested what the research says about teaching phonics in middle school. Shanahan response:
Not surprisingly, most phonics instruction studies have been focused on preschool, kindergarten, and grade 1. The National Early Literacy Panel (NELP) and the National Reading Panel (NRP) reported clear benefits to such instruction: improvements in the ability to read words and nonsense words, spelling, oral reading fluency, and reading comprehension. Making explicit, systematic phonics part of a comprehensive reading and writing program for beginning readers is a no brainer.

There have been some studies focused on the teaching of phonics in grades 2 and up, but not many, and most of those studies were aimed at struggling readers or dyslexic students. That poses multiple problems - there are reasons to believe that those populations may be particularly difficult to teach effectively and the generalizability of those results to regular classrooms are dubious.

In any event, the NRP found few benefits to phonics instruction, beyond grades K-1.

Here are some relevant quotes from that report:

"However, phonics instruction failed to exert a significant impact on the reading performance of low-achieving readers in 2nd through 6th grades (i.e., children with reading difficulties and possibly other cognitive difficulties explaining their low achievement). The effect size was d = 0.15, which was not statistically greater than chance. Possible reasons might be that the phonics instruction provided to low-achieving readers was not sufficiently intense, or that their reading difficulties arose from sources not treated by phonics instruction such as poor comprehension, or there were too few cases (i.e., only eight treatment-control comparisons pulled from three studies) to yield reliable findings." p. 2-94

"The effects of systematic phonics instruction on text comprehension in readers above 1st grade were mixed. Although gains were significant for the subgroup of disabled readers (d = 0.32), they were not significant for the older group in general (d = 0.12)." p. 2-94

"Because most of the comparisons above 1st grade involved poor readers (78%), the conclusions drawn about the effects of phonics instruction on specific reading outcomes pertain mainly to them. Findings indicate that phonics instruction helps poor readers in 2nd through 6th grades improve their word reading skills. However, phonics instruction appears to contribute only weakly, if at all, in helping poor readers apply these skills to read text and to spell words. There were insufficient data to draw any conclusions about the effects of phonics instruction with normally developing readers above 1st grade." 2-116

Of course, the NRP report is 23 years old... there must be lots of new research on this topic that would provide us with a more definitive answer to your question. Accordingly, I conducted a search of studies that focused on phonics in middle school and high school.

I found only 4 studies worth mentioning and none of these were particularly encouraging. One study had high school students tutoring struggling sixth graders in phonics, sight word phrases, and text reading fluency (Lingo, 2014). It reported fluency improvement, but it would be impossible to attribute this to the phonics portion of the intervention.

Another study focused on a district school improvement effort that provided district wide phonics teaching (Hutcheson, Selig, & Young, 1990). They reported gains in word identification in the elementary and high school grades, but not middle school; and gains in spelling and reading comprehension at all levels. This study had no control group, so it is not certain to what to attribute these fall-to-spring learning gains (e.g., phonics instruction, maturation, other instruction).

Denton and her colleagues (Denton, Wexler, Vaughn, & Bryan, 2008) implemented a multicomponent reading intervention in middle school, with English Learners who had learning disabilities. The intervention included phonics. The students did not do any better in word recognition, comprehension, or fluency than students in the regular program.

Finally, an intensive phonics program was delivered for 12 weeks to 8 middle school students with learning disabilities. They improved in word recognition and spelling.

In other words, no convincing evidence.

So, I dipped into the What Works Clearinghouse analysis of reading interventions. Few of the studies with older students focused on phonics. Nevertheless, I went looking for upper grades (Grades 2-12) evidence on programs that explicitly included phonics/decoding instruction as part of their routine. The Clearinghouse had such information on 8 programs: Achieve3000, Corrective Reading, Fast ForWord, Failure Free Reading, Open Court, Reading Mastery, SpellRead, and Wilson Reading System.

What I wanted to see was, first, whether these programs improved older students' decoding ability. The reason this is important is because for the most part, these programs included multiple components. If a program taught phonics and fluency, but only obtained improvements in fluency, it is unreasonable to attribute that gain to phonics. If the students had improved in both decoding and fluency, then maybe part of the fluency gain was due to phonics. This is an especially important consideration if the study evaluated decoding and reported no improvement. It is damning if a program taught phonics without any gains in decoding.

What I found was that several programs fostered improvements in some reading skills. For the most part, however, they either didn't bother to look for increases in decoding, or they looked and found none in grades 2-12 (Achieve3000, FastForWord, Failure Free Reading, Open Court, Reading Mastery).

The Wilson Reading System had improved students' decoding skills in Grade 3, but without any accompanying gains in fluency or comprehension, while SpellRead improved decoding, comprehension, and reading fluency with students in grades 5-6.

To me, those reports are consistent with what NRP reported so long ago: not enough studies, most of the studies focused on Tier 2 teaching, evidence that it is possible to improve decoding skills in the upper grades with explicit instruction, but with little evidence that such improvement transfers or generalizes to overall literacy gains at least in regular classrooms.

I think it is fair to say that we don't know much about how best to teach decoding in grades 2-12.

That doesn't mean that students in grades 2 and up shouldn't be receiving some morphology and spelling instruction, with a small amount of decoding work on things like multisyllable words or conditional spelling patterns. However, given current knowledge, phonics beyond grade 1 (and with the kind of limited scope just mentioned), it should mainly (though not entirely) be a Tier 2 issue. For most kids a regular daily regimen of vocabulary/morphology/spelling with those occasional decoding lessons should be sufficient.

If you had written to me in 1999, I would have given a somewhat different answer.

At the time, the studies that I knew had shown no positive outcomes for phonics with older students. Consequently, I'd have discouraged any additional phonics beyond grades 1 or 2.

The NRP work (I served on the Alphabetics committee) convinced me that we could successfully teach phonics to older struggling students in Tier 2 settings. But given the lack of transfer of those skills when taught to older kids, it was evident to me that phonics alone would not be enough.

Now, I find myself shifting again.

Recent research has reported that a significant number of older students (here I mean middle school and high school) still lag in decoding ability to an extent not widely acknowledged in the field (Wang, Sabatini, O'Reilly, & Weeks, 2019, Magliano, Talwar, Feller, Wang, O'Reilly, & Sabatini, 2023). Those adolescents who can read at a third or fourth grade level - and higher - may need targeted phonics instruction despite those reading levels.

Not long ago, I'd have discouraged this. I would have taken those students' reading levels as evidence that they had sufficient decoding ability.

What research now reveals is that below a particular level of decoding proficiency, older students do not seem able to improve in reading - no matter what interventions and instructional approaches we adopt. Students above that decoding threshold, do manage to improve in reading from a wide range of instruction.

My advice?

1. Make certain that in your middle school classrooms that students spend considerable time on words - vocabulary, morphology, spelling, and occasionally phonics. I've long argued for 25% of the language arts time to be devoted to developing knowledge of words and how they work. I would suggest that such teaching be systematic and explicit.

2. Be on the lookout for kids who are not able to decode proficiently. Vigilance is needed to keep kids from slipping through the decoding cracks. It doesn't matter the source of those problems - inadequate primary grade instruction, learning disabilities, transfers from other schools - they need to be identified.

3. Provide high quality Tier 2 phonics instruction for kids who need it. This kind of teaching is often available to elementary students, but it tends not to be in middle school and high school. At those levels, students may be assigned to an all-purpose intervention which can be enough for some kids. But those kids below the decoding threshold? They need a dedicated, explicit phonics intervention in addition to anything else you can provide to support their literacy learning. (Phonics is unlikely to be enough for those kids, but without it, they won't advance).
References
Denton, C. A., Wexler, J., Vaughn, S., & Bryan, D. (2008). Intervention provided to linguistically diverse middle school students with severe reading difficulties. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 23(2), 79-89. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2008.00266.x

Hooks, L., & Peach, W. (1993). Effectiveness of phonics for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 20(3), 243-245.

Hutcheson, L., Selig, H., & Young, N. (1990). A success story: A large urban district offers a working model for implementing multisensory teaching into the resource and regular classroom. Bulletin of the Orton Society, 40, 79-96. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02648141

Lingo, A. S. (2014). Tutoring middle school students with disabilities by high school students: Effects on oral reading fluency. Education & Treatment of Children, 37(1), 53-75. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2014.0005

Magliano, J. P., Talward, A., Feller, D. P., Wang, Z., O'Reilly, T., & Sabatini, J. (2023). Exploring thresholds in the foundational skills for reading and comprehension outcomes in the context of postsecondary readers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 56(1), 43-57.

National Reading Panel (U.S.) & National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (U.S.). (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

Wang, Z., Sabatini, J., O'Reilly, T., & Weeks, J. (2019). Decoding and reading comprehension: A test of the decoding threshold hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(3), 387-401. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000302

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Does the science of reading include middle school? | Shanahan on Literacy

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This blog explores the research that shows no benefits from phonics instruction in Grades 2-12 and studies that indicate the importance of decoding advancement for many older students. The blog provides practical solutions to the problem.

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After teaching first grade, I transitioning into a new role doing reading intervention. I absolutely. love. this. job. One thing I've really improved upon after taking this job is my phonics instruction. This post is really about reading intervention, but I titled it phonics intervention because so much of what I do for my students revolves around word study.

As you probably know, phonics is an essential component of reading instruction. It is especially important in the beginning stages of learning to read and is even more important with your students who are struggling with reading. The National Reading Panel determined that effective reading instruction includes a mixture of phonemic awareness, phonics, guided oral reading, and comprehension strategies.

By increasing the time I spend on phonics instruction (vs. sight word flash cards and leveled readers), I have watched my struggling readers make greater gains and feel more confident with reading. I still do plenty of other literacy-related instruction and activities, but I now make a conscious effort to include good phonics instruction daily. So what is good phonics instruction? These principals guide my teaching.

Good Phonics Intervention is...

This. is. key. Many of our students can pick up phonics skills through guided reading and shared reading where the phonics skills are taught implicitly in context. BUT a significant percentage cannot. Many students need direct, explicit instruction with each phonics skill.

Now I know phonics has a bad rap for being "boring", but it doesn't have to be. I like to think that this more explicit intervention will lead to the more fun, engaging reading instruction once a strong foundation has been set.

With all of that said, reinforcing phonics concepts in context is absolutely beneficial! Applying phonics skills in context shows kids the why they should learn those letters and sounds in the first place. It is always important to provide that real life application. So, to sum up, explicit phonics instruction is essential for our struggling readers, but implicit (embedded) phonics instruction can play a supporting role.

I admit it. I used to be all. over. the place. I learned that I need to be a bit more systematic with the way I teach these kids. There is science behind this! We are literally rewiring some of these kids' brains. We are forming new pathways that need repetition to really be set. The more systematic and consistent we are with our instruction and the way we introduce and practice, the more likely our students will remember.
To see my systematic units, click here.

This was something I did not understand before. I thought, What does it matter? I'm teaching all the skills at some point! Looking back, I realize by not having a step by step roadmap for where I was going, I was leaving some stuff out and not teaching other things. More than that, I wasn't giving my new or struggling readers the opportunity to be successful by giving them texts and word work using only phonetic elements that they have been taught.

For example, I begin with CVC words, then teach digraphs sh, th, and ch. Next I go into consonant blends and so on. This means that when we are working on consonant blends, I am not asking my students to read or spell words that have consonant blends with long vowels or r-controlled vowels because I haven't taught that yet!

This is also super important. Have a roadmap to make sure you cover what you need to. You want to make sure you have formally taught these phonics concepts to your intervention students.

If your program doesn't have a sequence for you, there are several to choose from, that are very similar. If you would like to see the phonics sequence I use, click here. I even have a specific sequence for my alphabet instruction. You can read more about my alphabet sequence here.

Good phonics intervention involves reviewing the skills you have previously taught. For example, when I am teaching short i, I make sure to review and practice short a because that lesson came right before and I know my students will need that review.

Our students need to revisit the lessons they've learned several times before they have reached mastery. As I mentioned above, this also means you don't throw in things that they haven't learned. For example, if I was teaching the digraphs sh, ch, and th, I wouldn't include words like shark, beach, and think when practicing decoding because we haven't learned ar, ea, or ink rules yet!

Multisensory learning involves the use of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic-tactile pathways simultaneously to enhance memory and learning of written language. International Dyslexia Association (IDA)

Heidi Songs has a FABULOUS post about multi-sensory teaching. You can read it HERE. I highly recommend using her music in your classroom. Your kids will be singing and moving to enhance their learning!

Multi-sensory teaching doesn't have to involve play dough and sand as I once believed (although those are great tactile techniques.) You just need to make an effort to check yourself:

Are your students using auditory and visual modalities?

Are movement or tactile techniques incorporated in some way?

This can be as basic as "tapping" the sounds of a word (tapping a finger on the table as you say each sound.)

Simply saying a word and writing it as you sound out each sound is technically multi-sensory.

Tracing a word on the table while saying the sounds of the letters you are writing is a simple way to use more than one of the senses.

Once you get in the habit of multi-sensory teaching, then you can add in all that other fun stuff (play dough, sand, foam texture sheets, etc.)

What does Phonics Intervention Look Like?

If you have a student with dyslexia in your class (and you probably do because 1 in 5 students has dyslexia to some degree), this is the type of instruction that is recommended. It is much more than phonics though! This post focuses on the phonics part of it, but if you want to read about the recommended instruction for students with dyslexia (beneficial for everyone actually), click here to read my post about Structured Literacy.

You may or may not have a program you are already using. The key is to make sure your instruction involves what I listed above for your intervention students. If you have a phonics program, it probably has a scope and sequence. Make sure you are introducing it at a rate that your struggling readers can keep up with. These kids will most likely need more time with each new phonics skill in order to master it. Once introduced, they need time to practice and then also time to review it each day before you are sure they have mastered that skill. You can teach a new skill when they have a grasp on the previous skill, but not quite to automaticity. You can move on from review once they have reached automaticity with reading words with that skill.

Below is what thorough phonics intervention looks like for me:

Since this post is about phonics instruction, I am beginning at the phase where students have developed phonemic awareness and know most of their letters and sounds. They are in the beginning stages of learning to read. All students benefit from explicit and systematic instruction, but struggling readers must have it. So I've laid out step by step what these kiddos need for reading instruction.

Phonics Intervention Steps 1 & 2: "Warm Up"

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness drills are usually short, but very effective. You can go big or you can do little to no prep, but they are essential to phonics intervention.

No prep phoneme segmenting drills involve the teacher giving students a word orally. Students repeat the word, then segment the sounds (phonemes).

It is best to use some sort of manipulative, like pictured below. For example, the teacher says, "shop". The student(s) repeat it then say, "/sh/ /o/ /p/" as they push one of the manipulatives to represent each sound.

For phoneme blending, do the opposite. Teacher says the individual phonemes in a word, then have your student(s) repeat and guess your word. I do this with a puppet and the kids LOVE it! I tell them they need to help me translate what the puppet is trying to say.

When students are ready, you can take it a step forward and do phoneme manipulation (delete, add, or substitute a sound).

After segmenting shop, ask: "What color was the sound /o/?" Students will point to the middle manipulative.

Then ask: "What would the word be if this was /i/?" (ship).

As they get better at it, you can take away the manipulatives and say, "Take the /l/ out of "slip". What is left?" (sip)

Visuals are always helpful and also it's nice to shake things up a bit with kids. If you are looking for more activities for phonemic awareness, click HERE.

Sound-Symbol Drills

Graphemes are the letter or letters that represent sounds.

This quick review was something I never used to do, but now I see its importance with our struggling readers. Developing automaticity at the letter level is SO important. I have a post that goes more into automaticity HERE. The goal is not just to have our students know their letters, but to also automatically recognize them and produce the appropriate sound.

This can be as basic as sound-symbol flashcards to flip through.

You can find the letter combination flash cards shown above (center and right) for free here. The flash cards from the picture above left are part of this resource.

I've also used these activities letter- sound drills:

Top left Picture: You can do this as a group or each student can have their own page to practice. Spend 1-2 minutes sliding the circular chip across the page while saying the sound that goes with each letter. You can find these letter automaticity drills here.

These other three pictures show the same activity that I've done at different times with a small group or a whole class. Put the letters in a pocket chart or write on chart paper randomly. Point to the letters and students quickly give the sounds. Make it a game by adding a die. (Roll the die. Read the row with the number you land on.) The picture from the top right is from this file.

The pictures above show letters of the alphabet, but you can do the same with digraphs, vowel teams, r-controlled vowels, consonant blends, and even rimes (word endings). Since it's a "warm up", it is meant to be done quickly, but it is very effective. For free grapheme flashcards, click here.

I also do a warm-up drill that focuses on rimes (word ending). The picture below show a quick automaticity drill that I do to review.

Phonics Intervention Step 3: Connect to Pronunciation

I recently learned that it is best to begin with the auditory then move to the print. Beginning with sound allows for your students to connect the unknown (the letter combination) to the something familiar (the oral pronunciation).

After practicing a few more familiar words this way, then you can transition to the opposite, which is building a word for your students to read. This way they can apply their new knowledge.

Phonics Intervention Step 4: Explicitly Teach Skill or Concept

This is the part where you are sure to directly teach your students what you want to teach them.

With the digraph example, the direct teaching is that to make the sound /sh/, you use the letters s and h together.

If you're teaching silent e, the direct teaching is that usually when they see the letter pattern vowel-consonant-e, the letter e is silent and the first vowel makes its long sound.

Visual reminders can be so helpful with phonics intervention. For example, when I teach short vowels, I have a key picture/word for each vowel. I teach each vowel sound one at a time (systematic and sequentially) and review the previously learned vowels before teaching a new one (cumulative). Below is the visual I use for my short vowels. When a student forgets what one of the vowels say, I point to the chart and have them say the key word. This leads them to the sound. For example, "igloo, iiiigloo, /i/".

Phonics Intervention Step 5: Model Decoding

In the beginning, I model decoding using the color-coordinated letter tiles. In the picture below, I've shown a few ways you can do this.

If you have a magnetic white board in your small group area, you can place your small letter cards with magnetic dots on the top or bottom of your white board. That way you can use them when you need to model and build words.

You can also use a pocket chart. I have this mini pocket chart that I got at Target years ago and it's perfect.

Update: I recently added Google Slides to my free letter tiles.

If you need letter cards to print out, you can use THESE FREE letter cards:

These letter cards help your instruction to be more explicit for your students. The colors are great for showing consonants and vowels and then digraphs.

Phonics Intervention Step 6: Guided Practice with Decoding

I do this with my students every day. When we are first practicing a new skill, I build and read more words with letter tiles. Then, as they learn the skill, I do less with the letter tiles and more practice in other ways (see below.) I find that building words with letter tiles is the best way to introduce, reinforce, and practice phonics skills because the different colors are a great visual and you can manipulate the letter tiles to build so many different words.

Once I have introduced word parts, then we practice reading those word parts daily during the warm-up drills (step 1) to build automaticity.

Phonics Intervention Step7: Develop Automaticity at the Word Level

The next step is moving from the color-coded letter cards to reading words in isolation (words on their own without the context of a sentence). I wrote all about the value of developing automaticity at the word level in THIS post. I used to think this was torture for kids. I know it's definitely not the most fun part of teaching reading, but it does help those struggling readers and it is necessary repetition. It is not the bulk of your time with them. Literally a few minutes! Looking for word lists like the ones shown above? Click HERE.

I like to use these cards first, then move on to regular word cards.

Word can be sorted by word family or by rule. I would first do the rule to check for understanding. For example, if you are teaching silent e, students would read the card and sort words based on silent e or not silent e. As they sort, ask questions like, what do all those vowels say? What does the e do? How do you know it follows that rule (it has a vowel, then one consonant, then e).

Below are pictures of sorts. Some require decoding while other require spelling or phonemic awareness.

When I first introduce a new phonics concept, I might simply do a yes/no sort. Students read the word and determine if it is short i or not. I know what you are thinking, they can just look and see the i. Remember this is a small group activity, so you are making sure they are still reading the words. This basically gives them a task to do so they are not just reading word cards for no reason. Plus every time they are reading another vowel card, you point out the difference in the sounds.

Next, I may sort by word family or rule (for example, short i or short e.) As you move into blends, it could be r blend or l blend. Digraphs can be beginning or ending. There are so many possibilities. The key is that you giving these students opportunities to read several words with the phonics skill you are teaching and the phonics skills they have already learned in the context of a task.

You can also do a sort to point out a letter pattern. The picture on the bottom left shows an example of this. Here, we are reading the words, then deciding which pattern it uses (CVC or VCe).

I also like to do picture sorts to incorporate phonemic awareness. This is especially good for your struggling readers because they often have a hard time with phonemic awareness. I find this is also good for your ELL kids because they are listening for distinct sounds. For example, you can use picture cards with short a and short o. Say the picture word, then stretch the sounds and identify which vowel is used. You can then have students spell the word on their white boards.

You can sort words by real or nonsense. Hold up the word card and have students read it. Then decide if it is real or not.

The last picture above (bottom right) shows a sorting activity that doesn't require reading. Instead the focus is spelling. This picture came from a lesson on -tch vs. -tch. For this activity, I would say a word, like "stitch". Students would then write the word on their white boards. They would use their knowledge from the lesson to determine if they should use -tch or -ch. Next, I show them how I would spell it and why (I would draw sound boxes or use letter tiles to show that it should be -tch since a short vowel comes right before it). Finally, I would write it in the correct column.

If you are looking for cards like these, you can find them here:

Below are some more ideas to integrate decoding in a way that checks for student understanding.

Here is another activity that my students love: Students take a circular math counter with a vowel on it. They fill each word with the vowel. Then you can try another vowel.

If you are looking for more resources to give your students extra practice with decoding words to help master each phonics skill, you may want to check out my Printable Phonics Intervention Packs.

So far, I've made CVC words, digraphs, blends, silent e, vowel teams, bossy r, and 2-syllable words (with open and closed syllables). Click HERE to get these for several phonics skills.

Phonics Intervention Step 9: Develop fluency with Decodable Texts

Reading and spelling words in isolation is just the first step but it is not enough on its own. They need practice reading these words in the context of a sentence, short passage, or book.

Decodoble Sentences

Below are ways my students practice reading at the sentence level:

My kids LOVE Sentence Scramblers! They are perfect for practicing decoding and building fluency because your kids have read and reread the words in order to put the sentence in order. You can make your own by writing a decodable sentence on index cards (one word per index card). Mix up the words and have your students put the sentence in order. I now also have a digital Boom Card version. You can find these Phonetic Sentence Scrambles here.

I have several resources for sentence building. One is connecting phrases (above left) and the other is building a sentence word by word (above right).

You can also simply write decodable sentences on paper or a white board and have your students read them. I have a whole set of ready-made sentences (shown above in the middle) that you can find here.

I also made a Sentence Spin with decodable sentences:

Decodable Books and Reading Passages

Over the years, the hardest thing to find has been decodable texts! I made some of my own, but there are now several more decodable book options out there.

My favorite are from PhonicBooks. They have the best decodable books! They are based in the UK but PDX Reading Specialist is a US distributer. Click here to see more.

Phonetically-controlled texts are so important for our very beginning readers and for our struggling readers. These texts give them an opportunity to apply the phonics skills they've learned without having to worry about guessing or seeing tons of words they don't know. They can be successful with these texts, all the while strengthening the those pathways in their brain. (To read more about reading and the brain, click HERE to see an old post with tons of information.)

The goal of reading ultimately is meaning. Obviously we want to get them out of phonetic readers so they can move on to more interesting books. These phonetically-controlled books are a means to an end. They are not the end goal. But, I have learned over the years that they are necessary.

Once I know my students have a strong phonics foundation and automaticity with phonics skills, I am confident that they will be successful with other books. They will be ready to apply strategies effectively, as opposed to just guessing as our struggling readers tend to do.

If you are looking for phonetically controlled printables or story cards, I have short stories with just CVC words, consonant blends (with short vowels), silent e, and vowel pairs.

You can find just the reading passages for short vowels HERE.

You can find the reading passages for blends HERE.

You can find reading passages for long vowels here.

I also have a set of 10 short books (printable and digital boom cards) for CVC words. You can find those here.

Encoding/ Spelling

Another important component to phonics instruction is always including spelling. This is NOT your tradition spelling where you memorize a list of words for a test. By spelling, I mean applying the rule directly to several words. For more about spelling and English orthography, click HERE.

Remember when you introduce a phonics skill, you are beginning with the auditory and segmenting the sounds in words. This is encoding (spelling). One mistake I made for a long time is not doing as much encoding as decoding. I promise you will see results if you start emphasizing spelling as much as reading.

Include real and nonsense words.

Call out a word and watch your students spell it.

Listen to how they are orally segmenting the word before they grab the tiles. This is a great informal assessment!

Guide them with leading questions if they make mistakes, instead of telling them the correct spelling.

When learning a phonetic rule, it is best to encode vs. try to write it from memory like with most spelling tests. Have your students "tap the sounds" with a finger. Then write the graphemes to correspond to each sound. (As you introduce morphology, you will teach your students how that affects encoding.)
Finger spelling is a powerful tool: Each finger represents one sound. Students "tap out" the sounds before writing.

Teacher: "math"

Student: "math /m/ /a/ /th/" Put up a new finger for each sound as if you are counting.

I like using these little cookie sheet boards for my students to build words on in the beginning (before the words get too big.) This is super convenient. I have six of these and they stack right on top of each other. The magnetic dots hold the letters in place.

To make it multi-sensory, say the sounds as your trace on the table or tap out the sounds in the words. Even writing the letters as you make the sounds counts as multi-sensory!

A resource that I use quite often are my sound boxes. I LOVE sound boxes, especially early on.

Above (right) is a picture of a sound box that I use when I do not have picture cards. I call out a word and they "push the sounds" first, then write the corresponding letters.

Above (left): I also made a pack of sound boxes with pictures that I use a lot. I have a "printable" version and cards to laminate. With the laminated cards, I show the students the card. Each student has 3 colored circular counters. We all "push" the sounds at the same time (I will push the sounds on the actual card or have students take turns with the actual card.) Then, we all write the corresponding sounds. You can find ready-made sound boxes here.

Update: I now have digital sound boxes for several phonetic elements. You can find all of my Word Building Boom Decks here.

Sound boxes should be done very early on, along with early decoding. Encoding (spelling words) should go hand in hand with decoding. Sound boxes can be used in kindergarten without the use of letters. The focus is on breaking up the sounds in the words in this case. Later, you connect it to letters.

Storage

I've tried it all and this is my favorite way to store my materials. I use this storage box (found here) and for bigger items I use these long flat bins.

Here is a lesson plan template that you may want to try out. It is meant for more intensive phonics intervention. This can be used for one-on-one tutoring or a small group.

Click HERE to download these FREE pages.

In a small group setting, you wouldn't necessarily be able to get to all of those components every day, unless you were given a good chunk of time. With one-on-one tutoring, I do get to all of those parts and it is so effective. With my small intervention groups in school, I pick and choose each day, depending on time. Below is a little explanation (also included in the FREE download.)

I hope this post is helpful! Please don't hesitate to email me if you have any questions.

To download this whole blog post with clickable links, click here: Explicit Systematic Phonics Intervention ebook

Related Blog Posts

Click here to see several posts more about teaching reading.

Click here to read posts related to the science of reading.

Resources for Phonics Intervention

Click here to see my phonics resources organized in the order that I would teach them.

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Phonics Intervention - Sarah's Teaching Snippets

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After teaching first grade, I transitioning into a new role doing reading intervention. I absolutely. love. this. job. One thing I've really improved upon after taking this job is my phonics instruction. This post is really about reading intervention, but I titled it phonics intervention because so much of what I do for my students revolves around word study.

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Main Idea Instruction | Shanahan on Literacy

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This blog entry explains why main idea instruction tends to be ineffective at raising reading achievement and explains the instructional features that do improve reading ability.

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Gingerbread Phoneme Segment & Blend mats

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Gingerbread Phoneme Segment & Blend mats

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Add this phonemic awareness activity to your gingerbread theme lesson plans for engaging practice with segmenting and blending phonemes. These gingerbread phoneme segmentation mats are perfect for kindergarten centers this holiday season.

Gingerbread Phoneme Segmentation Mats

One of the foundational skills of learning to read is blending and segmenting words. Practicing these skills frequently is incredibly important to student success. Use these gingerbread-themed segmentation cards to practice in a fun and engaging way. They are perfect for kindergarten and first grade.

Add it to your literacy centers or phonics centers to give kids a new way to practice segmenting words with 3 and 4 individual sounds. Afterward, students can slide their fingers under each dot and blend the sounds.

You can also add the optional recording sheet for practice with word mapping.

This phoneme segmentation activity is a great way to build phonemic awareness during centers or small group instruction this winter.

A Fun Winter Phonemic Awareness Activity

If you love easy prep activities for kids, this is great. All you have to do is print the mini mats, cut them apart, and laminate them. They don't have to be laminated, but this ensures you can use them again and again.

Store them easily in a zipper pouch or task card box for easy access this winter.

Setting Up the Gingerbread Phoneme Segmentation Activity
As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases.
Supplies Needed:

Gingerbread Phoneme Segmentation Mats (button at bottom of the post to get them)

Scissors

Laminator and laminating pages

That is all! There are no added materials needed for this activity.
Instructions:

1. Print the mats and word cards.

2. Cut the mats and word cards apart.

3. Store the mats and word cards in a mesh bag or another task card storage option.

Using the Phoneme Segmentation Cards

To use this resource, students will place a word card in the box at the upper left-hand corner of the mat. They will look at it and determine the word pictured.

Then, they will segment the sounds in that word by touching a dot on the gingerbread house and saying one sound for each dot.

If using the cards with candies, students will touch each candy as they say each sound in the word.

Students can also use the word mapping sheets to help with listening for sounds and recording them as they go.

The cards have words pictured that are either 3 or 4 sounds. Many of the words with three sounds are CVC words, CVCe words or words with digraphs, and many of the words with four sounds are words with beginning or ending blends.

For example, the card with a dog is placed on the mat with three dots. The student touches the first dot and says the beginning sound in the word, then they touch the second dot and say the middle sound, and finally, they touch the third dot and say the third and final sound in the word.

Here's how that looks:

Touch the first dot and say the /d/ sound.

Touch the second dot and say the /o/ sound.

Touch the third dot and say the /g/ sound.

For mats with four sounds, here is an example using the word crane :

Touch the first dot and say the /c/ sound.

Touch the second dot and say the /r/ sound.

Touch the third dot and say the /a/ sound.

Touch the fourth dot and say the /n/ sound.

Differentiating the Phoneme Segmentation Cards

You can choose whether to have your students work on words with three sounds, four sounds, or both.

If they are beginning to learn phoneme segmentation, you can assign fewer word cards to complete until they are more confident in their skills. Students who are really excelling with their phonemic awareness skills can do more word cards at a time.

The mats can be used in small groups with teacher guidance or independently in centers.

You can also add the recording sheet for practice with word mapping.

Gingerbread phoneme segmentation cards are a fun way to practice phonics skills during the holiday season. Kids will enjoy the candy and cookie-themed mats and won't even realize they are learning.

I hope this fun phonemic awareness activity is helpful in your centers and small groups and provides tons of hands-on practice for your students.
Click the button below to get the Gingerbread Phoneme Segmentation Cards and add them to your plans this winter!
Here are some more gingerbread activities for you!
Gingerbread Beginning Sounds Mats Gingerbread CVC Word Building Strips Gingerbread Letter Sounds Write the Room Gingerbread Editable Board Game Gingerbread Editable Bump Game Gingerbread Addition and Subtraction Activity Mats Gingerbread Alphabet Mats Gingerbread Match and Cover the Letter Mats Editable Gingerbread Sight Words Write the Room Editable Gingerbread Word Building Mats

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Gingerbread Phoneme Segmentation Mats for Phonemic Awareness

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Add this phonemic awareness activity to your gingerbread theme lesson plans for engaging practice with segmenting and blending phonemes.

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Phoneme-Grapheme Mapping grids (for phonemes & syllables)

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Phoneme-Grapheme Mapping grids (for phonemes & syllables)

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Word Reading Instruction in Late Elementary Grades

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Word Reading Instruction in Late Elementary Grades

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Build a word chain by selecting correspondences you want to see in the words. Word chains are created by adding, deleting, and substituting one sound between words.

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Julie Wolter, Ph.D., CCC-SLP

Presented at Spelling and Orthography: A Pathway to Literacy

On Friday, October 14th, 2022 from
the Massachusetts General Hospital Institute of Health Professionals in Charlestown, MA

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TDFC 2022 - Spelling and Orthography - Dr. Wolter | The Dyslexia Foundation

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Presented at Spelling and Orthography: A Pathway to Literacy On Friday, October 14th, 2022 fromthe Massachusetts General Hospital Institute of Health Professionals in Charlestown, MA

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Video: How Teachers can Support Students with dyslexia

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