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Synopsis for Cummins' L1 and  L2 Developmental Interdependency

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Synopsis for Cummins' L1 and  L2 Developmental Interdependency

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How do students apply prior knowledge to new learning? Cummins suggests there’s an interdependent relationship between the two. He argues that it is unnecessary for students to relearn content knowledge in L2, when they’ve already demonstrated proficiency of that same knowledge in L1. As educators, we value students' time, as well as our own, so Cummin’s Hypothesis of Developmental Interdependence is worth exploring. He proposes that L1 linguistic knowledge and skills that a child possesses can be extremely instrumental to the development of corresponding abilities in the L2 (Vrooman 2009). He recommends leveraging the skills from L1 to transfer to L2, which would result in more rapid progress in learning the content in L2. According to an article in Principles of Language Acquisition, Cummins perceives “time spent in learning academic content and literacy in the native language is not time lost to educational achievement in the L2.” Cummins leaves educators with what he calls Teaching for Transfer, leaving no room to abandon or isolate L1, but instead use it to strengthen L2, “effective teachers recognize and value the vast store of knowledge students have in their first language, and provide instruction that enables them to draw on this knowledge (Cummins 2017).”

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Jim Cummins - Methodology in Language and Translanguaging

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Jim Cummins - Methodology in Language and Translanguaging

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Meet Jim Cummins who explains how L1 and L2 are interdependent, and how one develops L2 proficiency when L1 skills are preserved and applied to L2, with opportunities to scaffold and practice using these skills whether it be listing, speaking, reading, and writing.

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The theory behind Cummins Iceberg Model is children can use the skills and concepts from their native language and apply them to learning a new language. This allows a transfer of skills and concepts instead of relearning. Children who are proficient and literate in their first native language are then able to learn a second language more rapidly than those who are not.

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Scaffolding Literacy Instruction for English Language Learners

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Scaffolding Literacy Instruction for English Language Learners

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This video shows a teacher utilizing strategies that encourages students to draw on what they know in their first language as they learn a second one. This lesson pairs fiction with non-fiction and emphasizes the importance of pacing, scaffolding, and processing time. Relevant text topics that engage students through connection and activates prior knowledge are used to compel students into working and being successful. Reading and vocabulary strategies are broken down and rehearsed so students become familiar with the language demands of each task. Reading strategies include close reading, text coding/annotating, and capturing notes. Vocabulary strategies include identifying unknown words and using context clues to define them. Throughout the lesson the teacher also stops to have students orally rehearse their thoughts and ideas. This strategy enhances development of language and critical thinking skills.

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Scaffolding Literacy Instruction for English Language Learners

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Using Language to Describe Learning Outcomes: Co-constructing...Sharing the Cognitive Load

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Using Language to Describe Learning Outcomes: Co-constructing...Sharing the Cognitive Load

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Rolstad (2003) introduced the concept of second language instructional competence, and argues that, "Learning to use and understand language in academic settings, is part of learning academic subject matter, just as learning to use and understand language in any out of school endeavor" (Rolstad 2003). This concept supports using students' L1 to understand school subject matter instruction in the majority language, acknowledging that ELs need time and learning experience before they are mainstreamed into classes where the a language teacher expert is not available. For example, at the middle school level, multilingual learners struggle to access curriculum in Social Studies and Science, where the demands of language are high. However, they may see success in an ESL/ELA classroom. View this video to learn how to co-construct learning outcomes with students, as they develop academic language necessary to engage in the learning process.

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Capture, manage, and search all your video content.

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The additive bilingualism enrichment principle, proposed by Jim Cummins, posits that high proficiency in both languages yields cognitive advantages, emphasizing linguistic and cognitive flexibility. It classifies bilinguals (Proficient, Partial, Limited) and distinguishes additive and subtractive bilingualism processes based on language proficiency levels.

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Virtual learning or educational experiences will build new schemas for MLL

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Virtual field trips are a game changer. Not only do they fill in for real field trips when budgets and other roadblocks prevent in-person options, but virtual field trips also open doors to educational experiences all over the country and the world, both past and present. No fundraising or permission slips required!

(Note: For anyone who needs it, YouTube offers a closed-captioning option. Just click the CC button in the bottom right-hand corner.)

Amazon Career Tours are free virtual field trips that inspire students to pursue careers of the future. Tour whenever, wherever on Kahoot! Each tour comes with a Teacher Toolkit that includes a facilitation guide and student worksheets.

2. The Zoo

There are so many amazing online options when it comes to zoos that we couldn't narrow it down to just one. Most zoos have live webcams in some of their most popular exhibits, such as the KC Zoo Polar Bear Cam and the Giant Panda Cam at Smithsonian's National Zoo. However, some zoos offer a more in-depth look. You'll definitely want to check out the San Diego Zoo as their site for kids includes behind-the-scenes videos and stories, as well as a variety of printable activities and online games. Check out our full list of virtual zoo goodness.

3. The Aquarium

It's a similar story with aquariums. You have your pick of live webcams, but our favorites are the Georgia Aquarium's Ocean Voyager webcam (wait for the whale shark!) and the "Jelly Cam" at Monterey Bay Aquarium (so soothing). The Seattle Aquarium even has a 30-minute video tour. Want more under-the-sea fun? Here's our ultimate list of virtual aquarium field trips.

4. The Farm

The classic preschool field trip goes online! You can have your pick of dairy farm field trips, but we like this one from the Dairy Alliance and this one from Stonyfield Organic. Farm Food 360 gives students the opportunity to immerse themselves in Canadian farm and food tours-from raising pigs to making milk and cheese. We're also loving these virtual egg farm field trips from the American Egg Board.

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5. An Art Museum

We found 20 art museums with virtual tours, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art's # MetKids and its awesome Where's Waldo? setup. And you can't miss the world-famous Louvre in Paris (no passport needed!). Check out the current virtual tours: Traveling Materials and Objects, the Advent of the Artist, the Body in Movement, and Founding Myths: From Hercules to Darth Vader!

6. A National Park

From webcams at Hawaii volcanoes to a virtual run along the rim of the Grand Canyon, you have tons of options here. Our top pick would have to be Yellowstone. The interactive maps are a great way to see the Mammoth Hot Springs and Mud Volcano, but we think kids will be psyched about the Old Faithful Geyser livestream and the opportunity to make their own predictions for its next eruption. Check out everything the National Park Service has to offer virtually.

7. A Planetarium

Through Stellarium Web, kids can explore over 60,000 stars, locate planets, and watch sunrises and solar eclipses. If you enter your location, you can see all the constellations that are visible in the night sky in your corner of the world.

Take your students on a virtual field trip of a recycling center and a modern landfill. Plus, there's a full-on curriculum that includes lesson plans, take-home handouts, and more.

Nickelodeon teamed up with two astronauts on the International Space Station to demonstrate how slime reacts to microgravity and had kids reproduce those same demonstrations back here on Earth. It makes for an amazing 15-minute virtual field trip.

The Nature Conservancy has a brand-new virtual field trip entitled "You're the Scientist! Citizen Science, Frogs & Cicadas." Check out their full library of videos on topics like climate change and water security.

Discovery Education hosts a variety of virtual events -each with a companion guide with hands-on learning activities. Current offerings include "Making a New Life: The Courage of a Refugee" and "The Future Is Now" (architectural and engineering innovations). Stay tuned for their upcoming civics virtual field trip, "The American Ideal."

This virtual field trip from Great Lakes Now has three components: coastal wetlands, algae, and lake sturgeon. Each video is a quick five minutes long.

Explore online exhibits and discover the history and evolution of play. Check out board games that changed play, sports video games that shaped digital play, and the making of Monopoly to name a few.

Kids can learn about the most recent Census and how census data is collected and used. This virtual field trip also features interviews with subject matter experts and an interactive challenge.

The "Museum of We the People," the Constitution Center serves as a "headquarters for civic education." Check out the Interactive Constitution section, and be sure to watch the virtual tour.

Houston, we have a virtual field trip. Three, actually. All with companion educator guides. The star of the show is the behind-the-scenes tour of the Johnson Space Center.

Boise State put together this fully interactive virtual field trip with text, photos, audio, and video about the history of music. The four featured music locations are: Vienna, Austria; New Orleans, Louisiana; Cleveland, Ohio; and Bristol, Tennessee-Virginia.

This living-history museum provides a look into life in an early American community. The website offers five different webcams featuring areas such as the tavern and the armory.

This virtual experience of George Washington's home is incredibly well done. Enter the different buildings-from the opulent mansion to the chilling slave quarters-and click on different items for video and text explanations.

This virtual tour comes with a real tour guide! Blaine Kortemeyer is the Assistant Chief of Interpretation and Education, who lends his expertise on the building of this national monument. The 3D Explorer is also an excellent tool.

Take a visit to the National WWII Museum for "a cross-country virtual expedition to discover the science, sites, and stories of the creation of the atomic bomb." Don't forget to download the classroom guide!

For a look inside the iconic building, check out the 360° tour of some of the most historic rooms of the People's House, from the Situation Room to the Oval Office. Examine each room and check out the contents up close.

The National Museum of Natural History's virtual experiences are self-guided, room-by-room tours of permanent, current, and past exhibits. Be sure to send kids to the second floor Bone Hall so they can take a look at all different kinds of skeletons.

A collaboration with over 1,200 leading museums and archives, Google Arts & Culture is an incredible storehouse of monumental works of art. We recommend the Street View and Play sections.

Boasting the world's largest collection of 360° image videos, 360 Cities provides kids with the opportunity to see stunning panoramas across the globe, including their video of the ice floe on the Vistula River in Poland.

It's the official residence of the Queen of England, and boy, is it opulent! Get a peek inside the gorgeous Grand Staircase, White Drawing Room, Throne Room, and Blue Drawing Room.

See one of the wonders of the world with this amazing, thousands-year-old fortification system known the world over. This virtual tour has four scenes available (you have to pay to get access to all 14). The bird's-eye view of Mutianyu pass is a highlight.

Most of us recognize the giant stone statues of Easter Island, but what's the story behind them? Nova's online adventure "Secrets of Easter Island" delves into the mystery with a virtual tour.

National Geographic lets you explore the world's largest cave, located in Vietnam. Use the interactive map to enjoy the fully immersive experience (sound on!).

You don't need a time machine! Discovering Ancient Egypt has a ton of free resources, but it's the interactive pyramid map and 3D temple reconstructions that really give it a field trip feel.

Virtually visit Turn Back the Clock, a museum exhibit that ran for two years at the Museum of Science and Industry, Chicago. Through compelling personal stories, innovative interactive media, and pop culture artifacts, the exhibit takes guests through seven decades of history-from the dawn of the nuclear age to significant policy questions our leaders face today.

No, really! You can absolutely "go" to the red planet. With Access Mars, you can see the actual surface of Mars, recorded by NASA's Curiosity rover. Trust us-don't skip the intro. And if your kids liked that, check out this 4K tour of the moon. These may go down in history as some of the best virtual field trips your students get to experience.

Take a virtual tour of this historical battleship located on the Camden waterfront. This battleship has traveled more miles than any other!

No need to travel to Rome! Take in the amazing art and architecture located in the Vatican Museums with these 360-degree views.

Download the app and climb aboard the virtual tram line! Take a virtual walk through the Space Center Houston with informational stops along the way.

Virtually visit museum rooms in the famous Louvre located in Paris. Even check out The Louvre kids' site for student-friendly galleries and stories. You can't visit The Louvre without seeing the Mona Lisa, so check out their immersive Mona Lisa experience available in the app store.

This interactive tour of Ellis Island lets students explore places like the Baggage Room and the Stairs of Separation through short stories, historical photographs, videos, and audio clips. Students can also hear the stories of real kids who recently immigrated to the United States, explore colorful charts and graphs with immigration data, and watch a 30-minute movie that includes a Q&A with National Park Service Rangers who explain what coming to America was like for many immigrants.

38. Plimoth Patuxet Museums

Travel back to the 17th century with options for free, on-demand, digital resources or a live, 1-hour virtual school program led by a Plimoth Patuxet Contemporary Indigenous Museum Educator. Students explore Wampanoag daily life and history; discover the real history of Thanksgiving and the legend behind it; meet a 17th-century Pilgrim; get an interactive sneak peak into 17th-century wardrobes; and learn about simple machines and water power at the Plimoth Grist Mill. There are also options for virtual hands-on history workshops, including Wampanoag Pottery and Write Like a Pilgrim.

When you can't visit the museum in person, 3D virtual field trips to the Children's Museum Houston are the next best thing. All videos are produced and curated by museum educators and feature hands-on activities that can be done in the classroom. Topics include nutrition, math, states of matter, forces and properties of water, and more.

Beyond the Battle Field is a virtual field trip for grades 2-8 hosted by Lauren Tarshis, author of the I Survived historical-fiction series for kids. Students will meet a museum educator as well as the museum curator, and explore artifacts and documents from the American Revolution. Plus they'll hear the stories of teens who served during the war. There's also a Classroom Kit available with a vocabulary list and discussion questions by grade level.

If you liked this roundup of the best virtual field trips and want more resources like this, be sure to subscribe to our newsletters.

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40 Amazing Educational Virtual Field Trips

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You can't always get there in person, but lots of places will let you "visit" online. These are the best virtual field trips out there!

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Schema activation can happen through read aloud. It should start in their native language, and then there should be a transition by using a dual language read aloud. Eventually, L2 read alouds should be the ultimate goal.

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Almasi, J.F. (1996). A new view of discussion. In L.B. Gambrell & J.F. Almasi (Eds.), Lively discussions! Fostering engaged reading (pp. 2-24). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

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Anderson, R.C. (1994). Role of the readers' schema in comprehension, learning, and memory. In R.B. Ruddell, M.R. Ruddell, & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (4th ed., pp. 448-468). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Baker, L., Dreher, M.J., & Guthrie, J.T. (2000). Engaging young readers: Promoting achievement and motivation. New York: Guilford.

Barrentine, S.J. (1996). Engaging with reading through interactive read-alouds. The Reading Teacher, 50(1), 36-43.

Block, C.C., & Johnson, R.B. (2002). The thinking process approaches to comprehension development: Preparing students for their future comprehension changes. In C.C. Block, L.B. Gambrell, & M. Pressley (Eds.), Improving comprehension instruction: Rethinking research, theory, and classroom practice (pp. 54-79). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Chan, C., Burtis, P.J., Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1992). Constructive activity in learning from text. American Educational Research Quarterly, 29(1), 97-118.

Cramer, R.L. (2004). The language arts: A balanced approach to teaching reading, writing, listening, talking, and thinking. New York: Pearson Education.

Cullinan, B.E. (Ed.). (1993). Children's voices: Talk in the classroom. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Cunningham, P.M., & Allington, R.L. (2007). Classrooms that work: They can all read and write. New York: Pearson Education.

DeLisi, R., & Golbeck, S.L. (1999). Implications of Piagetian Theory for peer learning. In A.M. O'Donnell & A. King (Eds.), Cognitive perspectives on peer learning (pp. 3-37). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Dolezal, S.E., Welsh, L.M., Pressley, M., & Vincent, M.M. (2003). How nine third-grade teachers motivate student academic engagement. The Elementary School Journal, 103(3), 239-267. doi:10.1086/499725

Duke, N.K., & Pearson, P.D. (2002). Effective practices for developing reading comprehension. In A.E. Farstrup & S.J. Samuels (Eds.), What research has to say about reading instruction (3rd ed., pp. 205-242). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Fish, S. (1980). Is there a text in this class: The authority of interpretive communities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Graves, M.F., Juel, C., & Graves, B.B. (2006). Teaching reading in the 21st century. New York: Pearson Education.

Gunning, T.A. (2010). Creating literacy instruction for all students (7th ed.). New York: Pearson Education.

Guthrie, J.T. (2004). Teaching for literacy engagement. Journal of Literacy Research, 36(1), 1-29. doi:10.1207/s15548430jlr3601_2

Guthrie, J.T., & Wigfield, A. (2000). Engagement and motivation in reading. In M.L. Kamil, P.B. Mosenthal, P.D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 3, pp. 403-422). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Hampton, S., & Resnick, L.B. (2009). Reading and writing with understanding: Comprehension in fourth and fifth grades. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Harvey, S., & Goudvis, A. (2007). Strategies that work: Teaching comprehension to enhance understanding and engagement. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.

Hoyt, L. (1999). Revisit, reflect, retell: Strategies for improving reading comprehension. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Keene, E., & Zimmerman, S. (2006). Mosaic of thought: Teaching comprehension in a reader's workshop. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

King, A., Staffieri, A., & Adelgais, A. (1997). Mutual peer tutoring: Effects of structuring tutorial interaction to scaffold higher level complex learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1), 134-152.

Klesius, J.P., & Griffith, P.L. (1996). Interactive storybook reading for at-risk learners. The Reading Teacher, 49(7), 552-560.

McCormick, S. (1977). Should you read aloud to your children? Language Arts, 54(2), 139-143.

Miller, D. (2002). Reading with meaning: Teaching comprehension in the primary grades. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.

Morrison, V.B. (2005). Meaning-making during small group, peerled discussions of narrative and informational texts: A case study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan.

Palincsar, A.S., & Herrenkohl, L.R. (1999). Designing collaborative contexts: Lessons from three research programs. In A.M.

O'Donnell & A. King (Eds.), Cognitive perspectives on peer learning (pp. 151-177). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Pearson, P.D., Hansen, J., & Gordon, C. (1979). The effect of background knowledge on young children's comprehension of explicit and implicit information. Journal of Reading Behavior, 11(3), 201-209.

Pressley, M. (2006). Reading instruction that works: The case for balanced teaching. New York: Guilford.

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Revisiting Read Alouds: Instructional Strategies that Encourage Students' Engagement with Text

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Learn about evidence-based practices that encourage first graders' engagement with texts. The authors review reading as a transactional process, revisit the benefits of reading aloud to students, discuss three literacy strategies implemented in one first-grade classroom, and share examples of student work.

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This is a modification of the FRAYER model for ELL/MLL students to help them build their vocabulary.

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Preview - View- Review helps students make connections between the L2 and their L1

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Are your bilingual students struggling to make meaningful cross linguistic connections in the classroom? One minute they know exactly what they are doing, but once the language of instruction changes they feel completely lost and overwhelmed? No, you are not a bad teacher! And yes, your students are learning. They are just struggling with translanguaging, or the ability to access different linguistic features in all known languages. To promote translanguaging, we must implement strategies for bridging between languages, and the preview view review strategy is the perfect place to start.
If you would like to learn more about the preview-view-review strategy and eight other killer teaching strategies for your dual-language or bilingual classroom, click on this link to get my FREE guide. In this guide, I am sharing nine teaching strategies that will help you set your students on a path towards biliteracy and bilingualism. These are strategies you can start implementing immediately and see amazing results. Click here to get your own copy of the free guide. You can thank me later!
The preview view review strategy is one of many dual language teaching strategies used to help students make connections between the target language and their first language. Preview view review helps bilingual learners by previewing and reviewing the content of the lesson in the students' dominant language. We are not translating! We are building schema and summarizing learning in the dominant language, but most of the instruction is still happening in the target language.

Here is an example of this strategy in action. A fourth-grade teacher is preparing to teach 'central idea' in Spanish. But some students in her class are only learning Spanish. 'Central idea' is a tough concept, and the teacher wants to make sure all students understand it. So she shows students a quick video in English about 'central idea.' Now, Spanish language learners have some background knowledge on the topic. This will help them understand the rest of the lesson. At the end of the lesson, the teacher wants to get a sense of where her students are. She poses a question in English, and students turn and talk to a friend. The teacher targets any students who are learning Spanish by listening in as they talk to their peers. This can help the teacher detect any misconceptions and address them in the future.

Why is preview view review important?

As bilingual teachers, it is our job to teach our students how to make those cross language connections which will help them develop two languages simultaneously. The goal is always to promote bilingualism and biliteracy.

Research shows that " multilingual students who learn about how their two languages are similar and different achieve higher levels of academic achievement" (Dressler et al, 2011, de Jong, 2011). This means that we should encourage students to examine both languages to determine their similarities and differences and create connections. But students won't know how to make these connections if we don't teach them how. We have to use dual language teaching strategies for bridging language every day. One of these strategies is preview view review.

How to implement the preview view review strategy in your classroom

Implementing this strategy in the classroom is easier than you think! Best of all, it only takes a few minutes before and after each lesson. But the payoff is huge! Once I started to implement this strategy in my classroom daily, I saw huge growth in my students. Here are three easy ways that I have used this strategy in my class.

Anchor charts are your best friends

Whenever I introduce a new topic, I always create an anchor chart with my students. This anchor chart is the perfect place to record those cross linguistic connections you are making with your students.

I often use our preview time to review the previous lesson (if we are still working on the same concept.) This allows me to pull out the anchor chart we create on day one to add words in the other language.

Pro tip #1: Assign a color for English and a color for Spanish. Many people use blue for English and red for Spanish, but you could choose different colors if you want to.

Pro tip#2: Be careful that you are not translating every word. You want students to do some thinking on their own. If you translate everything, you are doing all the work for them.

Up the engagement with interactive notebooks

I love using interactive notebooks that go with the anchor charts I am creating. I teach fourth grade, and I am a huge proponent of teaching note taking skills in upper elementary. Note-taking is a great way to improve focus and content retention. Interactive notebooks are great tools for note-taking because it allows you to give students a skeleton of the anchor chart you are creating. Students only have to fill in the blanks with some information, which saves a lot of time and helps students stay organized.

To make it easy for my students to take notes in class, I have created printable anchor charts and interactive notebook pages that go together. As we complete the anchor chart together, students add the same information to their notebooks. You can read more about how I use these anchor charts and interactive notebooks in my classroom by clicking here.

Anchor charts and interactive notebooks can support second language acquisition in your classroom.

During the preview portion of my lesson, I always have students write the keywords I am adding to my anchor chart on their interactive notebooks. My students always have a red pen and a blue pen in their pencil boxes. If the information they are writing is in English, they use a blue pen. If the information is in Spanish, they use the red pen. This helps them discriminate between the languages.

Make it student-centered

The preview view review strategy is all about the students and helping them make cross language connections on a regular basis. So it is important that you don't become the 'sage on the stage.' I like to use the gradual release model of instruction to slowly shift the responsibility onto my students.

Whenever we begin working on a new concept, I always lead the preview portion of the lesson. I need to explicitly make those linguistic connections for all my students. However, I always get students to participate during the review portion of the lesson. I love using 'turn and talks' for that. I ask students a question that summarizes what we did throughout the lesson, and they share their answers with a partner. If needed, I give them a sentence stem to scaffold the conversation. As they talk, I walk around and listen. In the end, I either ask who wants to share or call on a specific student who had a really great answer (I always check with that student privately before calling on them. I do not believe in cold calls!)

As the week progresses, I begin to get students more involved during the preview portion of the lesson as well. Sometimes, I even ask if one of my students wants to lead that part of the lesson. This is something that requires practice, but after you have been using preview view review in your classroom for a while, your students will know exactly what to do. If you struggle with relinquishing control in your classroom, just remember that you can always interject if things start to take a wrong turn!

Preview view review for the win

I hope this has helped you see how you can use the preview view review strategy in your classroom for bridging language and promoting translanguaging. This strategy has completely transformed my instruction, and I know it can do the same for you. Best of all, it is quite simple to implement. Just remember to be very intentional about it.
Also, don't forget to download my FREE guide with nine teaching strategies for dual-language teachers. It's a must-have! Click here to get your own copy.
Happy teaching!
Related resources: Translanguaging in Curriculum and Instruction: A CUNY-NYSIEB Guide for Educators
Okapi Educational Publishing video
Note-Taking: A Research Roundup A Third Way - A Third Space: Bridging Between Languages

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Three easy ways to use the preview view review strategy in your classroom - The Dual Language Hero

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The preview view review strategy is a dual language teaching strategy to help students make linguistic connections between target and dominant languages.

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Word maps help MLL integrate new words

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Baumann, J. F., & Kameenui, E. J. (1991). Research on vocabulary instruction: Ode to Voltaire. In J. Flood, J. D. Lapp, & J. R. Squire (Eds.), Handbook of research on teaching the English Language Arts (pp. 604-632). New York: Macmillan.

Colorín Colorado. (2007). Using Science to Develop ELLs Language Skills .

Jones, R. (2007). Strategies for Reading Comprehension: Vocabulary Word Maps .

Jones, R.C., & Thomas, T.G. (2006). Leave No Discipline Behind. The Reading Teacher, 60(1), 58-64.

Schwartz, R. M., & Raphael, T. E. (1985). Concept of definition: A key to improving students' vocabulary. The Reading Teacher, 39, 198-205

Texas Education Agency. (2002). Teaching Word Meanings as Concepts .

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A word map is a visual organizer that promotes vocabulary development. Using a graphic organizer, students think about terms or concepts in several ways. Most word map organizers engage students in developing a definition, synonyms, antonyms, and a picture for a given vocabulary word or concept.