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The period of European history extending from about 500 to 1400-1500 ce is traditionally known as the Middle Ages. The term was first used by 15th-century scholars to designate the period between their own time and the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The period is often considered to have its own internal divisions: either early and late or early, central or high, and late.

Although once regarded as a time of uninterrupted ignorance, superstition, and social oppression, the Middle Ages are now understood as a dynamic period during which the idea of Europe as a distinct cultural unit emerged. During late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, political, social, economic, and cultural structures were profoundly reorganized, as Roman imperial traditions gave way to those of the Germanic peoples who established kingdoms in the former Western Empire. New forms of political leadership were introduced, the population of Europe was gradually Christianized, and monasticism was established as the ideal form of religious life. These developments reached their mature form in the 9th century during the reign of Charlemagne and other rulers of the Carolingian dynasty, who oversaw a broad cultural revival known as the Carolingian renaissance.

In the central, or high, Middle Ages, even more dramatic growth occurred. The period was marked by economic and territorial expansion, demographic and urban growth, the emergence of national identity, and the restructuring of secular and ecclesiastical institutions. It was the era of the Crusades, Gothic art and architecture, the papal monarchy, the birth of the university, the recovery of ancient Greek thought, and the soaring intellectual achievements of St. Thomas Aquinas ( c. 1224-74).

It has been traditionally held that by the 14th century the dynamic force of medieval civilization had been spent and that the late Middle Ages were characterized by decline and decay. Europe did indeed suffer disasters of war, famine, and pestilence in the 14th century, but many of the underlying social, intellectual, and political structures remained intact. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Europe experienced an intellectual and economic revival, conventionally called the Renaissance, that laid the foundation for the subsequent expansion of European culture throughout the world.

Many historians have questioned the conventional dating of the beginning and end of the Middle Ages, which were never precise in any case and cannot be located in any year or even century. Some scholars have advocated extending the period defined as late antiquity ( c. 250- c. 750 ce) into the 10th century or later, and some have proposed a Middle Ages lasting from about 1000 to 1800. Still others argue for the inclusion of the old periods Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Reformation into a single period beginning in late antiquity and ending in the second half of the 16th century.
Edward Peters Michael Frassetto

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History of Europe - Medieval, Feudalism, Crusades

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History of Europe - Medieval, Feudalism, Crusades: The period of European history extending from about 500 to 1400-1500 ce is traditionally known as the Middle Ages. The term was first used by 15th-century scholars to designate the period between their own time and the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

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The Medieval period commenced with the decline of the Roman Empire as the result of the barbarian invasions. In the aftermath and over several centuries, the Christian church played a decisive role in constituting what became known as the respublica Christiana. It included, in ever shifting configurations, the Western and Eastern sectors of the former Roman Empire, namely, portions of Western Europe and Byzantium, which consisted of Asia Minor and most of the territories around the Mediterranean rim. Rome and Constantinople would eventually become, respectively, the seats of the two parts of the new empire.

Under this arrangement, differently interpreted in the two sectors, civil and religious authorities were not sharply differentiated along modern lines, but were understood as two interdependent "departments" of a common, encompassing enterprise. Accordingly, the distinction between "sword" and "spirit," between coercion and belief, so central to the early Christian experience, was retained, if only in a highly disguised form. While the relationship between spiritual and political authority was consistently intimate, it was also antagonistic, exhibiting, at various times, an intense struggle for religious authority and political power.

In the West, Charlemagne succeeded, by the ninth century, in consolidating the diverse barbarian kingdoms of Western Europe into a centralized Christian empire with himself as effective head of the church. Political power was taken to be an appropriate means for spreading, regulating, and protecting Christian belief and practice. This pattern reached its highest expression by the eleventh through the thirteenth centuries, when popes, having replaced kings as the ultimate authority in the Western empire, came to possess the final say regarding the use of force. The result was the Christian Crusades, which were armed incursions against lands under both Eastern Christian and Muslim control. The purpose of these Crusades was the conversion of non-Christians as well as the recovery of the lands where Christianity was born, lost over the years to Islamic conquerors. This period of papal ascendancy also saw policies of severe religious repression known as "inquisitions," which were initiated in the thirteenth century and culminated in Spain in the fifteenth century.

These policies did not go unchallenged. In the thirteenth century, Thomas Aquinas propounded a powerful but limited doctrine of freedom of conscience. Based upon the incompatibility of belief and coercion affirmed by the young Augustine, Thomas contended that all human beings, Christian or not, had a moral obligation to follow even an erroneous conscience. This principle applied to everyone never previously exposed to the Christian message, such as Muslims and pagans. It did not apply, Thomas thought, to Christian defectors-heretics and apostates-who, like anyone defaulting on a solemn oath, should be punished. Nor did it create a political or civil "right" to error, because, Aquinas argued, an ill-formed conscience could lead to sinful acts, and, by example, could lead others into grave sin. Aquinas even compared heretical beliefs to counterfeit money, suggesting that they were damaging the "public good" of shared orthodox beliefs within the Church. He also hoped that in the process of being confronted, heretics and apostates would return to the true faith. As such, Aquinas enjoined the Church to first admonish the heretic before subjecting him to excommunication and secular authorities.

By the fourteenth century, the concept of papal supremacy-the pope as successor to Peter-was being challenged in the West by the Conciliar movement. Some asserted that representative councils possessed the final authority in church affairs. The existence of councils implied a constitutional system, including a set of rights that were attributed to ordinary members and lower church officials. Conciliarists also emphasized a greater distinction between ecclesiastical and civil government, and elevated the importance of territorial churches. The movement never had more than minority status in Western Christianity, though it would come to exert a disproportionate impact on the Protestant Reformation, and, eventually, on the shape religious freedom took as a result.

Conciliarism caught hold more successfully in Eastern Christianity, though in a form very different from the West. That was one reason, among others, the two wings of Medieval Christianity split in the eleventh century. Eastern Orthodoxy shared the Conciliarist preference for representative and consultative government over papal authority, but they embraced a system of territorial churches well before and well beyond anything that would develop in the West. Moreover, there was less emphasis on differentiating ecclesiastical and civil authority. On the contrary, the enduring image was of a set of unified Orthodox territorial states wherein the church, while exercising distinctive spiritual functions, was decidedly subservient to the temporal government. Religious freedom for the non-Orthodox would not thrive in such an environment.

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Berkley Center for Religion, Peace and World Affairs

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Christianity and Religious Freedom in the Medieval Period (476 - 1453 CE)

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Author: David LittleThe Medieval period commenced with the decline of the Roman Empire as the result of the barbarian invasions. In the aftermath and over several centuries, the Christian church played a decisive role in constituting what became known as the respublica Christiana...

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Christianity dominated life in the Medieval Era, from the commoner to the king. These religious rulers could declare religious wars against different religious groups. While their religions might seem very similar, each religious ruler held a different form of political power. Let's take a closer look at Christianity in Medieval Europe.

Rise and Development of Christianity in Medieval Europe

The Medieval Period began in 500 A.D. and ended around the late 1400s. We're going to go a little bit further back so that we can build a better understanding of where Christianity came from. This religion began in the first century and was about Jesus Christ and his life. From there, it spread to the Roman Empire, though it was illegal to practice. Armenia was the first kingdom to legalize Christianity in 301.

Constantine I, the first Roman Emperor to support Christianity. His Edict of Milan legalized the practice of Christianity in 313. Constantine wasn't a Christian, but allegedly, he converted on his deathbed. In the fifth century, the Franks and the Irish became Christians. Bulgaria followed in the early ninth century, then Poland in the mid-ninth century.

Types of Christianity in Medieval Europe

Christianity had two powerful sects, the Roman Church and the Byzantine Church. The head of the Roman church was the Pope, while the Byzantine Emperor ruled the Byzantine Church. The Emperor appointed a Patriarc h who was just beneath him in spiritual power.

The churches had different theological beliefs that created a divide between them. This division steadily grew until the Photian Schism in 863. The final blow happened during the Great Schism when the two churches separated. The Byzantine Church became the Eastern Orthodox Church, while the other became the Roman Catholic Church.
Photian Schism:
The Pope claimed to be the supreme head of the church and that the Byzantine Emperor was below him. Of course, the Byzantines disagreed and argued that the Emperor had the right to appoint a Patriarch without the approval of the Pope.

Eastern Orthodox Church

The Eastern Orthodox Church considered itself the first Christian Church and the only true one. Many different groups make this claim within Christianity. The church believes its leaders can trace their right to rule to the first twelve apostles of Jesus Christ. This religion was more prevalent in Eastern Europe.

Roman Catholic Church

Roman Catholics believe their church is the earthly representation of Christ's will on Earth. They believe that the Pope can trace his right to rule to Peter, one of Jesus's disciples. They believed that the Bible was the oldest book in the world and that it was a guide to a moral life that would lead to Heaven. This religion was more prevalent in Western Europe. For the duration of this article, we will focus on the Roman Catholic Church.

Role of Christianity in Medieval Europe

Christianity directly influenced the lives of Europeans, from the King down to the Commoner. We'll examine Christian influence on the Commoner's and Ruler's levels. A commoner's life revolved around the Church, and the burden of the Church was on the commoner. Churches didn't pay taxes and weren't sustained by the kingdom. They relied on people paying ten percent of their earnings to the church.

Churches also charged fees for weddings, baptisms, and other services. Festivals held on Holy Days, like Easter or Candlemas, were also paid for by commoners. While nobles donated to churches, they didn't sustain the entire burden of funding them. People also paid for indulgences, which became a point of contention.

An indulgence was a token purchased from the Catholic Church that would shorten someone's stay in Purgatory. According to the Catholic faith, after a person dies, they go to Purgatory. They waited in Purgatory for a specific time determined by the sins committed during their lifetime. Then they went to Heaven; indulgences allowed them to skip the wait time in Purgatory.

Catholic Heretical Sects:

Catholics believed that certain groups that practiced religions against their interpretation of the Bible were wrong. These groups were called Heretical Sects, and many practiced a different form of Christianity. Let's take a look at the Beguines, their form of Catholicism wasn't very different from their contemporaries, but it was still considered a heretical sect.

Beguines

Beguines were women who lived their lives in service of others. They were scattered and unorganized until the 13th century when the French King Louis IX built them beguinages. The Beguinages had different practices based on their location. Unlike Nuns, beguines could join or leave Beguinages whenever they wanted to; plus, they could keep their worldly possessions.

Beguines were popular until Marguerite Perret published a book called Mayor of Simple Souls. The book wasn't well received because Perrot was a woman. In 1311, she was tried and burned at stake for the crime of being a woman who wrote a book. We don't know if Perret was a beguine, but the court records claimed she was.

The Catholic Church disliked them because they didn't have permission from the pope and weren't a nunnery. Beguines continued their practices but changed their name to Tertiary. The Beguines were far luckier than other heretical sects. For example, the Cathars were extinguished during the crusades through genocide. The lifestyle of the Beguine offered a third choice to women, who were limited in socially acceptable lifestyles.

Women in the Medieval Ages could become nuns or get married. Nuns didn't typically live with secular society and were a permit placement. Beguines could live in their own homes if they chose to, quit whenever they liked and didn't have to get married.

Influence of Christianity in Medieval Europe

The Catholic Church held a lot of influence over Western Medieval Europe because the Pope was considered a direct link to God. If a King or noble went against the Pope, Cardinals, or Bishops, they were threatened with ex-communication. Kings were given the right to rule by God if they went against the Pope, who was the voice of God on Earth, then they went against God. Excommunication meant that the people no longer had to serve the king.
Excommunication:
When someone is removed from the Catholic Church. They cannot participate in Catholic sacraments or enter Heaven. An excommunicated king meant that the kingdom couldn't participate in sacraments, i.e. funerals, weddings, and Holy Days.

The church judged some crimes through ordeals. A person who passed an ordeal was innocent, while someone who didn't was guilty. One of the most well-known ordeals was the Ordeal of Water. A person was tied and thrown into a body of water. If they could escape, they were assisted by the devil, guilty, and executed. If the person drowned, they were innocent and dead. This ordeal was often administered to accused witches.
Catholicism and the Protestant Reformation
The policies of the Catholic Church heavily influenced the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther and many reformers didn't agree with the sale of indulgences. They believed that the Church was greedy and that money couldn't buy someone's place in Heaven. Another reason people lost faith in the Catholic Church was the Bubonic Plague. Priests couldn't heal people who had the plague. As many people died, their loved ones turned from the Church.

The Spanish Inquisition

Pope Alexander VI gave the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile the ability to create the Spanish Inquisition. The Inquisition was to find non-Catholics and get them to confess to their heresy. Spain was anti-Muslim and anti-Semitic. In 1492, Jewish people were forced to leave Spain, and the crown confiscated their property. In 1502, Spain forced Muslims to convert or leave.

The Spanish Inquisition's goal was to root out Jewish and Muslim people. Inquisitors tortured suspects until they confessed. It was a bloody and violent time.

Christianity in Medieval Europe

Christianity played a significant role in Medieval Europe. It affected the personal lives of individuals, from commoners to kings. Eventually, people began to feel that the Catholic Church took advantage of them and was greedy. This sentiment led to reformers who attempted to change things. When they failed, events like the Protestant Revolution took place and forced change.

Christianity in Medieval Europe - Key takeaways

Christianity began in the Middle East and spread into Europe through Rome.

Christianity split into two powerful sects during the Great Schism: The Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Church.

Christianity played a significant role in the lives of Medieval Europeans, from the commoners to the King!

The Catholic Church conducted ordeals that would tell if a person was guilty or innocent. These trials often led to the death of the accused.

The Spanish Inquisition was an anti-Semitic and anti-Muslim investigation meant to find non-Catholics and force them to confess through torture.

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Christianity dominated life in the Medieval Era, from the commoner to the king. These religious rulers could declare religious wars against different religious groups. While their religions might seem very similar, each religious ruler held a different form of political power. Let's take a closer look at Christianity in Medieval Europe.

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Thomas Aquinas' Influence on the Catholic Church

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Thomas Aquinas' Influence on the Catholic Church

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Thomas Aquinas’ Influence on the Catholic Church - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com

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Thomas Aquinas was a Catholic priest who lived in 13th-century Italy. Explore his influence on the Catholic Church, starting from its dire state,…

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The Role of the Catholic Church in Medieval Europe

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The Role of the Catholic Church in Medieval Europe