# data[].attributes.body
The earth has been in constant cycles of warmer and colder periods for billions of years. Some of these cycles are on the macro scale of millions of years, and some are more micro scale, lasting merely hundreds, or thousands of years. On the macro end are ice ages, periods of millions of years in which alpine glaciers and polar ice exists. Within the most recent ice age (that we are still in) are glacial and interglacial periods, determined by Milankovitch Cycles, which are geometric cycles that affect the amount of solar radiation that gets absorbed into the earth. Glacial periods are colder, and interglacial periods are warmer. The most recent glacial period ended approximately 11,500 years ago. At that time, ice sheets would have covered much of the northern and southern parts of the globe, including kilometers of ice above what is now Calgary. Within the most recent interglacial (that we are also currently in), are anomalies in climate, with two in particular being the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age. All of this is natural, and without human intervention, all of these phenomena would continue on, cooling and warming the earth. Since the industrial revolution, these cycles have been heavily disrupted.

# data[].attributes.body
Grounded in their connection to nature and the Earth through culture and way of life, Indigenous peoples, as the original inhabitants and pioneers of North American lands, offer an essential perspective that significantly contributes to scientific knowledge.

This section delves into various examples and explanations highlighting the ways in which Indigenous knowledge enriches the creation of new knowledge and enhances scientific understanding. Emphasizing the imperative role of transdisciplinarity, the discussion underscores its critical significance for the well-being of our planet.

Dating back to last glacial maximum, the significance of Indigenous oral traditions that have been shared intergenerationaly help in understanding climate fluctuations from then until now. The text emphasizes the unique strengths of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) and Western Science, advocating for collaborative and transdisciplinary approaches to address issues like glacial melt. The incorporation of IK in scientific studies, exemplified by the Ashkui project and the Sámi peoples' adaptation to climate change, highlights the valuable contributions of Indigenous wisdom in ecological research. Additionally, Indigenous art, such as Qavavau Manumi's "Birds Holding World, Moon," underscores the role of art in portraying stories, history, and knowledge, emphasizing the interconnectedness of all elements on Earth. Overall, the information underscores the importance of recognizing and integrating diverse knowledge systems to tackle complex global challenges like glacial melt and climate change.

# data[].attributes.body
The Industrial Revolution marked a critical and important moment in history, signifying the shift from agrarian and handcraft-based economies to industrial and machine-based ones. Since its onset around 1750, human activities, such as burning fossil fuels like coal and oil, have led to an increase in greenhouse gas concentrations in our atmosphere. Throughout these processes, various greenhouse gases, including CO2, CH4, and N2O, are released. These gases function similar to the glass in a greenhouse: they absorb the sun's heat radiating from the Earth's surface, trap it in the atmosphere, and prevent it from escaping into space. The greenhouse effect plays a crucial role in regulating Earth's temperature at a level conducive to supporting life. However, as the amount of greenhouse emissions continues to rise, global warming becomes increasingly unstable, significantly affecting the existence of glaciers.

# data[].attributes.body
This graph displays the incorporation of Indigenous knowledge in scientific studies overtime, specifically focusing in on the substantial increase of incorporation in the ecological division.

Indigenous Knowledge (IK), is diverse and place-based, encompassing not only direct observations but also cultural and spiritual dimensions. While distinct from Western science, IK is seen as a valuable and complementary way of knowing (Jessen, et al., 2022) through its unique understanding of place specific knowledge and human-place connection and understanding. This is especially important for glacial science because of Indigenous peoples such as the Inuits immense connection with the arctic regions.

# data[].attributes.body
As we come to the end of the timeline of the history of glaciers across the globe, you may ask yourself, “well what can be done about this wicked problem?”

Although the underlying cause of the decline in glacial health (climate change) is scary at times, it is important to remember that we are all in this together, and to come to any future solutions we must globally cooperate against this common threat. Historically speaking, much of the great human achievements through time have been accomplished by the conglomeration of different perspectives and ideas that eventually string together into something amazing and game changing.

To focus on the well being of everyone on the planet, it is crucial that we follow the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) created by the United Nations. By following these goals when looking at the outputs of any solutions, we can build a world that does not leave anyone behind including the next generations that come after us. By holding ourselves responsible for the emissions we create and coming up with ways to reduce our greenhouse gas emissions by actions like changing how we retrieve and consume energy, we are accomplishing SDG 13 (climate action), which then in turn puts us closer to achieving other sustainable development goals and creating a safer and healthier world.

# data[].attributes.headline
Indigenous knowledge VS Western Science: Ecology

# data[].attributes.subject
Indigenous knowledge VS Western Science: Ecology

# data[].attributes.body
The accompanying graph along with the image to the right, illustrates the distinctions between Indigenous Knowledge (IK) and Western Science, offering a visual representation of key characteristics that differentiate these two ways of understanding the natural world.

The visual representation highlights distinct strengths on each side, with only two overlapping strengths. By combining these strengths collaboratively, a transformative synergy emerges within ecological science. This synergic collaboration enables the retrieval and creation of strong, valuable data, paving the way for innovative solutions that capitalize on the unique contributions of both knowledge systems.

These differences are important to acknowledge before we can truly understand why cooperative, collaborative, and transdisciplinary science is so crucial in terms of fighting wicked problems such as glacial melt, and working towards solutions to the SDGs.

# data[].attributes.body
Automobiles, modernism, and trans-disciplinary ideas are common themes during the 20th-21st century. There is however, another common theme that is evident throughout our time, and most especially true in the past century - change.

In this section, we look into the state of different glaciers throughout the 20th-21st Century while giving a brief background about the causes and different significant events that pushed the climate action initiatives that we know today. Since we are on the theme of "change", technological advancements allow us to observe these glaciers over time, giving us an idea on how dire the situation escalates throughout time. This section provides visual examples in order to achieve this idea.

At the advent of the 20th century, humans have been exposed to gradual changes in the environment. And in the context of glacier melts, there were efforts to observe glacial ice caps in Canada prior to the Second World War. The Early Twentieth Century Warming (ETCW) showed that various climate anomalies were happening all around the globe, and earlier scholars would talk about the Earth's changing temperatures throughout the century.

It was in the 21st century where more efforts were being done to conserve these glaciers as much as possible through minimizing CO2 emissions and transitioning to sustainable developments and solutions through trans-disciplinary means despite the continuous rise of global temperatures.

# data[].attributes.body
Scroll sideways to see more on each subtopic

Scroll down to see additional subtopics

Want to see a photo/graph up close? Click on it!

# data[].attributes.body
Ice ages are commonly defined as periods in the earth's history in which polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers exist (Elredge & Biek, 2021). There have been at least 5 such periods in the last 3 billion years, some of which were so cold that the earth entered into "snowball earth" phases, where nearly all of the earth was covered in ice (Elredge & Biek, 2021). The most recent ice age was the Quaternary Glaciation, a period we are currently in that is defined by alternating glacial (colder) and interglacial (warmer) periods (Gradstein, 2004).

# data[].attributes.headline
Greenhouse Gases and Industrial Revolution

# data[].attributes.subject
Greenhouse Gases and Industrial Revolution

# data[].attributes.body
The First Industrial Revolution was begun in the late 18th century and continued into the 19th century, it marked a significant turning point in human history, characterized by the transition from agrarian and handcraft-based economies to industrial and machine-based economies. During this period, there was a substantial increase in the use of fossil fuels, such as coal and later oil, to power machinery and fuel industrial processes. The burning of fossil fuels for energy releases greenhouse gases, such as, methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. These emissions led to an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

# data[].attributes.body
Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases. This section provides information on emissions and removals of the main greenhouse gases to and from the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil), solid waste, trees and other biological materials, and also as a result of certain chemical reactions. Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from livestock and other agricultural practices, land use, and by the decay of organic waste in municipal solid waste landfills. Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural, land use, and industrial activities; combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste; as well as during treatment of wastewater. (EPA, 2023) Each of these gases can remain in the atmosphere for different amounts of time, ranging from a few years to thousands of years. All of these gases remain in the atmosphere long enough to become well mixed, meaning that the amount that is measured in the atmosphere is roughly the same all over the world, regardless of the source of the emissions.

# data[].attributes.body
This map displays the last glacial maximum (green) compared to current day glaciation around the globe (blue). The “last ice age” covering substantial area of the globe occurred during the Pleistocene epoch and ending roughly 11,700 years ago. While exploring this map, compare the differences in land cover from the last glacial maximum vs now.  During this period, it is theorized that humans inhabited North America by a bridge known today as Bering Strait, connecting the continents during the period of glaciation. As Indigenous peoples lived among these climate fluctuations, knowledge on and experiences with glacial activity was created, shared and passed down through generations mainly through oral traditions with oldest recordings from the little ice age during 1550-1850 (Cruikshank, 2001).

# data[].attributes.body
Ice ages are multi-causal events, but one theoretical cause of the three last ice ages involves the movement of tectonic plates. Tectonic plates are subterranean slabs of rock that move around, causing the movement of continents, creation of mountains, and much more. In 2019, scientists at MIT theorized that tectonic plate collisions near the equator, hundreds of millions of years ago, exposed rock to hot tropical environments, leading to chemical reactions that created sediment such as limestone. In this chemical reaction, Carbon Dioxide, one of the major greenhouse gases, was sequestered into the stone, and out of the atmosphere, cooling the earth (Jennifer Chu, 2019).

# data[].attributes.body
Rising Carbon Footprint = Rising Temperatures

We’ve seen a radical spike in our carbon emissions since the Industrial Revolution, with today’s numbers at an all-time high. Carbon is warming the planet to unsustainable levels and temperatures will only keep rising unless we reduce our carbon footprint. (Príncipe G, 2022)

# data[].attributes.body
Evidence of the impact of the industrial revolution pollutants has been found in Ice cores extracted from a Tibetan glacier, a remote region of our globe. Dating back to approximately 1780, these ice cores from Mount Shishapangma, situated nearly 24,000 feet above sea level, serve as invaluable time capsules capturing the evolution of airborne contaminants associated with the industrial revolution (Bard, 2020). The study, led by environmental scientist Paolo Gabrielli of Ohio State University, identifies the deposition of trace metals such as zinc, chromium, nickel, and cadmium in annual layers within the ice. The pollution found was transported thousands of kilometres and deposited through snowfall (Bard, 2020). The findings are a great example of the interconnectedness of human activities and environmental consequences, as even the pristine Himalayan glaciers have been affected by the far-reaching influence of the industrial revolution. As Susanne Bard (2020) aptly states, "We have contaminated even the most remote areas of the world. And so, at this time, there is most likely no glacier on earth that does not show a trace of our presence" (p.1).

# data[].attributes.body
While temperatures didn't start to dramatically respond to increasing greenhouse gas emissions until the 20th century, the Little Ice Age, which was mentioned in the previous section, came to an end in ~1850, which, in Europe was marked by glacial recession in the Alps. This recession occurred even though temperature records show recession in the region should not have begun until 1910 (Painter et al., 2013). Why might this be? By analyzing ice core data (cylinders of ice taken from glaciers that reach deep under the surface, allowing scientists to look at very old ice), scientists found that along with the end of the industrial revolution came a massive increase in black carbon in the ice (Painter et al., 2013). This black carbon would have coated the glaciers at the time, darkening the surface, and leading to the absorption of more solar radiation. The same way that you get hot when you where a black shirt in the summer, the glaciers got hot when covered in black soot. This increase in solar radiation could have led to as much as 0.9 meters of extra melt per year, and likely initiated the glacial recession that is still going today (Painter et al., 2013).

# data[].attributes.headline
A Glimpse of the Second Industrial Revolution (From the late 19th to early 20th centuries)

# data[].attributes.subject
A Glimpse of the Second Industrial Revolution (From the late 19th to early 20th centuries)

# data[].attributes.body
This picture was taken in an Indiana glass works factory, August 1908.

# data[].attributes.body
Since the Industrial Revolution, human activities have released large amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, which has changed the earth’s climate. Natural processes, such as changes in the sun's energy and volcanic eruptions, also affect the earth's climate. However, they do not explain the warming that we have observed over the last century (EPA, 2023). Human and natural factors both influence the earth’s climate, but the long-term trend observed over the past century can only be explained by the effect of human activities on climate. Scientists have pieced together a record of the earth’s climate by analyzing a number of indirect measures of climate, such as ice cores, tree rings, glacier lengths, pollen remains, and ocean sediments, and by studying changes in the earth’s orbit around the sun. This record shows that the climate varies naturally over a wide range of time scales, but this variability does not explain the observed warming since the 1950s. Rather, it is extremely likely (> 95%) that human activities have been the dominant cause of that warming.

# data[].attributes.body
Did you know that Canada’s largest wind farm is located right here in Alberta? (Canadian Renewable Energy Association, n.d)

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions as we know is essential to slow down the effects of climate change.

But then how will we obtain the energy to continue powering our world?

Renewable energy

How many types of renewable energy can you think of?

Solar

Wind

Hydro

Tidal

Geothermal

Biomass

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions does not always have to be the implementation of renewable energy, it could be many other solutions, like increasing the efficiency of the energy that we already do have.

Did you know that “buildings account for ≈35% of all emitted greenhouse gases (GHG), use 33% of Canada’s total energy production and consume 50% of Canada’s natural resources” (Hay et al. 2011).

# data[].attributes.body
As we see large increases of carbon dioxide entering our atmosphere as mentioned in previous sections, a possible remedy for this carbon could be methods of carbon sequestration.

Carbon is an essential element for all life on earth and the same amount of carbon has always been on earth, the only thing that has changed is where the carbon is held. The reason why our atmosphere is getting warmer is because we are taking carbon that was previously buried deep in the ground, and releasing it into our atmosphere which disrupts the natural cycle of carbon. Natural processes are then not able to absorb and transfer the carbon back into the soil fast enough, so now all of the newly introduced carbon in our current atmosphere is building up over time. Carbon sequestration introduces another method of putting that buildup of carbon currently in the atmosphere back into the surface of earth.

A possible way of achieving this can be seen all around us in the natural world that we live in. By mimicking certain natural processes that have been utilized by earth for millions of years, we can develop sustainable solutions for issues just like climate change! For example, when we introduce more vegetation into our biosphere, we can then let nature run its course and convert carbon dioxide into oxygen which in turn reduces the greenhouse effect.

# data[].attributes.body
As a new and rapidly growing industry, Artificial intelligence is quickly being incorporated into our daily lives. Some of might know it as your Snapchat best friend, a tiktok filter to create funny photos, or as your homes smart assistant such as Alexa or Hey Google.

But how can it be used beneficially for climate science and glaciers?? You'd be surprised!

In the photo above we asked ChatGPT, an AI software to come up with an interpretation and solution for Glacial Melt using emojis! Pretty neat!

In all seriousness, AI is also being used to help create new knowledge, which is especially helpful in arctic regions. According to Mastrola (2023), AI-powered robots are proposed as a solution to traditional ship-based data collection in winter ice conditions that create significant observational gaps due to inaccessibility. These robots can continue data accumulation, leveraging AI to make predictions based on trends and patterns. The goal is not only to enhance the observational system but also to utilize AI in deciphering patterns within extensive datasets, providing valuable insights into Arctic conditions.

"Using AI to factor in elements of climate change that are constantly evolving helps us make more informed predictions about changes in the environment, so that we can deploy mitigation efforts earlier" (Mastrola, 2023, sect. 4).

# data[].attributes.body
Approaching an issue as large as declining glacial health does not have just one solution. It may seem like the issue of global warming and glacial recession is such a daunting issue that we don't even know where to start. You may feel as if you as an individual cannot do anything about it and by taking that individualistic approach, it may lead to a dooming feeling of hopelessness.

Cooperation is the solution to this feeling.

Because we all share the consequences of glacial recession this means we must also share the responsibility and contribution to solutions that will come out of this cooperation from the people of the world. By braiding different forms of knowledge together we strengthen our ideas which will eventually lead to foreseeable change in our close future.

# data[].attributes.body
Cooperation among the people that make up the world's governments will be the key towards the development and accountability of governmental policy that will address the destruction of our natural world.

The Paris Agreement is an example of governmental policy that addresses this issue. The Paris Agreement was created in 2015 and adopted by 195 countries in order to limit the global average temperature rise to well below 2 degrees celsius (Government of Canada, 2016).

Policies such as the Paris Agreement are a great start to government action about the issue of climate change, but it is very important for the people of these countries to hold their governments accountable as to reaching the previously set goals.

Do you think the Canadian government is on track to meet the goals set by the Paris Agreement?

# data[].attributes.body
Although every person living on earth will be affected by climate change, there are some people who may be hit harder and faster than others.

Did you know that currently 600 million people live <10 m above sea level? (Hauer, 2021).

Rising sea levels will have detrimental effects on very important coastal cities all across the globe, leading to enormous economic losses.

What about entire countries that are coastal?

Many of these coastal cities are very important on a global scale like New York, Tokyo or Los Angeles and will have massive consequences, but they are also cities of countries that are the highest contributors of greenhouse gases which is the root cause of this issue. There are many countries on the globe that are dealing with the exact same consequences, yet they have contributed very little to the amount of global emissions. This is not fair. Consequences such as flooding due to increased severity of natural disasters and increases in drought where food insecurity is already high will continue to worsen if this issue is put off any longer.

# data[].attributes.body
For millions of years earth has gone through periods of glaciation, and interglaciation. Glacial periods are marked by colder temperatures, and interglacial periods are marked by warmer temperatures. This can be seen in the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere.

# data[].attributes.body
This graph depicting differences in temperature over the last 800,000 years is a good visualization of glacial and interglacial periods.

# data[].attributes.body
The primary explanation for glacial and interglacial periods, which can last from tens of thousands, to hundreds of thousands of years, is Milankovitch Cycles. Milankovitch Cycles are a series of cycles that effect the amount of solar radiation that is absorbed into the earth's atmosphere. The main three cycles are: orbital eccentricity (how round or oval shaped the earths orbit is around the sun), axial tilt (how tilted the earth is relative to its orbital plane), and precession (the direction the earth's axis is pointing). All three of these combine to form small scale, and large scale, natural cycles in climate (Buis, 2023).

# data[].attributes.body
We are currently in an interglacial period, but the last glacial period ended merely ~11,500 years ago, a small amount of time on a geological time scale. This period at the end of the last glacial period is known as the last glacial maximum, which saw glacial extent reach its peak for that glaciation. Ice sheets covered 8% of the earth, and 25% of the earth's land. Because of this, global sea level was more than 400 feet lower than it is today (USGS). As depicted in the image above, ice sheets in North America stretched into the northern United States. Calgary would have been submerged in kilometers of ice.

# data[].attributes.body
From the last glacial maximum until modern times (with the exception of the little ice age, see next section), the world has gotten warmer, because we are currently in an interglacial period. Until the industrial revolution, this was entirely a natural process that, without human intervention, would likely have peaked, and started to reverse again, following the Milankovitch Cycles. In fact, according to NASA, "If there were no human influences on climate, scientists say Earth’s current orbital positions within the Milankovitch cycles predict our planet should be cooling, not warming, continuing a long-term cooling trend that began 6,000 years ago." (Buis, 2021).

# data[].attributes.body
What factors do you think contributed to the extreme changes in the earth's glacial topography over time (Pleistocene Epoch to current day glaciation)?

A: Natural climate changes & Human Induced climate changes Industrial revolution to current day

How could these oral traditions be beneficial today as we battle against current day climate change?

# data[].attributes.body
While climate tends to change slowly, over a large timescale, every once in a while there are smaller scale anomalies. In the 1,000 years before the industrial revolution there were at least two such events, the Medieval Warm Period, and the Little Ice Age. The Medieval Warm Period was a period of about 300 years, starting in approximately the year 950, where the world saw unusually high temperatures (Easterbrook, 2011), though not uniformly- it hit different areas of the world at different times within the 300 years of the phenomenon. This was an entirely natural process, with some possible causes being changes in solar activity due to various cycles, volcanic activity, and changes in ocean currents (2015).

# data[].attributes.body
Global warming poses a significant challenge to the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). As temperatures rise, the impacts cascade across various aspects of human and environmental well-being (Goal 13). It exacerbates poverty by disrupting agricultural systems and livelihoods, leading to food insecurity (Goal 1 and 2). Changes in climate patterns increase the speed of glacier melting, which also affects water availability and quality, making it challenging to ensure clean water and sanitation (Goal 3 and 6).

# data[].attributes.body
In Indigenous cultures, oral traditions are used for knowledge sharing purposes such as the transmission of cultural teachings, historical accounts, and ecological knowledge from generation to generation, for thousands of years (Joseph, 2021). For glacial research, this means great things. Indigenous peoples have lived in arctic regions for thousands of years accumulating extensive knowledge on the ecological states of the arctic and on human-environment interactions and relationships. This type of knowledge and understanding is not only essential to combatting the effects of human induced climate change such as glacial melt, but so unique that the information and guidance retrieved from these oral traditions can not be found in any other sources. (Eerkes-Medrano, et al., 2021). Implementation of Indigenous knowledge such as oral tradition is crucial in transitioning towards a sustainable relationship with our environments.

# data[].attributes.body
Eerkes-Medrano, L., & Huntington, H. P. (2021). Untold Stories: Indigenous Knowledge Beyond the Changing Arctic Cryosphere. Frontiers in Climate, 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fclim.2021.675805

Mastrola, M. (2023, March 7). How AI can help combat climate change. The Hub. https://hub.jhu.edu/2023/03/07/artificial-intelligence-combat-climate-change/#:~:text=Another%20application%20of%20AI%20to

‌

Joseph, B. (2021, March 1). 11 Things You Should Know About Aboriginal Oral Traditions. Ictinc.ca. https://www.ictinc.ca/blog/11-things-you-should-know-about-aboriginal-oral-traditions

Sable, T., Howell, G., & Wilson, D. (n.d.). 6 ሊ The Ashkui Project: Linking Western Science and Innu Environmental Knowledge in Creating a Sustainable Environment. Retrieved November 28, 2023, from https://www.smu.ca/webfiles/AshkuiChapter.pdf

‌

Jessen, T. D., Ban, N. C., Claxton, N. X., & Darimont, C. T. (2022). Contributions of Indigenous Knowledge to ecological and evolutionary understanding. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 20(2), 93–101. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.2435

Autopilot. (2010, July 12). File:epica temperature plot.svg. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:EPICA_temperature_plot.svg

Buis, A. (2021, February 27). Why Milankovitch (orbital) cycles can’t explain Earth’s current warming – climate change: Vital signs of the planet. NASA. https://climate.nasa.gov/explore/ask-nasa-climate/2949/why-milankovitch-orbital-cycles-cant-explain-earths-current-warming/#:~:text=If%20there%20were%20no%20human,that%20began%206%2C000%20years%20ago

Buis, A. (2023, August 18). Milankovitch (orbital) cycles and their role in Earth’s climate – climate change: Vital signs of the planet. NASA. https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2948/milankovitch-orbital-cycles-and-their-role-in-earths-climate/#:~:text=The%20Milankovitch%20cycles%20include%3A,is%20pointed%2C%20known%20as%20precession.

Climate science glossary. Skeptical Science. (2015). https://skepticalscience.com/medieval-warm-period.htm

Cook, J. (2010, January 9). Why does CO2 lag temperature? https://skepticalscience.com/print.php?n=116

Easterbrook, D. (2011). Medieval Warm Period. Evidence-Based Climate Science.

Elredge, S., & Biek, B. (2021, September 16). Glad you asked: Ice ages – what are they and what causes them?. Utah Geological Survey. https://geology.utah.gov/map-pub/survey-notes/glad-you-asked/ice-ages-what-are-they-and-what-causes-them/

Gradstein, F. M. (2004). Part III Geological Periods: 21 The Neogene Period. In A geologic time scale (pp. 412–412). essay, Cambridge Univ. Press.

How does present glacier extent and sea level compare to the extent of glaciers and global sea level during the last glacial maximum (LGM)?. How does present glacier extent and sea level compare to the extent of glaciers and global sea level during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM)? | U.S. Geological Survey. (n.d.). https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-does-present-glacier-extent-and-sea-level-compare-extent-glaciers-and-global-sea-level#:~:text=The%20Last%20Glacial%20Maximum%20(LGM)%20occurred%20about%2020%2C000%20years%20ago,25%25%20of%20Earth’s%20land%20area

Ice core. National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI). (2023, July 20). https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/paleoclimatology/ice-core

Jennifer Chu  |  MIT News Office, J. C. (2019, March 4). Tectonics in the tropics trigger earth’s ice ages, study finds. MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology. https://news.mit.edu/2019/tectonics-tropics-trigger-ice-ages-0314

NASA. (n.d.). Glossary. NASA. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/glossary/l/n

Uarizona. (2021, November 10). Global temperatures over last 24,000 years show today’s warming “unprecedented.” EurekAlert! https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/934202

Wikimedia Foundation. (2023, November 25). Little ice age. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Ice_Age

Ogar, E., Pecl, G., & Mustonen, T. (2020). Science Must Embrace Traditional and Indigenous Knowledge to Solve Our Biodiversity Crisis. One Earth, 3(2), 162–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2020.07.006

Pictographs and Petroglyphs | The Canadian Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/pictographs-and-petroglyphs

Ecology | Indigenous Art and Arctic Ecology. (n.d.). Retrieved November 29, 2023, from https://sites.udel.edu/arcticartecology/ecology/

‌

‌Hauer, M.E., Hardy, D., Kulp, S.A. et al. Assessing population exposure to coastal flooding due to sea level rise. Nat Commun 12, 6900 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27260-1 ‌

Wind Energy. Canadian Renewable Energy Association. (n.d). From, https://renewablesassociation.ca/wind-energy/#:~:text=Canada's%20largest%20wind%20farm%2C%20Black,up%20of%20166%20wind%20turbines.

Hay GJ, Kyle C, Hemachandran B, Chen G, Rahman MM, Fung TS, Arvai JL. Geospatial Technologies to Improve Urban Energy Efficiency. Remote Sensing. 2011; 3(7):1380-1405. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs3071380

Montenvers : Past, Present and Future (2021, July 13). Chamonix-Mont-Blanc. https://en.chamonix.com/infos-et-services/espace-pro-presse/le-montenvers-une-histoire-des-projets

Salim E., Mabboux L., Ravanel L., Deline P., & Gauchon C. (2021). A history of tourism at the Mer de Glace: Adaptations of glacier tourism to glacier fluctuations since 1741. Journal of Mountain Science, 2021, 18 (8), pp.6-7. https://shs.hal.science/halshs-03315933

# data[].attributes.body
The Little Ice Age, was another 300 year long event observed in the Northern Hemisphere from about 1550 to 1850 AD. The phenomenon was characterized by extreme cooling, and the expansion of alpine glaciers. There were three peaks in this period where the coolest temperatures were felt, in 1650, 1770, and 1850, after all of which were periods of slight warming (NASA). Like the Medieval Warm Period, the Little Ice Age was entirely natural. It is believed to have been caused by reduced solar radiation, changes in wind currents, and higher than average levels of volcanism (particulates released into the atmosphere that block solar radiation) (Little ice age, 2023).

# data[].attributes.headline
Collaborative Research: Higher Quality Results

# data[].attributes.subject
Collaborative Research: Higher Quality Results

# data[].attributes.body
From 1998 to 2001, the Ashkui project researched areas of early or permanent open water on rivers, lakes, and estuaries to understand the ecological vitality and changes in the ecosystem related to the dynamics of ice, Ashkui, and their impact on migratory animals. In collaborative efforts between Innu Nation, the Gorsebrook Research Institute, and Environment Canada, collaborative efforts were used creating transdisciplinary science and research (Sable et al., n.d.)

Embracing transdisciplinary methods in science signifies a transformative shift towards holistic and inclusive approaches to understanding complex problems. This increase in Indigenous knowledge in science is becoming increasingly recognized and valued.

Indigenous knowledge can hold invaluable information about environmental processes and relationships that traditional science processes may not capture individually.

Just like the Ashkui project, researchers are able to gain comprehensive data in glacial processes and relationships enhancing the accuracy of solutions and predictions when collaborative efforts are applied. This is especially vital when it comes to climate science and knowledge creation on SDG solutions.

# data[].attributes.headline
Combating Climate Change and Man Made Destruction: The Skolt Sámi Peoples of the European Arctic

# data[].attributes.subject
Combating Climate Change and Man Made Destruction: The Skolt Sámi Peoples of the European Arctic

# data[].attributes.body
The Sámi peoples have used their cultural methods to adapt to and address the rapidly changing environments caused by a contribution from climate change and manmade destruction. The revival of a vital Arctic ecosystem supporting fish species like trout involved the restoration of the Vainosjoki River, achieved through the application of their Indigenous knowledge. (Ogar et al., 2020).

This successful story is one of many that exemplifies the benefit of Indigenous and traditional wisdom and knowledge in helping to protect and restore natural environments in the Arctic and the advancement in ecological understanding (Ogar et al., 2020).

# data[].attributes.body
Later in this timeline, we are going to discuss how the loss of glaciers will affect certain SDGs, particularly SDG 6, 13, 14, and 15. SDGs are sustainable development goals established by the UN that are meant to be used as a "blueprint" for development in the future. While enacting every SDG would be a large task, the purpose of them is NOT to return to the pre-industrial revolution world described in this section, but instead allow human progress in a more ethical, and peaceful fashion.

# data[].attributes.body
Stepping away from science momentarily, ice ages, and periods of glaciation have been intellectual epicenters for artists for a long time. This can be seen in society's obsession with mammoths, sabretooth tigers, and other animals from the last glaciation that society seems to care more about than millions of other creatures from different eras. The last glaciation is a remarkably interesting period in human history, where people lived in intensely difficult glacial regions alongside megafauna, leaving behind art for us to find (cave paintings, tools, etc.), and sparking our curiosity about what it would have been like to live in that period.

# data[].attributes.headline
Indigenous Art: A Median for Knowledge Sharing & Expression

# data[].attributes.subject
Indigenous Art: A Median for Knowledge Sharing & Expression

# data[].attributes.body
Art has been used for thousands of years by Indigenous peoples serving as a powerful tool for portraying stories, history, and knowledge.

Dating back to the last ice age, pictographs were some of the first forms of art displaying stories and experiences from some of the earliest humans in North America (Vastokas, 2012).

This art piece above is called "Birds Holding World, Moon" by Indigenous artist, Qavavau Manumi.

It was produced "to emphasize the relational bond between the world and the life it sustains" (IAAE, 2018, sect. Ecology).

You can read more on this art piece here: https://sites.udel.edu/arcticartecology/ecology/

The narrative embedded within this artwork conveys a profound lesson about the inherent interconnectedness of all elements on our planet and the ripple effect that each component has on the entire planet system. This understanding holds particular significance in the context of seeking solutions, emphasizing the imperative recognition that everything is intricately linked. To address global challenges, fostering collaboration on a worldwide scale and placing a deliberate emphasis on connectivity is at the forefront of saving our glaciers.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Gabriele C. Hegerl, Stefan Brönnimann, Andrew Schurer, Tim Cowan "Annual mean time series of climate forcing agents" from  https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.522

# data[].attributes.headline
The Early Twentieth Century Warming (ETCW)- The Start of Something New

# data[].attributes.subject
The Early Twentieth Century Warming (ETCW)- The Start of Something New

# data[].attributes.body
So what caused all this? According to a study of Gabriel Hegerl (2018), the steady increase of CO2 emissions is one of the culprits of the increase of global temperatures in the century. Concentrations of CO2 from the industrial revolution continues to build up until this period due to the increasing of greenhouse gasses. Recovery from intense volcanic activities from the 1800s also added to the increased temperatures on top of high concentrations of Co2 (Hegerl, Brönnimann, Schurer & Cowan, 2018).

The graph above shows that CO2 emissions are increasing gradually from the late 1800s to early 2000s. Total solar irradiance fluctuates throughout the timeline. Aerosol content in the atmosphere, that is mostly known to reflect heat back outside the Earth, also decreased due to the lack of volcanic activity but became more constant in the late 1900s to the 2000s.

# data[].attributes.body
The human influence on climate change can be traced back to the late 19th century based on summer-winter temperature difference. It is responsible for the continuing rise of global mean surface air temperature since the 1950s. Anthropogenic climate change is usually focused on the rise of surface air temperature, namely global warming, and the increase of climate extremes. Scientists have found that the amplitude of seasonal temperature fluctuations has been decreasing widely, and this trend can be traced back to the late 19th century. They find that temperature seasonality had been stable until 1860s, from which there have been continuous downward trends across northern hemisphere mid-high latitudes (X, S, 2019). A formal detection and attribution analysis using the latest climate model simulations has shown that increased greenhouse gas concentrations and anthropogenic aerosols are the main contributors to the observed downward trends.

# data[].attributes.body
The world is vast and complex and it may sometimes seem that our small decisions and actions have little to no impact on the big picture. However, if you think about minute details of your life, you may be able to see how a small event was actually the catalyst for a huge change in your life. For example, maybe you bumped into someone at a coffee shop that happens to work at your dream company and eventually got you an interview there. What if you had chosen a different coffee shop, or been there five minutes later? You may not have met the person that got you into your dream job. The idea that something small, like getting coffee, can have much larger effects, such as altering your career is called the butterfly effect. Statistical analysis of the rate of warming over different periods find that warming from 1970 to 2001 is greater than the warming from both 1860 to 1880 and 1910 to 1940 (Cook J, 2011). “In fact, the rate of warming from 1975-2001, at 0.16 °C per decade, was the fastest rate to be sustained for more than a decade in the 160-year record, but exactly the same rate occurred from 1860-1880 and again from 1910-1940, when we could not possibly have had anything to do with it” (Christopher Monckton). The global warming will become unstoppable if we do not do anything to slow glaciers melting down.

What do you think can happen if we tried to create solutions to prevent glacial loss back in the mid 1800s to the early 1900s? Do you think that we might be experiencing the same problems now? How would that "timeline" look like?

# data[].attributes.body
With the rise of globalization, tourism is sure to follow. Glacier tourism is no stranger to this as well. Mer de Glace is the largest glacier in France and has been visited by tourists prior to the 1900s (Salim, Mabboux, Ravanel, Deline, and Gauchon, 2021).

Two examples best suited to show how climate change affected this destination are the Montenvers-Chapeau itinerary.

The Montenvers-Chapeau itinirary is one of the major attractions in the area as it allows individuals to cross the glacier from Montenvers to Le Chapeau (Salim, Mabboux, Ravanel, Deline, and Gauchon, 2021). It was operational from 1853 until the passage was banned in 1963. The main reason for this is the melting of the Nant Blanc glacier in the 1900s, making the passage difficult to cross by tourists at the time (Salim, Mabboux, Ravanel, Deline, and Gauchon, 2021). It also doesn't help that the glacier retreated by 1.5km while the ice's thickness decreased by 60m from 1880 to 1960, forcing the attraction to close at 1963 due to hazards while traversing the path.

# data[].attributes.body
The photo above shows Mer de Glace in 2022. Compare this photo from the previous slide. How much more ice do you think will remain in the next decade?

# data[].attributes.body
Interestingly enough, there are some individuals and groups in the 20th century that found these physical entities as a menace to the world.

Thornton Wilder's 1943 play "The Skin on our Teeth", an apocalyptic play, show these massive glaciers take over New England (Carey, 2007). Another instance of this trend of antagonizing glaciers was during the 1960s where Soviet engineers coated polar ice sheets using black soot from airplanes (Carey, 2007).

It is worth noting that these fears of glaciers began centuries before. It is perhaps the unpredictability and harm it can do to human life that made humans fear them. Either way, it was proven beneficial as people get to know about glaciers during the time period that may inspire scholars to study about them.

# data[].attributes.body
Pelto, M. S, 2020

# data[].attributes.body
Pelto, M. S, 2020

# data[].attributes.body
The video above shows how Greenland's ice mass gradually decreases overtime.

Because of recent technological advancements and the improvement of GIS, we can see that there is little to no ice loss in the middle of the ice sheet.

According to the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR), southern Greenland is experiencing the heaviest loss of ice and Greenland as a whole is losing 234 billion tons of ice per year where the ice is continuing to melt seven times faster than in 1990 (UCAR, n.d.).

How much more ice do you think Greenland will have after 10 years?

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
The process of Submarine Melting by D.A Slater and F. Straneo (2022) from https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-022-01035-9#Fig4

# data[].attributes.body
The reason why Greenland's ice sheet is decreasing because of warmer air temperatures and warmer waters that collectively contributes to the rapid decrease of Greenland's ice mass every year (Harvey, & E&E News, 2022). A recent study by D.A. Slater and F. Straneo (2022) showed that warmer ocean temperatures slowly eat away parts of the glacier underwater which they call "Submarine melting".

This increased submarine melting show also affects the sea level and glacier retreats. For example, the submarine melting in northwestern region of Greenland is 60% responsible for the sea level rise and glacial retreats (Slater & Straneo, 2022).

# data[].attributes.body
Time to go local!

A study by William Armstrong and his colleagues (2022) observed how the movements along the base of the Athabasca Glaciers physically changes in response to global warming. It was said that the Athabasca Glaciers was the site of glacial research as early as the 1950s that helped us measure the glacier's ice thickness, surface slope and velocity among others (Armstrong, et. al, 2022).

The team used a monopulse radar system to measure the ice thickness and they found out that 3km of the Athabasca Glacier has thinned by 59.6m from 1959-2019 (Armstrong, et. al, 2022).

The graph above shows the ice thickness, driving stress, and the velocity in the glacier formation. While 59m may not look as urgent as you thought it is, see that the gaps between the lines from the 1961 and from 2019 increases as the distance of the glacier increases (Armstrong, et. al, 2022). The surface velocity also decreases in response to the ice thinning which in turn lessens the driving stress which means the mountains get more steep due to the thinning of the ice.

# data[].attributes.headline
Policies for Glaciers in the Canadian Context

# data[].attributes.subject
Policies for Glaciers in the Canadian Context

# data[].attributes.body
According to the University of Saskatchewan (2012), glaciers in Canada are being protected by the Federal and Provincial governments. As such, collecting glacier ice is prohibited. However, a study by Jennifer Cox in 2016 concluded that glaciers are not explicitly talked about in several Canadian laws. As an example, the Water Act stated that "water" is defined as being liquid or solid. The word "solid" can mean snow or ice, both of which can be referred to as glaciers, but can also mean any of those things but NOT the glacier itself. This ambiguity can be interpreted that glaciers may or not be the scope of this act as the rest of the act talked about the extensive water licensing scheme (Cox, 2016).

Another example is the Provincial Parks Act and the Canada National Parks Act does prohibit users to cause harm in the park including the glaciers (like harvesting the ice, or littering), which can only do minimal damage (Cox, 2016). The laws however talked about the liability of humans to glaciers but only to GLOFs (Glacier Lake Outburst Flooding) but does not explicitly prioritized talking about the glaciers themselves.

As such, riparian rights can also not be applied to glaciers due to the glaciers being far from cities and towns, and are located within the mountains (Cox, 2016). Riparian rights, as defined in the study, are rights owned by the people who owns lands near bodies of water and have the right to take and use nearby water sources for personal use, and has the right to sue proprietors for damages (Cox, 2016). And since these glaciers are deep within or on top of mountains, it would be unlikely that these rights can be applied to glaciers as most of the damage done to glaciers is done by climate change.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
A photo showing waste rocks on the Tian Shan mountain range. From https://bankwatch.org/project/kumtor-gold-mine-kyrgyzstan

# data[].attributes.headline
Glacier Protection Laws Around the World- Krygyztan and Switzerland

# data[].attributes.subject
Glacier Protection Laws Around the World- Krygyztan and Switzerland

# data[].attributes.body
The Kumtor Gold Company began operating an open pit gold mine in the Tian Shan Mountains in 1992. The region however, has glaciers in it and in twenty years, the company removed 39 million cubic meters of glacial ice and dumped harmful wastes on the remaining glaciers that polluted the area (Cox, 2016). The contract was unfortunately extended from 2014 to 2023.

However, in 2014, the Kyrgyz Parliament passed the Glacier Law that laid out the liability for damaging glaciers and prohibited developments near the glaciers while creating inventory for glaciers to keep track of their status (Cox, 2016). Unfortunately, this law was not signed by the President of Kyrgyztan and therefore wasn't enforced (Cox, 2016).

Switzerland has a different story though as the country has a long history in glacial conservation. The Swiss Civil Code (SCC) talks about protecting these glaciers while balancing the promotion alpine tourism. The SCC has a more extensive definition of glaciers which includes the surrounding areas and until the areas where glacial waters enter bodies of waters such as rivers and lakes (Cox, 2016). There was an instance in the 20th century, where there were cases where private companies who pushed for building infrastructures such as cable cars for scenic attractions, and therefore, tourist development still continues (Cox, 2016).

# data[].attributes.headline
Innovations and Glacial Conservation Efforts by the Swiss 

# data[].attributes.subject
Innovations and Glacial Conservation Efforts by the Swiss 

# data[].attributes.body
A report from the Smithsonian magazine shows residents going to the Rhône Glacier to cover up some areas with reflective blankets during the summer. This surprisingly was said to reduce seasonal melting up to 70% according to a report in 2015 (Trevino, 2018).

This simple quick fix is also happening as the same time as the proposal of high-tech solutions to slow the melting of glacial ice as a reaction to global warming (Trevino, 2018). One way was to build mounds of sand and stone underwater at the openings of high-risk glaciers near bodies of water which would hypothetically slow or reverse their collapse (Trevino, 2018).

Another conservation effort to protect the Swiss Alps was through the creation of artificial snow in 2017 where scientists used blankets and snow to reflect sunlight rather than absorbing it (Trevino, 2018). Like the blankets however, this is also hypothetical.

# data[].attributes.body
Scientists from all around the globe met together in the IAEA Headquarters in Vienna on June 17 2013 to discuss the retreat of glaciers, loss of permafrost, and the reduction in snow cover due to climate change. These scientists knew that once a huge stock of fresh water produced by glaciers are gone, millions of people whose livelihoods depend on glaciers for irrigation, fishing, navigation will be threatened.

Therefore, the IAEA Technical Cooperation project was initiated to improve their understanding of the impacts of climate change to polar and mountainous ecosystems around the world in order to improve conservation and management (Madsen, 2013). This project is a collaboration from 20 different countries including Brazil, Germany, the UK, USA, Swede, Japan, Nepal, Russia, and Canada who will also investigate the utilization of advanced nuclear techniques (or technologies) to provide data on global glaciers. This is inspired by the study by Charles David Keeling who observed CO2 concentrations at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii in 1958 (Madsen, 2013). Their partnerships even extend to UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) and UNU (United Nations University) to add reliable information in the UN General Assembly and contribute to the IPCC Assessment Reports.

With that being said, the following are the selected glaciers to be studied and observed in the project:

Cordillera Blanca, Peru;

Mount Gongga, China;

Grey Glacieer, Chile;

Castle Creek Glacier, Canada;

Mount Elbrus, Russian Federation.

(Madsen, 2013)

Lastly, the technologies used for the project will be taking advantage of the Soil and Water Management and Crop Nutrition Laboratory's technologies made for situ instrumentation and methodology, as well as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) to gather details and radiological readings in high-risk areas as accurately and detailed as possible.

To close, the IAEA claims that they play "a crucial role in assisting with the integrated nuclear and isotopic techniques required in this study, including fallout radionuclide studies, compound-specific stable isotope analysis, oxygen-18 and deuterium analysis and carbon-14 dating. The combination of these comprehensive techniques will give an unparalleled perspective on the global state of the cryosphere, which will be harmonized through technical cooperation so that it is available and understandable to policy makers and those whose depend on it." (Madsen, 2013) which shows how such advanced technologies can be used in order to monitor these glaciers as effectively as possible.

# data[].attributes.body
Hegerl, G., Brönnimann, S., Schurer, A., & Cowan, T. (2018, April 25). The early 20th century warming: Anomalies, causes, and consequences. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.522

Carey, M. (2007). The History of Ice: How Glaciers Became an Endangered Species. Environmental History, 12(3), 497–527. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25473130

Slater, D.A., Straneo, F. (2022). Submarine melting of glaciers in Greenland amplified by atmospheric warming. Nat. Geosci. 15, 794–799 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-022-01035-9

Reid, J. (2012, December 20). Canadian Glaciers and their Associated Property Rights. University of Saskatchewan. https://wiki.usask.ca/display/GlacierPropertyRights/Canadian+Glaciers+and+their+Associated+Property+Rights#:~:text=The%20glaciers%20in%20Canada%20are,within%20these%20parks%20is%20prohibited.

Cox, J. (2016). Finding a Place for Glaciers within Environmental Law: An Analysis of Ambiguous Legislation and Impractical Common Law. Appeal 21, 21-36.

Trevino, J. (2018, March 12). Canadian Glaciers and their Associated Property Rights. Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/swiss-town-glacier-blanket-180968451/

Harvey, C. & E&E News (2022, October 13). Greenland Is Disappearing Quickly, and Scientists Have Found a New Reason Why. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/greenland-is-disappearing-quickly-and-scientists-have-found-a-new-reason-why/

UCAR Center for Science Education (n.d.). Greenland's Ice is Melting. UCAR Center for Science Education. Accessed December 2, 2023 from https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/climate-change-impacts/greenlands-ice-melting#:~:text=Earth's%20warming%20climate%20means%20that,more%20days%20of%20melting%20ice.

Painter, T. H., Flanner, M. G., Kaser, G., Marzeion, B., VanCuren, R. A., & Abdalati, W. (2013). End of the Little Ice Age in the Alps forced by Industrial Black Carbon. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(38), 15216–15221. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1302570110

# data[].attributes.body
Glaciers are massive accumulations of ice, either gathered near the north and south poles, or high in mountains. Beyond being extremely beautiful, they are also vital supporters of various natural ecosystems, important sources of fresh water, and much more.

Since the industrial revolution, humanity has been on a path that, without rapid, and extreme intervention, will lead to the loss of all of our glacial ice. Glacial ice loss is a deeply complex, multidisciplinary issue that is heavily tied into the larger issue of climate change as a whole, and will require 'all hands on deck' to mitigate.

Research surrounding glaciers tends to be quite dispersed, making it hard to get a comprehensive picture of the history of glaciers, what is happening now, and what is going to happen in the future. Because of this, our group decided that an effective way to further knowledge on the issue would be to create a timeline that illustrates the history of glaciers, starting all the way from the billions of years pre-industrial revolution, through the industrial revolution, into the modern times, and ending with our recommendations for the future.

Please explore and learn!

# data[].attributes.body
Government of Canada. 2016. The Paris Agreement. From, https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/climate-change/paris-agreement

Bard, S. (n.d.). Industrial Revolution Pollution Found in Himalayan Glacier. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode/industrial-revolution-pollution-found-in-himalayan-glacier/

‌

Príncipe, G. (2022, November 9). What are greenhouse gases? GHG emission sources. Cool Effect. https://www.cooleffect.org/why-carbon

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2023, October 10). Overview of greenhouse gases | US EPA. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency  . (2023, April 25). Causes of climate change | US EPA - U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency  . https://www.epa.gov/climatechange-science/causes-climate-change

X, S. (2019, April 22). Human influence on climate change is traced back to the 19th century. Phys.org. https://phys.org/news/2019-04-human-climate-19th-century.html

Cook, J. (2011, January 31). Climate science glossary. Skeptical Science. https://skepticalscience.com/global-warming-1860-1880-and-1910-1940.htm

Pelto, M. S. (2020, May 25). North Cascade Glacier Climate Project. North Cascade Glacier Climate Project Mauri S. Pelto, NCGCP Director Founded in 1983, Nichols College, Dudley, MA mspelto@nichols.edu. https://glaciers.nichols.edu/glacier_retreat/

US EPA, O. (2021, March 18). Climate Change Indicators: Permafrost. Www.epa.gov. https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-permafrost#:~:text=A%20warming%20climate%20has%20brought

ArcGIS. (2023). ArcGIS Online. Arcgis.com. https://www.arcgis.com/index.html

‌

‌

# data[].attributes.body
As we have progressed throughout the history of earth's beautiful glaciers before and after the industrial revolution, (the spark to ignite the torching of our glaciers) we hope to have highlighted the consequences of human’s recent negligent acts of pollution.

Solutions to this wicked problem are needed through the combination of individual action and governmental policy that has been created through the cooperation of different peoples and their own perspectives.

As inhabitants of this earth we have the collective responsibility to the conservation of the natural beauty of our home, Earth.

We would like to give a special thanks to our mentor, Dr. Moorman for the guidance we received during the creation of our project.

# data[].attributes.body
3. Energy Decarbonization and Sustainable Industry.

4. Sustainable Food, Land, Water, and Oceans.

6. Digital Revolution for Sustainable Development.

# data[].attributes.body
Our open house presentation seemed to go over well with the audience. Many professors and other educators from the Department of Geography seemed very interested and posed some intriguing questions. One question we got asked a few times was “do you think there is any way to stop glacial melt”. Even though we have done plentiful research for this project, we are far from experts in the field, so we resorted to the ideas of experts when answering. For instance, we asked Dr. Moorman the exact same question during our research, and he gave us an honest answer. He does not believe we can save our glaciers entirely- even if we stopped emitting greenhouse gasses right now, the oceans have absorbed so much thermal energy that the earth will continue to heat for the foreseeable future. A grim outlook. But even with the loss of our glaciers, the future may not be so grim after all. Firstly, there is a lot we can do to slow down glacial loss, as referred to in the 'Future' section of the Padlet. Secondly, we can use the disappearance of our glaciers as a way to cultivate pro-action sentiment in the people, by showing them tangible evidence of what we are losing.

One thing I think our group could have improved in the open house is incorporating a simpler way for people to navigate the Padlet themselves from the beginning, which is something we figured out halfway through with the use of a tablet in addition to the Padlet being displayed on the monitor.

# data[].attributes.body
Reflecting on our open house presentation and interactions with the audience, I think it went really well in terms of allowing the audience to explore our problem and have interactive discussions with us. The use of an easy access Padlet timeline as our mode of delivery was the star of the show as most of the audience found it interactive and unique compared to typical modes of delivery such as posters and powerpoints. A lot of people referred to it as a very cool way to portray our wicked problem and a classmate even went to say we should have done a big screen presentation because of how good they thought our Padlet was.

Although we did not get a lot of questions, we did have some intriguing conversations, and one person even brought up the idea of permafrost as another wicked problem related to climate change and ice melt. Therefore I added an additional post on permafrost to this section (in yellow) to apply his contribution and ideas.

With this being my first time presenting through a science fair median, I do think it was good that we were able to highlight important parts of our timeline for viewers wanting a quick run through. The variety and differences between all posts on the timeline allowed the viewers to focus in on and learn from ones that they personally resonated with. For example one viewer resonated with Thornton Wilder's 1943 play "The Skin on our Teeth" because she grew up in this time frame and was surprised to learn about the notion that glaciers were once thought as bad. Another viewer personally resonated with the post on the growing use of AI, as they historically had a negative notion on Artificial intelligence and its capabilities. Through their exploration, they we able to learn about how it could be used beneficially for glacial research and go home with a new perspective on artificial intelligence.

# data[].attributes.body
Looking at how permafrost has been affected by climate change was an idea brought up by an audience member at the open house and although permafrost does not include glaciers specifically, it is very much related as arctic regions such as the Greenland ice sheet sits on permafrost ground.

The graph above shows the temperatures of permafrost boreholes throughout northern and central Alaska from 1978 to 2020.

In 14 of 15 of the boreholes temperature increased from 1978 to 2020. 13 of them showed warming was statistically significant between 1978 and 2020 (US EPA, 2021).

This thawing permafrost is due to an increasingly warming climate that brings warmer air temperatures to Alaska (US EPA, 2021).

# data[].attributes.body
I think the idea for our final project to be presented in an open house style was a very good idea that allowed us to share our learned knowledge with someone who wasn't a part of our class. Not being involved with the class made it so that they didn't have any previous expectations, and when we presented our project to them they were more intrigued because they didn't know what to expect.

Before the open house started I was nervous that we wouldn't know exactly what to say when a visitor would come to our table, but after the first visitor I believed we did really well and when the next visitors would come over we were less anxious. Part way through the open house we also had an idea to use an Ipad, and improve our setup and make us more confident part way through. I feel that we did well with answering questions, which were mostly our thoughts and opinions on the topic. Overall I am happy with the quality of our project and am proud to say that I believe the entire night of the open house went well.

# data[].attributes.body
To be able to reach toward a future of sustainability, the global North cannot only focus on the consequences that they will face, but must put action towards reaching the sustainable development goals for the countries that are the hardest hit. SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation) and SDG 13 (climate action) are the most important goals to be reached in these countries that are struck with the increased severity of these natural hazards.

When the sustainable development goal of climate action is incorporated into solutions, it is not just helping one area on our globe, but everywhere. We could take a look at rainforests in South America for an example of this. When climate action is used to stop deforestation in these rainforests, it is not just the surrounding countries like Brazil that will receive the benefits, but air quality and carbon dioxide levels around the entire world will be slightly improved. Other SDGs like number 6 (clean water and sanitation) can also have this similar holistic outcome. When everybody in a country has access to clean water and sanitation it creates a strong basis, which can allow for more development that will eventually feed into a better entire socioeconomic state.

# data[].attributes.body
The open house presentation provided an excellent platform to convey our content and engage with our audience. Throughout our presentation, we welcomed professors, teaching assistants, and our peers who approached our station, posing intriguing questions such as, "Do you believe glacier melting can be stopped?" or "Do you think the United Nations can influence climate action?" Our response was that it is almost impossible to halt global warming and glacier melting. It's also challenging to compel the United Nations to take powerful actions in addressing climate issues because the United Nations consists of different countries. Consequently, it is quite challenging to ensure that each country follows the directives. While facing people makes me nervous, especially because I'm not adept at explaining things rapidly, the open house presentation served as an invaluable opportunity to challenge and refine my ability to articulate ideas under pressure and uncertainty. Ordinarily, I require more time to organize my thoughts and words. Despite this, every member of the audience was courteous and intelligent, often sharing their perspectives on various topics. This mutual exchange of ideas made me feel gratified, as both sides had the chance to learn new things, fostering a meaningful face-to-face interaction that left a lasting impression.

# data[].attributes.body
I really think that our open house presentation was a success because of the audience. Doing a science fair style of presentation worked really well because we got to interact with our audience better. Our audience interacted with the materials we provided and had plenty of questions for us. Because of our ample research, I believed that we answered the audiences' curiosity about our glaciers thoroughly and hopefully we also had insightful questions and thoughts that they will think about when they go home. This format of having a timeline presented to everyone really helped them follow along on important events and information we can provide, and using an Ipad and QR codes to have them interact with it to get a better view of the images and the timeline in their own time. We had meaningful conversations with people and just learning about their experiences and thoughts about the case studies we presented were wonderful and thought provoking.

When it comes to the sci-art, we did see a lot of the audience looking at it and the only thing we could've improved on that is that we should've asked what they thought of the piece and talked about the sci-art more. However, we had favourable responses on the sci-art and what it meant. As someone who always had a hard time expressing myself in front of people, it is heartwarming to know that many of our audience connected with the sci-art and liked the story behind the painting. As an example, one of the audience agreed that we should just focus on the things we can control rather than things that we cannot because as Mr. Moorman said, glaciers will keep melting because the temperatures will keep on rising and the best way we can do is to slow down the process.