# data[].attributes.body
- A relatively permanent change in behaviour (or behaviour potential) due to experience.
- Learning is dependent in memory.
- Temporary changes in behaviour caused by motivation, disease, injury or drugs and therefore not considered to be the result of learning

# data[].attributes.body
- The ability to modify neural circuitry to meet the demands of experiences. The brain can be moulded throughout lifespan as a result of experience and learning.

# data[].attributes.body
-Describes the malleability of the brain and NS, allowing the brain to be reorganised in response to experiences over a lifetime.
e.g. of neural plasticity include;
-playing instrument
- learning to drive
- learning to read and write

# data[].attributes.body
- Ability to the synapse to change over time.

Long-term potentiation (LTP) - growth/formation of new synaptic connections that strengthen the synapse.

Long-term depression (LTD) - disuse of synaptic connections that weaken or eliminate the synapse.

# data[].attributes.body
- The increase in synaptic strength through high frequency stimulation of the synaptic pathway between the pre and post-synaptic neuron.
- Both neurons are likely to fire in the future when stimulated by smaller amounts of energy.

# data[].attributes.body
The hippocampus, which plays a major role in some forms of memory and in spatial learning.

# data[].attributes.headline
The role of the pre-synaptic neuron in LTP

# data[].attributes.subject
The role of the pre-synaptic neuron in LTP

# data[].attributes.body
Glutamate (excitatory NT) is released from the pre-synaptic neuron, and plays an important role in learning and memory.

# data[].attributes.headline
The role of the post-synaptic neuron in LTP

# data[].attributes.subject
The role of the post-synaptic neuron in LTP

# data[].attributes.body
- Post-synaptic cell becomes more sensitive to glutamate = produces more receptor sites to bind to it. This means that action potential can now be achieved with a much smaller amount of glutamate than previously needed.

# data[].attributes.body
- The long-lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic transmission due to low intensity stimulation.

# data[].attributes.body
- LTD occurs if the message being sent from the pre-synaptic neuron is consistently weak (less glutamate is released).

# data[].attributes.body
Post-synaptic neuron becomes less responsive to glutamate released by the pre-synaptic neuron. There is a reduction in the number of receptor sites.

# data[].attributes.body
LTD is important because it helps to weaken/prune back unused synapses of those that are not stimulated, making the brain more efficient.

# data[].attributes.body
- Chemicals produced by the endocrine system that regulate growth, sexual development, function, metabolism and mood.
- Include adrenaline, cortisol,  insulin, and testosterone.

# data[].attributes.body
- Chemical messages released by neurons into the bloodstream. They target cells at specific sites, like a hormone.
- Not as fast acting as NTs.
- Includes adrenaline and cortisol.

# data[].attributes.body
- Both send chemical messages from a neuron to a target neuron or cell.
- Both are manufactured by a neuron.
- Both are secreted by a neuron/from axon terminals.

# data[].attributes.body
- NTs are released into the synapse., whereas neurohormones are released into the bloodstream.
- NTs travel short distances and have a faster effect.
- Neurohormones travel longer distances & their effect is slower.

# data[].attributes.headline
Role of glutamate and adrenaline in memory

# data[].attributes.subject
Role of glutamate and adrenaline in memory

# data[].attributes.body
- Promotes growth and strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons within a neural pathway (which then represents the memory of what has been learned).
- Glutamate is an excitatory NT, therefore has a vital role in LTP and LTD.
- Generally, the more often that glutamate can excite an adjacent neuron, the more it contributes to LTP (and vice-versa for LTD).

# data[].attributes.body
- Involved in the fight-flight response.
- Involved in the consolidation of emotional and arousing memory.
- Can act as both a neurohormone and an NT.
- When functioning as NTs, they affect the storage of memories by activating the amygdala (area of the brain involved in the processing and storage of emotions, such as fear).

# data[].attributes.body
- Consolidation of emotionally arousing experiences. The strength of memories of events varies with the emotional significance of the events.
- Emotionally arousing events are more likely to be remembered (but not necessarily more accurately).

# data[].attributes.body
- A form of learning that occurs through the repeated association of 2 or more different stimuli.
- In CC, a response that is automatically produced by one stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus that would not normally produce this response.

# data[].attributes.body
- The NS is any stimulus that does not elicit any specific response before learning/conditioning has occurred.
- The NS eventually becomes the CS through conditioning.
- In Pavlov's experiment, the NS was a bell.

# data[].attributes.body
- The UCS is any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring, automatic response.
- In Pavlov's experiment, the UCS was the food (meat powder).

# data[].attributes.body
The UCR is the response that occurs automatically when the UCS is presented. An UCR is a reflexive, involuntary response that is predictably caused by the UCS.
In Pavlov's experiment, the UCR was the salivation.

# data[].attributes.body
- The CS is the stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning process and does not normally produce a UCR. Through repeated association with the UCS, the CS triggers a very similar response to that caused by the UCS.
- In Pavlov's experiment, the bell (NS) becomes the CS once conditioning has occurred, and the CS now produces the response of salivating.

# data[].attributes.body
- The CR is the learned response that is produced by the CS. The CR occurs after the CS has been associated with the UCS.
- Pavlov's dogs displayed a CR (salivation) only when they began to salivate to a CS. When the dogs responded to a CS (sound of the bell), CC had taken place because salivation would not normally be the response to the sound of a bell.

# data[].attributes.body
The NS produces no relevant response; UCS elicits the UCR.

# data[].attributes.body
NS is repeatedly paired with the UCS to produce the UCR.

# data[].attributes.body
The NS becomes a CR; the CS produces a CR, which is usually similar to the previous UCR.

# data[].attributes.body
- The overall process during which the organism learns to associate 2 events.
- The timing of the CS and UCS pairing is critical. Acquisition is more rapid when the CS occurs and remains until the UCS is presented.

# data[].attributes.body
The tendency for another stimulus to produce a response that is similar to the CR. The greater similarity between stimuli, the greater possibility that a generalisation will occur.

# data[].attributes.body
Occurs when a person or animal responds to the CS only, not any other stimulus that is similar to the CS.

# data[].attributes.body
The gradual decrease in strength or rate of a CR that occurs when the UCS is no longer presented. When a CR no longer occurs following presentation of the CS.

# data[].attributes.body
Extinction of a CR is not always permanent. In CC, spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a CR when the CS is presented, following a rest period after the CR appears to not have been extinguished.

# data[].attributes.body
NS: white rat (elicited no fear response)
UCS: loud noise (hammer striking steel bar)
USC elicited UCR: fear response, violently started crying etc.

# data[].attributes.headline
Little Albert - during conditioning (association & acquisition)

# data[].attributes.subject
Little Albert - during conditioning (association & acquisition)

# data[].attributes.body
White rat (NS) presented on several occasions with the loud sound (UCS), which produced the child's fearful response (UCR)

# data[].attributes.body
Rat (now the CS) alone elicits the startled, fearful response (CR)

# data[].attributes.body
- Albert's mother left her job and Watson and Rayner reported that they were denied the opportunity to remove the conditioned emotional responses.
- Some believe Albert's mother may not have been fully aware of the experimental condition and the effect on her son (informed consent)

# data[].attributes.body
- Learning process in which the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated is determined by the consequences of that behaviour.
Uses - operant/voluntary behaviour - that is shaped by consequences that come after the behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
- Stimulus that comes before the response in the operant conditioning.
- Creates the conditions/environment that primes or signals the organism to behave in a particular way.

# data[].attributes.body
Response to the stimulus the organism makes/chooses because of the antecedent.
- Most operant responses are considered voluntary because the learner decides what their response will be.

# data[].attributes.body
- Follows the behaviour.
- Type of outcome influences the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated or not in the future.
- Consequences can be pleasant or negative (or benign)

# data[].attributes.body
Consequences can come in the form of reinforcement, punishment or no consequence.

# data[].attributes.body
Aims to increase the frequency of a behaviour. Must be appropriate (desirable) for the learner of they will not produce the desired response.

# data[].attributes.body
When a pleasant/desirable event follows a response and generally increases or strengthens the likelihood of that response occurring again.

# data[].attributes.body
When an unpleasant stimulus is removed, reduces or prevented which then creates a positive consequence (more likely you will repeat the behaviour).

# data[].attributes.body
A response being followed by the introduction of an unpleasant stimulus (punisher) which decreases the likelihood of that response occurring again

# data[].attributes.body
Presentation/introduction of an undesirable stimulus, thereby decreasing/weakening the likelihood of a response occurring again.

# data[].attributes.body
The removal of a reinforcer or positive state of affairs (something valued by the person) following an undesirable response. Decreases the likelihood of this response occurring again.

# data[].attributes.body
- Timing: Punishment works best when it occurs at the same time or immediately after the response being made.
- Consistency: Punishment needs to occur every time the unwanted response occurs.

# data[].attributes.headline
Limitations of punishment as a learning technique

# data[].attributes.subject
Limitations of punishment as a learning technique

# data[].attributes.body
- It only tells a person/animal that a response is wrong, not what the correct response is.
- In a study of classroom discipline problems it was found that physical punishment, yelling and humiliation are generally ineffective in changing behaviour. Positive reinforcement, in the form of praise, approval and reward is much more likely to stop classroom discipline problems.

# data[].attributes.headline
Principles that influence operant conditioning

# data[].attributes.subject
Principles that influence operant conditioning

# data[].attributes.body
The tendency to respond to stimuli that is similar to stimuli that precede operant reinforcement.

# data[].attributes.body
The ability to differentiate between stimuli similar to the stimuli that signal reinforcement and non-reinforcement.

# data[].attributes.body
When the learnt response gradually decreases in strength or rate of response after reinforcement stops. This process takes time and does not occur immediately.

# data[].attributes.body
- Reappearance of a previously reinforced response after a period of apparent extinction (same as CC).
- Conditioned response will be weaker than the original conditioned response and will not continue for long if reinforcement is not given.

# data[].attributes.body
Occurs when someone uses observation of a model's actions and the consequences of those actions to guide their future actions.

# data[].attributes.headline
The 5 elements in observational learning

# data[].attributes.subject
The 5 elements in observational learning

# data[].attributes.body
- Paying attention to, or closely watching, a model's behaviour and the consequence.
- More likely to pay attention if; model is perceived positively,
there are similarities between the observer and model, the model is attractive.

# data[].attributes.body
We need to store in memory a mental representation of that we have observed. Includes mental images, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal.

# data[].attributes.body
Reproducing/imitating what was observed. Must be capable of doing so.

# data[].attributes.body
- Must have the desire and want to reproduce what was observed.
- Unless the behavioural response is useful of provides an incentive/reward for the observer, it is unlikely they will want to learn it, perform it or continue to perform it.

# data[].attributes.body
If the modelled behaviour is reinforced, this will motivate the person to repeat those actions.

# data[].attributes.body
An active information processing system that receives, stores, organises and recovers info.

# data[].attributes.body
- Encoding: converting info (sensory stimuli) to a useable form.
- Storage: retaining info in memory.
- Retrieval: info recovered from memory when needed.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory

# data[].attributes.subject
The Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory

# data[].attributes.body
The flow of info moves in stages through each component of memory as it is encoded, stored and retrieved. These levels are; sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).

# data[].attributes.body
- Entry point of memory.
- Unlimited capacity to store all sensory stimuli.
- Not consciously aware of most of the info in sensory stage.
- Directing attention to sensory memory causes transfer to STM.
- Incoming stimuli is stored in different sensory registers based on the type of sense; iconic memory (visual), and echoic memory (auditory).

# data[].attributes.body
- Visual images stored here for about 0.2 - 0.4 seconds (duration).
- Stored as overlapping images.
- Allows perception of flowing movement (e.g. during a film).

# data[].attributes.body
- Sound stimuli stored here for around 3 - 4 seconds (duration).
- Allows comprehension of speech by connection individual sounds coherently into words and sentences.

# data[].attributes.headline
Stages of memory - short-term memory (STM)

# data[].attributes.subject
Stages of memory - short-term memory (STM)

# data[].attributes.body
- Stores a limited amount of info for a brief period (18 - 20 seconds, but can be up to 30 seconds), unless it is rehearsed.
- Holds all the thoughts, info and experiences you are aware of at any given point.
- Receives info from sensory memory, and LTM.

# data[].attributes.body
When you encounter something new, e.g. distinctly coloured bird, all the info is registered in your sensory memory and sent to your STM. To give this info meaning, your STM starts to compare it to the existing info about birds you have gained from past experience and have stored in your LTM.

# data[].attributes.body
- The number of pieces of info that can be stored in STM is 7 + or - 2 (between 5 and 9 items)
- Adding in more items or recalling info from LTM can displace items from STM.
- Chunking: A method of increasing the capacity of STM by grouping separate bits of info in a larger single chunk of info. Only similar info can be grouped together.
- Still only retain 7 + or - 2 chunks.

# data[].attributes.headline
Stages of memory - long-term memory (LTM)

# data[].attributes.subject
Stages of memory - long-term memory (LTM)

# data[].attributes.body
- Capacity: vast, potentially unlimited.
- Duration: potentially permanent, and indefinite. Some info may be lost/inaccessible over time.

# data[].attributes.body
- Environmental cues (external) from the specific situation where a memory was formed that act as retrieval cues.
- Includes sounds, smells, sights, temperature.
- Forgetting may have occurred, but returning to a place can result in memories returning e.g. returning to a crime scene, re-tracing your steps.

# data[].attributes.body
- Associated with your internal physiological and/or psychological state when the memory was formed.

- Intrinsic retrieval cues: mood, anxiety levels, drug affected, intoxicated or sober.
- State dependant retrieval: better recall of info when the physiological/psychological states of learning an retrieval match.

# data[].attributes.body
- Info enters STM where it is stored for 18 - 20 seconds (up to 30) before it drops out, unless we do something with it.
- Rehearsal is consciously manipulating info to facilitate a longer duration in STM.
- Rehearsal increases the duration of STM beyond 30 seconds, meaning that there is more chance of transferring into to LTM.

# data[].attributes.body
Involves repeating (verbally and non-verbally) the info being remembered over and over again so that it can be retained in STM for longer than 30 seconds.

# data[].attributes.body
- Allows info to be stored in LTM for longer than the usual 18 - 20 seconds (up to 30).
- Good for remembering meaningless info.

# data[].attributes.body
- Easily interrupted by info entering STM or LTM.
- Does not add meaning to the info being remembered.
- Restricts entry of info of new info into STM

# data[].attributes.body
The process of linking new info in a meaningful way with other info already stored in LTM to aid in storage and retrieval from LTM. Linking info to personal experience.