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There is a wide range of people from different backgrounds working as paid caregivers in the United States. Each brings their own unique experiences and views to their jobs.

Diversity in race and ethnicity:

General Statistics: About 40% of the 53 million family caregivers in the United States are not White. 17% are Hispanic, 14% are African American, and 5% are Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI). https://www.caregiving.org/national-analysis-of-diverse-families-reveals-how-systemic-inequities-impact-caregivers/

For example, African American caregivers are more likely to say their health is "fair to poor" and have trouble paying their bills because they care for others, even though they find "meaning" in their job. Hispanic caregivers also say their own health is getting worse and they have less access to help. AAPI caregivers also say they have trouble getting care.

There is a big difference between men and women in the number of caregivers for seniors: 88% are women and only 12% are men. The average age of people who care for seniors is 47.7 years. Based on these numbers, most of the people working in senior care are middle-aged women. https://www.zippia.com/senior-caregiver-jobs/demographics/

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An Enhanced Sense of Wellbeing: Helping others often gives caregivers an enhanced sense of wellbeing. This is supported by research that shows giving support triggers a neural pathway that enhances well-being.

Diverse Job Experience: Caregivers need to be able to adapt to different lifestyles, backgrounds, and needs. This gives them a wide range of experiences that are important for both job growth and personal fulfillment.

Schedules that work for you: Many caregiving jobs let you choose your own hours, so you can work part-time, full-time, nights, or weekends to fit your needs.

Opportunities for Continuous Learning: Because each person has different needs, caregivers are always learning new skills and techniques that help them connect with clients better.

Appreciation from Others: Helpers feel very good when the families of people who need care thank them and appreciate them.

Building relationships: One of the most rewarding parts of caregiving is getting to know your clients and building trusted relationships with them. This makes life better for both the caretaker and the client.

Professional Growth: Being a caregiver is a great way to learn a lot of useful skills, like how to help someone with personal care or dementia, as well as how to handle your time, stay organized, and talk to people.

Intergenerational relationships that are good: Caregivers can connect with people from different groups and backgrounds, and they can often learn new things, like how to speak a foreign language.

Enriching Experiences: Making care plans and helping older people stay independent can be very important and enjoyable.

Using Your Strengths: People who work as caregivers can find clients who are a good fit for them, which can spark imagination, especially when working with people who have cognitive impairments.

https://covey.org/caregiving/

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The federal government wants Medicare to pay professionals to teach family caregivers how to do things like bathe and dress their loved ones and use medical tools correctly.

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US News is a recognized leader in college, grad school, hospital, mutual fund, and car rankings. Track elected officials, research health conditions, and find news you can use in politics, business, health, and education.

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Local caregiver support groups can be found in senior centers, doctor's offices, and recreation centers. They help caregivers deal with the mental challenges of their job.

A caregiver's support network must include doctors and other medical professionals who can give tips on care and deal with the problems that come up when caring for someone.

Friends and family: They can help caregivers in practical ways and offer mental support.

Religious groups and churches should offer support and help, especially when people are in need.

Professional Caregivers: Talking to other professional caregivers about the problems and stresses of caregiving can be very helpful.

Caregiving Groups: The Caregiver Action Network and the American Association of Caregiving Youth are two groups that help caregivers by giving them tools and advice.

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How to Build Your Caregiver Support Network

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It's no secret that caregiving is an emotionally and physically demanding (and draining!) job. As a caregiver, your main concern is usually the wellbeing of your patients, but you also need to take...

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Caregiving is hard on both the caregiver and the person being cared for. People who care for others say they are much more stressed than people who are not caregivers. An awful lot of caregivers help out or are "on call" all day. Most of the time, this means there isn't much time for work, friends, or family. Some people who care for an elderly, sick, or helpless family member may feel like they can't handle all the care they need.

Emotional and Physical Toll: Take care of the high emotional and physical demands of caring, such as compassion fatigue and burnout.

Job Insecurity: A lot of caregivers don't  have perks like health insurance or retirement plans.

Work-Life Balance: Look into the problems caregivers face when they try to balance their work and home lives.

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Caregivers care for someone with an illness, injury, or disability. Caregiving can be rewarding, but it can also be challenging. Stress from caregiving is common. Women especially are at risk for the harmful health effects of caregiver stress. These health problems may include depression or anxiety. There are ways to manage caregiver stress.

What is a caregiver?

A caregiver is anyone who provides care for another person in need, such as a child, an aging parent, a husband or wife, a relative, friend, or neighbor. A caregiver also may be a paid professional who provides care in the home or at a place that is not the person's home.

People who are not paid to give care are called informal caregivers or family caregivers. This fact sheet focuses on family caregivers who provide care on a regular basis for a loved one with an injury, an illness such as dementia, or a disability. The family caregiver often has to manage the person's daily life. This can include helping with daily tasks like bathing, eating, or taking medicine. It can also include arranging activities and making health and financial decisions.

Who are caregivers?

Most Americans will be informal caregivers at some point during their lives. A 2012 survey found that 36% of Americans provided unpaid care to another adult with an illness or disability in the past year.1 That percentage is expected to go up as the proportion of people in the United States who are elderly increases. Also, changes in health care mean family caregivers now provide more home-based medical care. Nearly half of family caregivers in the survey said they give injections or manage medicines daily.

Also, most caregivers are women.2 And nearly three in five family caregivers have paid jobs in addition to their caregiving.2

What is caregiver stress?

Caregiver stress is due to the emotional and physical strain of caregiving. Caregivers report much higher levels of stress than people who are not caregivers. Many caregivers are providing help or are "on call" almost all day. Sometimes, this means there is little time for work or other family members or friends. Some caregivers may feel overwhelmed by the amount of care their aging, sick or disabled family member needs.3

Although caregiving can be very challenging, it also has its rewards. It feels good to be able to care for a loved one. Spending time together can give new meaning to your relationship.

Remember that you need to take care of yourself to be able to care for your loved one. Learn some ways to manage caregiver stress and find resources.

Who gets caregiver stress?

Anyone can get caregiver stress, but more women caregivers say they have stress and other health problems than men caregivers.2 And some women have a higher risk for health problems from caregiver stress, including those who:

Care for a loved one who needs constant medical care and supervision. Caregivers of people with Alzheimer's disease or dementia are more likely to have health problems and to be depressed than caregivers of people with conditions that do not require constant care.4

Care for a spouse. Women who are caregivers of spouses are more likely to have high blood pressure, diabetes, and high cholesterol and are twice as likely to have heart disease as women who provide care for others, such as parents or children.5

Women caregivers also may be less likely to get regular screenings, and they may not get enough sleep or regular physical activity.3

What are the signs and symptoms of caregiver stress?

Caregiver stress can take many forms. For instance, you may feel frustrated and angry one minute and helpless the next. You may make mistakes when giving medicines. Or you may turn to unhealthy behaviors like smoking or drinking too much alcohol.6,7

Other signs and symptoms include:

Feeling overwhelmed

Feeling alone, isolated, or deserted by others

Sleeping too much or too little

Gaining or losing a lot of weight

Feeling tired most of the time

Losing interest in activities you used to enjoy

Becoming easily irritated or angered

Feeling worried or sad often

Having headaches or body aches often

Talk to your doctor about your symptoms and ways to relieve stress. Also, let others give you a break. Reach out to family, friends, or a local resource.

How does caregiver stress affect my health?

Some stress can be good for you, as it helps you cope and respond to a change or challenge. But long-term stress of any kind, including caregiver stress, can lead to serious health problems.

Some of the ways stress affects caregivers include:

Depression and anxiety. Women who are caregivers are more likely than men to develop symptoms of anxiety and depression.8 Anxiety and depression also raise your risk for other health problems, such as heart diseaseand stroke.

Weak immune system. Stressed caregivers may have weaker immune systems than noncaregivers and spend more days sick with the cold or flu. 9 A weak immune system can also make vaccines such as flu shots less effective. Also, it may take longer to recover from surgery.

Obesity. Stress causes weight gain in more women than men.10 Obesity raises your risk for other health problems, including heart disease, stroke, and diabetes.

Higher risk for chronic diseases. High levels of stress, especially when combined with depression, can raise your risk for health problems, such as heart disease, cancer, diabetes, or arthritis.9

Problems with short-term memory or paying attention. 11 Caregivers of spouses with Alzheimer's disease are at higher risk for problems with short-term memory and focusing.

Caregivers also report symptoms of stress more often than people who are not caregivers.3 Learn more about how stress affects women's health.

What can I do to prevent or relieve caregiver stress?

Taking steps to relieve caregiver stress helps prevent health problems. Also, taking care of yourself helps you take better care of your loved one and enjoy the rewards of caregiving.

Here are some tips to help you prevent or manage caregiver stress:

Learn ways to better help your loved one. Some hospitals offer classes that can teach you how to care for someone with an injury or illness. To find these classes, ask your doctor or call your local Area Agency on Aging.

Find caregiving resources in your community to help you. Many communities have adult daycare services or respite services to give primary caregivers a break from their caregiving duties.

Ask for and accept help. Make a list of ways others can help you. Let helpers choose what they would like to do. For instance, someone might sit with the person you care for while you do an errand. Someone else might pick up groceries for you.

Join a support group for caregivers. You can find a general caregiver support group or a group with caregivers who care for someone with the same illness or disability as your loved one. You can share stories, pick up caregiving tips, and get support from others who face the same challenges as you do.

Get organized. Make to-do lists, and set a daily routine.

Take time for yourself. Stay in touch with family and friends, and do things you enjoy with your loved ones.

Take care of your health. Find time to be physically active on most days of the week, choose healthy foods, and get enough sleep.

See your doctor for regular checkups. Make sure to tell your doctor or nurse you are a caregiver. Also, tell her about any symptoms of depression or sickness you may have.

If you work outside the home and are feeling overwhelmed, consider taking a break from your job. Under the federal Family and Medical Leave Act, eligible employees can take up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave per year to care for relatives. Ask your human resources office about your options.

What caregiving services can I find in my community?

Caregiving services include:

Meal delivery

Home health care services, such as nursing or physical therapy

Nonmedical home care services, such as housekeeping, cooking, or companionship

Making changes to your home, such as installing ramps or modified bathtubs

Legal and financial counseling

Respite care, which is substitute caregiving (someone comes to your home, or you may take your loved one to an adult day care center or day hospital)

The National Eldercare Locator, a service of the U.S. Administration on Aging, can help you find caregiving services in your area. You also can contact your local Area Agency on Aging.

How can I pay for home health care and other caregiving services?

Medicare, Medicaid, and private insurance companies will cover some costs of home health care. Other costs you will have to pay for yourself.

If the person who needs care has insurance, check with the person's insurance provider to find out what's included in the plan.

If the person who needs care has Medicare, find out what home health services are covered.

If the person who needs care has Medicaid, coverage of home health services vary between states. Check with your state's Medicaid program to learn what the benefits are.

If you or the person who needs caregiving also needs health insurance, learn about services covered under Marketplace plans at HealthCare.gov.

Did we answer your question about caregiver stress?

For more information about caregiver stress, call the OWH Helpline at 1-800-994-9662 or contact the following organizations:

Sources

1. Pew Research Center. (2013). As population ages, more Americans becoming caregivers. FactTank: News in the Numbers.

2. National Alliance for Caregiving, in collaboration with AARP. (2015). Caregiving in the U.S., 2015

3. American Psychological Association. (2012). Stress in America: Our Health at Risk. APA: Washington, DC.

4. Pinquart, M., & Sorensen, S. (2003). Differences between caregivers and noncaregivers in psychological health and physical health: A meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging, 18(2), 250-267.

5. Lee, S., Colditz, G. A., Berkman, L. F., & Kawachi, I. (2003). Caregiving and risk of coronary heart disease in U.S. women: A prospective study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 24(2), 113-119.

6. Lokk, J. (2008). Caregiver strain in Parkinson's disease and the impact of disease duration. European Journal of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, 44(1), 39-45.

7. Rivera, H. R. (2009). Depression symptoms in cancer caregivers. Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing, 13(2), 195-202

8. Mahoney, R., Regan, C., Katona, C., & Livingston, G. (2005). Anxiety and depression in family caregivers of people with Alzheimer's disease: the LASER-AD study. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 13(9), 795-801.

9. Godbout, J. P., & Glaser, R. (2006). Stress-induced immune dysregulation: Implications for wound healing, infectious disease, and cancer. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology, 1(4), 421-427.

10. Udo, T., Grilo, C. M., & McKee, S. A. (2014). Gender differences in the impact of stressful life events on changes in body mass index. Preventive Medicine. Epub ahead of print.

11. Vitaliano, P. P., Echeverria, D., Yi, J., Phillips, P. E., Young, H., & Siegler, I. C. (2005). Psychophysiological mediators of caregiver stress and differential cognitive decline. Psychology and Aging, 20(3), 402-411.

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Caregivers care for someone with an illness, injury, or disability. Caregiving can be rewarding, but it can also be challenging. Stress from caregiving is common. Women especially are at risk for the harmful health effects of caregiver stress. These health problems may include depression or anxiety. There are ways to manage caregiver stress.

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Ethical Caregiving is this idea about the moral side of caring for someone, focusing on kindness, respect, and keeping the person's dignity while they are being cared for. Caring for someone in an ethical way means understanding their needs and feelings and responding to them with care and respect, while also making sure they keep their dignity, especially when doing personal or intimate chores.

In the field of caregiving, the social exchange theory looks at how providers and care recipients interact with each other. That people get to know each other through the exchange of resources, which could be physical, social, or mental. People who care for others give support and help, and in return, they often feel emotionally satisfied and fulfilled. The idea says that people try to get the most out of their relationships by getting the most benefits and the fewest costs.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

1. Departments of Human Services, Yezreel Academic College, Yezreel Valley, Israel

Sigal Pearl Naim & Ruth Katz

2. Department of Gerontology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel

Sigal Pearl Naim

3. Center for Research & Study of Aging, Graduate Department of Gerontology, Faculty of Health and Welfare, The University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel

Ariela Lowenstein

4. The University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel

Ruth Katz

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sigal Pearl Naim .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

1. Population Division, UN Dept of Economic Social Affairs Population Division, New York, NY, USA

Dr. Danan Gu

2. School of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, USA

Prof. Matthew E. Dupre

Section Editor information

Institute on Aging and Lifelong Health, Department of Sociology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada

Neena L. Chappell Ph.D.

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

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Naim, S.P., Lowenstein, A., Katz, R. (2019). Social Exchange Theory and Its Implications for Caregiving. In: Gu, D., Dupre, M. (eds) Encyclopedia of Gerontology and Population Aging. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69892-2_20-1

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Social Exchange Theory and Its Implications for Caregiving

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'Social Exchange Theory and Its Implications for Caregiving' published in 'Encyclopedia of Gerontology and Population Aging'