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Daumier, H. . Gargantua [Lithograph 23.5 × 30.6 cm (9 1/4 × 12 1/16 in.)] Bibliothèque-musée de l’Opéra, Paris, France. 

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Daumier created this lithograph during a time of great civil unrest in France. Daumier's "“Gargantua,”  is a satirical lithograph he made mocking corruption and profligacy in the government of King Louis-Philippe I.". (Cummings, 2018)  The publication of this caricature led to Daumier's persecution as there was no freedom of the press in France at the time. The use of lithography and sketches became crucial to many print outlets during this time as "the medium of lithography allows for quick, sketchy, images, which create a sense of movement - and also a sense of a candid moment." (Artble, 2017). The people of 19th century France were desperate for the truth and  the lithograph's honest non sugar coated presentation of events fit the need for transparency within media and politics at the time. Gargantua is a perfect example of a peoples growing disillusionment with power
Artble. (2017, July 19). Honoré Daumier. Artble. https://www.artble.com/artists/honore_daumier#:~:text=Honor%C3%A9%20Daumier%20was%20best%20known,century%20French%20society%20and%20politics.

Cummings, M. (2018, September 27). Yale Art Gallery Exhibit Celebrates Lasting Value of Caricature. Yale News. https://news.yale.edu/2018/09/26/yale-art-gallery-exhibit-celebrates-lasting-value-caricature

Daumier, H. (2018, September 26). Gargantua [Lithograph 23.5 × 30.6 cm (9 1/4 × 12 1/16 in.)] Bibliothèque-musée de l’Opéra, Paris, France. Yale News. Yale. Retrieved May 10, 2023, from https://news.yale.edu/2018/09/26/yale-art-gallery-exhibit-celebrates-lasting-value-caricature.

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Monet, C. (2023, April 6). Impression, Sunrise [Oil on Canvas 48 cm × 63 cm (18.9 in × 24.8 in)] Musée Marmottan Monet, Paris, France. 

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Monet's Impression, Sunrise famously inspired the name for the art movement Impressionism after "the critic Louis Leroy accused it of being a sketch or “impression,” not a finished painting." (Samu, 2004).  Impressionism was invented by a group of independent artists who broke from the Salon to create their own exhibition (Samu, 2004). During the late 19th century modernity became a central focus of most societies. The Impressionists mirrored this societal shift in their work as they "focused on modernity, embodied in its rejection of established styles, its incorporation of new technology and ideas, and its depiction of modern life." (Samu, 2004). Impressionist works often depicted daily scenes in bright, unnatural hues which was a stark departure from the subdued colors used in most celebrated art pieces at the time. Impression, Sunrise showcases the ideals of modern time as it sheds a whole new light on a common scene found in real life, the sun rising over boaters. While the subject was not new, the way it was portrayed in bright, unnatural colors and in an abstract, not easily decipherable way, hints at the future of art as it drifts further and further from realism during the 20th century.

Monet, C. (2023, April 6). Impression, sunrise [Oil on Canvas 48 cm × 63 cm (18.9 in × 24.8 in)] Musée Marmottan Monet, Paris, France. Art in Context. Art in Context. Retrieved May 10, 2023, from https://artincontext.org/impression-sunrise-claude-monet/.

Samu, M. (2004, October). Impressionism: Art and Modernity. The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/imml/hd_imml.htm

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Picasso, P. (2015, August 9). Les demoiselles d’Avignon [Oil on canvas, 8′ x 7′ 8″ (243.9 x 233.7 cm)] Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY. 

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Cubism came at a time when society was deconstructing and changing at a rapid pace due to the industrial revolution and new technology being introduced to the world. Society was becoming more and more modernized and the abstractness of Cubism often reflected the fragmentation of society that many felt during the beginning of the 20th century. Cubism reflected a divergence from the ordered, three dimensional world of previous centuries and instead chose a more compartmentalized, sharp version of reality. Cubist artists concentrated on "breaking objects and figures down into distinct areas – or planes – the artists aimed to show different viewpoints at the same time and within the same space and so suggest their three dimensional form." (Tate). Les demoiselles d’Avignon is a perfect example of Cubism and the obsession early 20th century artists had with geometry and shapes. The harsh angles create irregular, shattered forms out of geometric shapes and the muted color pattern is another staple of early Cubism. Much of Picasso's work is a testament to globalization as well as he drew inspiration from African masks, which underscores the ever changing and widening world Cubists lived in.

Picasso, P. (2015, August 9). Les demoiselles d’Avignon [Oil on canvas, 8′ x 7′ 8″ (243.9 x 233.7 cm)] Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY. SmartHistory. SmartHistory. Retrieved May 10, 2023, from https://smarthistory.org/pablo-picasso-les-demoiselles-davignon/.

Tate. (n.d.). Cubism. Tate. https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/c/cubism#:~:text=Cubism%20was%20a%20revolutionary%20new,that%20appear%20fragmented%20and%20abstracted

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Balla, G. (1912). Dynamism of a dog on a leash [Oil on canvas] Albright–Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, NY. 

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Futurism is an art style that came about during the early 20th century and is usually called Italian Futurism, as most Futurist artists were Italian. Italian Futurism was entirely devoted to the idea of Modernization. Its champions wanted to bring Italy into the forefront of the modern world as they felt it had fallen behind other world powers like the U.S and Germany. In their manifesto they claimed that they "aimed to overthrow the previous generation of art in favor of the art of violence, war, steel and most importantly: speed."  (Art History Project). Gone were the realistic paintings obsessed with portraying things exactly as they seemed. The Futurists instead focused on anything new, face paced, and violent. Balla's famous Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash is the most well known of the Italian Futurists work. It clearly is an homage to the Futurist obsession with dynamism and speed. Not only was Balla championing speed, he was also tipping his hat to the new found art of chronophotography. Chronophotography "is a photographic technique where multiple photographs are taken in rapid succession to capture the movement of a subject." (Art History Project). In Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash, Balla created a dynamic piece that showcased the Futurists love of speed and also their love of modernity and new technology. This work is a clear representation of a generation of Italians wanting to once again set the standards for the art world.

Art History Project. (n.d.). Dynamism of a dog on a leash. Art History Project. https://www.arthistoryproject.com/artists/giacomo-balla/dynamism-of-a-dog-on-a-leash/

Balla, G. (1912). Dynamism of a dog on a leash [Oil on canvas] Albright–Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, NY. Buffalo AKG Art Museum. Buffalo AKG Art Museum. Retrieved May 11, 2023, from https://buffaloakg.org/artworks/196416-dinamismo-di-un-cane-al-guinzaglio-dynamism-dog-leash.

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Motley, A. J. (1922). Portrait of my grandmother [ Oil on canvas] National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. 

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The Harlem Renaissance began around the end of WWI and continued into the 1930's. It was a movement of black artists based in Harlem and was "a period of rich cross-disciplinary artistic and cultural activity among African Americans" (National Gallery of Art). The artists of the Harlem Renaissance "asserted pride in black life and identity, a rising consciousness of inequality and discrimination, and interest in the rapidly changing modern world—many experiencing a freedom of expression through the arts for the first time." (National Gallery of Art). The Harlem Renaissance gave a voice and a platform to many talented African American artists that had been ignored within the art world for centuries. The movement came at a time when the American social landscape was changing for many, and the Harlem Renaissance ensured that African Americans would not be left out of this new chapter in American history. Archibald Motley's Portrait of my Grandmother showcases the dignity of his elderly Grandmother, who's body shows the sign of years of hard labor. This echoes the emphasis the artists of the Harlem Renaissance placed on honoring and giving dignity to those who had been denied it for years, without covering up the hard lives they were forced to endure simply because they existed as black people in America. This movement showed that African Americans were done being pushed into the background, it was time for them, and the stories they carried written on their bodies and in their souls, to step into the light and be heard.

Motley, A. J. (1922). Portrait of my grandmother [ Oil on canvas] National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. National Gallery of Art. National Gallery of Art. Retrieved May 11, 2023, from https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.206066.html.

National Gallery of Art. (n.d.). Harlem Renaissance. National Gallery of Art. https://www.nga.gov/learn/teachers/lessons-activities/uncovering-america/harlem-renaissance.html

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Dali, S. (1931). The persistence of memory [Oil on canvas 9 1/2 x 13" (24.1 x 33 cm)] MoMA, New York City, NY. 

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In the late 1920's an art movement called Surrealism began to take shape. This movement came about after the violence and blood shed of WWI. During the aftermath of the Great War many people, artists especially, had become disillusioned with the physical world and reality as the hope of the modern 20th century had so far only amounted to carnage. The artists that practiced this style claimed that "Surrealism aims to revolutionize human experience. It balances a rational vision of life with one that asserts the power of the unconscious and dreams. The movement’s artists find magic and strange beauty in the unexpected and the uncanny, the disregarded and the unconventional." (Tate). When creating their art many Surrealists "have used automatic drawing or writing to unlock ideas and images from their unconscious minds. Others have wanted to depict dream worlds or hidden psychological tensions." (Tate) Salvador Dali is a bastion of Surrealism and embodies much of what the movement stood for. His painting the The Persistence of Memory was most likely created using Dali's "“paranoiac-critical method,” where he cultivated self-induced psychotic hallucinations in order to create art." (MoMA) which falls in line with the Surrealist use of automation when creating art. This painting represented Dali's "theories of 'softness' and 'hardness', which were central to his thinking at the time. His message is, that our subliminal unconscious mind is present in what we do in our daily lives and has more power over us than man-made objects of the conscious world." (The Dali Universe, 2017). This idea of our unconscious mind was a key focal point in the Surrealist manifesto and is what inspired many of their most famous works. It was clearly also a way to escape and "rise above" the often disappointing hollowness of the real world.

Dali, S. (1931). The persistence of memory [Oil on canvas 9 1/2 x 13" (24.1 x 33 cm)] MoMA, New York City, NY. Museum of Modern Art. Museum of Modern Art. Retrieved May 11, 2023, from https://www.moma.org/collection/works/79018.

The Dalí Universe. (2017, October 10). A Brief History of the Surrealist Image - The Persistence of Memory. The Dalí Universe. https://www.thedaliuniverse.com/en/news-brief-history-the-surrealist-image-the-persistence-memory#:~:text=The%20painting%20epitomizes%20Dal%C3%AD%20’s,objects%20of%20the%20conscious%20world.

The Museum of Modern Art. (n.d.). Salvador Dalí. The Persistence of Memory. The Museum of Modern Art. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/79018

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de Kooning, Wi. (1952). Woman I [Oil and metallic paint on canvas, 6’ 3 7/8" x 58" (192.7 x 147.3 cm)] MoMA, New York City, NY. 

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Abstract Expressionism was born in the aftermath of WWII. It was one of the first American movements to achieve international recognition. It was largely influenced by European artists who fled Europe after the rise of Fascism and was highly influenced by Surrealism (Tate). Much like society after the first World War, people living through the 40's were left reeling after the carnage they witnessed for the second time in 20 years. Much like the Surrealists had in the 20's, the artists that practiced abstract expressionism sought to upend political, social, and cultural conventions that had so far, caused nothing but loss in the 20th century. The artists "broke away from accepted conventions in both technique and subject matter, the artists made monumentally scaled works that stood as reflections of their individual psyches—and in doing so, attempted to tap into universal inner sources." (Paul, 2004). The young artists were, much like the rest of society "troubled by man’s dark side and anxiously aware of human irrationality and vulnerability, they wanted to express their concerns in a new art of meaning and substance." (Paul, 2004). One type of Abstract Expressionism was called action painting. Artists who practiced this style "worked in a spontaneous improvisatory manner often using large brushes to make sweeping gestural marks." (Tate). It was thought that  "in this way the action painters directly placed their inner impulses onto the canvas." (Tate). de Kooning was an action painter, and his painting Woman I was a new take on the classic nude. It was seen as grotesque and as a mockery of the traditional European nude. However, de Kooning and other Abstract expressionists , viewed it as a new representation of a classic subject. de Kooning especially saw it as "a continuation of his earlier explorations of the human figure and an opportunity to further experiment with the wide-ranging methods of applying paint to canvas." (MoMA). In leaving his mark on the canvas with deliberate, often thick brushwork de Kooning was practicing Abstract Expressionist ideal of placing his identity on the canvas. In a way, his "clumsy strokes" were his signature and "evidence of the actual process of the work’s creation" (MoMA) and therefore a crucial piece of the art itself

de Kooning, Wi. (1952). Woman i [Oil and metallic paint on canvas, 6’ 3 7/8" x 58" (192.7 x 147.3 cm)] MoMA, New York City, NY. MoMA Learning. MoMA Learning. Retrieved May 11, 2023, from https://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/willem-de-kooning-woman-i-1950-52-2/.

MoMA. (n.d.). Woman I. MoMA. https://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/willem-de-kooning-woman-i-1950-52-2/

Paul, S. (2004, October). Abstract Expressionism. The Met. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/abex/hd_abex.htm

Tate. (n.d.-a). Abstract Expressionism. Tate. https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/a/abstract-expressionism

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Warhol, A. (1962). Campbell’s soup cans [ Canvas, Synthetic polymer paint  20 by 16 inches (51 cm × 41 cm)] MoMA, New York City, NY. Artland Magazine

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Pop Art is perhaps the most recognizable form of Modern art that we in America know today. Pop art "began as a revolt against the dominant approaches to art and culture and traditional views on what art should be." (Tate). Many young artists became disillusioned with the classical art they had been taught in school and felt that "what they saw in museums did not have anything to do with their lives or the things they saw around them every day. Instead they turned to sources such as Hollywood movies, advertising, product packaging, pop music and comic books for their imagery." (Tate). Western Culture, especially American culture, saw a sudden boom in commercialization during the decades after WWII due to America's growing economic success. Artists wanted to portray the bright, materialistic world that Americans found themselves thrust into. Marketing became highly influential during this time and many companies began to use bright, and busy labels to convince consumers to buy their products. Pop Artists also began to focus on creating mass produced and gimmicky art pieces. Andy Warhol's famous Campbell’s Soup Cans is a classic example of Pop Art. Warhol painted thirty-two canvases, one for each flavor of soup that Campbell's sold and displayed them "together on shelves, like products in a grocery aisle." (MoMA Learning). By doing this Warhol "mimicked the repetition and uniformity of advertising by carefully reproducing the same image across each individual canvas." (MoMA Learning) and "encouraged people to be more observant of the world and commercial products around them." (Buffalo AKG Art Museum). While both of these are true, Warhol also painted these cans because he, like other Americans, liked soup! He embodied the Pop Art style of creating art out of mass produced iconic products that American's were familiar with in a way that provoked the public to pay closer attention to the ever changing world around them.

Buffalo AKG Art Museum. (n.d.). Andy Warhol. Buffalo AKG Art Museum. https://buffaloakg.org/artworks/k196326-100-cans

MoMA Learning. (n.d.). Campbell’s Soup Cans. MoMA Learning. https://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/andy-warhol-campbells-soup-cans-1962/

Tate. (n.d.-c). Pop art. Tate. https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/p/pop-art

Warhol, A. (1962). Campbell’s soup cans [ Canvas, Synthetic polymer paint  20 by 16 inches (51 cm × 41 cm)] MoMA, New York City, NY. Artland Magazine. Artland Magazine. Retrieved May 11, 2023, from https://magazine.artland.com/art-movement-pop-art/.

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Cut Piece performed by Yoko Ono on July 20, 1964 at Yamaichi Concert Hall, Kyoto, Japan. Photographer unknown; courtesy Lenono Photo Archive.

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For most of art history the term art was used only to represent things like statues, prints, and paintings. But thanks to the rise of Performance art, the term "art" could be used to describe physical "art that involves the body of the artist or other collaborators in live or recorded action." (Art in Context, 2022). Performance art is a way of infusing art with new life, and is used when the artist does not feel like their message would come across as strongly any other way. Performance art was used in the 1960's and 70's mainly by feminist artist as it "afforded women the opportunity to create edgy engagements about their frustrations with social, economic, and political injustice as well as empowering them with a platform to have discussions about female sexuality." (Art in Context, 2022). Women across the world were seeking to break out of their traditional roles, so it stands to reason that they would use non traditional art forms to educate the public and make their voices heard. Yoko Ono's Cut Piece did just that as she "used her body to highlight how traditional art exploited and exposed the female body for the consumption of the male gaze." (Art in Context, 2022). During Cut Piece Ono "invited the audience to cut the clothing off her body, making them complicit in the act of exposing her female form." (Art in Context, 2022). Using the unconventional media of Performance art put the responsibility of the commoditization of the female body on those who do not engage with media in an ethical way. The interactive nature of the piece showcased "how viewing without responsibility has the potential to harm or even destroy the object of perception." (Phaidon). The full meaning behind Cut Piece would not have been as potent in a different medium, thus illustrating the importance of visual, physical art that one can interact with. The impermanent form of Performance art often leaves the longest lasting impression.

Art in Context. (2022, September 1). Performance art - Take a Look at the Types of Performance Art. Art in Context. https://artincontext.org/performance-art/

Cut Piece performed by Yoko Ono on July 20, 1964 at Yamaichi Concert Hall, Kyoto, Japan. Photographer unknown; courtesy Lenono Photo Archive. Retrieved on May 11, 2023 from Phiadon | 100 https://www.phaidon.com/agenda/art/articles/2015/may/18/yoko-ono-s-cut-piece-explained/

Phaidon. (n.d.). Yoko Ono’s Cut Piece Explained. PHAIDON | 100. https://www.phaidon.com/agenda/art/articles/2015/may/18/yoko-ono-s-cut-piece-explained/

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Gonzalez-Torres, F. (1991). “Untitled” (perfect lovers) [Wall clocks and paint on wall clocks 14" diameter x 2 3/4" (35.6 cm diameter x 7 cm) each]

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"Untitled" (Perfect Lovers) - Félix González-Torres

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"Untitled" (Perfect Lovers) - Félix González-Torres

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Conceptual art "emerged as an art movement in the 1960s, critiquing the previously ruling modernist movement and its focus on the aesthetic." and champions "the idea or concept behind the work of art as more important than the actual technical skill or aesthetic." (Wolfe). Conceptual artists often used a diverse array of materials in creating their works, often picking the medium they felt best communicated their message. Conceptual artists "explored the possibilities of art-as-idea and art-as-knowledge, using linguistic, mathematical, and process-oriented dimensions of thought as well as invisible systems, structures and processes for their art." (Wolfe). Conceptual art become popular during the tumultuous decades of the 60's and 70's. It came about partly as a backlash against the "increasingly commercialized art world by stressing thought processes and methods of production as the value of the work." (Tate). Conceptual artists often did not produce a finished work of art, like sculptures or paintings, so that "their work could not be easily bought and sold and did not need to be viewed in a formal gallery situation." (Tate). The Civil Rights movement, Feminist movement, and later, the AIDS crisis, ensured that "it was not just the structures of the art world that many conceptual artists questioned" and "there was often a strong socio-political dimension to much of the work they produced, reflecting wider dissatisfaction with society and government policies." (Tate). Felix Gonzalez-Torres work "Untitled" (Perfect Lovers) is a Conceptual art piece that has both personal and political undertones. His work consists of "two identical, battery-powered clocks which were initially set to precisely the same time, but inevitably they fall out of sync as the hours and days pass, one moving ahead as the other falls behind." (Artspace, 2015). This inevitable "falling out of sync" signifies a loss of connection and "was created shortly after the artist’s partner was diagnosed with AIDS."  (Artspace, 2015). Even the pale blue background has a meaning as it was added after Gonzalez-Torres's partners death and according to the artist is the color of a beautiful memory (Artspace, 2015). This simple work of two clocks on a blue wall is a beautiful tribute to "mortality, human relationships and the passing of time, and like much of the Cuban-born artist’s work, it transforms everyday objects into a meditation on love and loss." (Artspace, 2015). By using an unconventional medium that could seem arbitrary to those not in the know, the artist taps into the Conceptualist idea of the story behind the art being more important than the art itself. Also, by acknowledging the impact and personal devastation of the AIDS epidemic, Gonzalez-Torres in a masterful critique, highlights the response from the American government to treat those with AIDS as lepers, as being both cruel and ineffective.

Artspace. (2015, August 11). From Duchamp to Demand: 10 Masterpieces that Show the Evolution of Conceptual Art. Artspace. https://www.artspace.com/magazine/art_101/book_report/the-art-book-conceptual-art-1-53038

Gonzalez-Torres, F. (1991). “Untitled” (perfect lovers) [Wall clocks and paint on wall clocks 14" diameter x 2 3/4" (35.6 cm diameter x 7 cm) each] MoMA, New York City, NY. Felix Gonzalez-Torres Foundation. Felix Gonzalez-Torres Foundation. Retrieved May 11, 2023, from https://www.felixgonzalez-torresfoundation.org/works/untitled-perfect-lovers2.

Tate. (n.d.-b). Conceptual Art. Tate. https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/c/conceptual-art

Wolfe, S. (n.d.). Conceptual art: Development and Evolution. Artland Magazine. https://magazine.artland.com/conceptual-art/