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Cancer cells that divide rapidly that have little resemblance to cells and act as undifferentiated cells, lose their characteristics.

Prominent nuclei

Increased nuclear to cytoplasm ratio

Anaplastic cells don’t always have to be cancerous

Stage 1: Hypoplasia caused by an increased amount of cells due to proliferation

Might lead to cancer; accumulation of abnormal cell (precancerous condition)

Stage 2: Adenoma

Increase in cell number, benign tumor, the lumen gets filled with uncontrollable dividing cells, membrane breaks, nucleus changes cells, allows the cell to expand

Stage 3: Carcinoma

Epithelial cancer cell

There is malignant cancer yet it has not spread

Stage 4: Invasive Carcinoma

It has spread and invaded other cells.

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Fluorescent molecules absorb light at one wavelength and emit it at another, longer wavelength.

There are two different filters; one to filter the light before it reaches the specimen and one to filter the light obtained from the specimen.

This is used when coupling the fluorescent dye to an antibody which then binds to other molecules. Two dyes used:

fluorescein → green light emitted by blue light

Rhodamine → red light excited by green-yellow light

GFP (green fluorescence protein) not important, an an example

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Use: Localize proteins

Uses the chemistry of the body to detect the presence of antibodies

Antibodies are either purified (other non-specific antibodies are removed) or specific monoclonal (only recognize target molecules)

Indirect and direct immunohistochemistry

Indirect → primary antibody binds to the antigen, the second antibody binds to the primary antibody, the second antibody has the marker

Direct → the cell has a certain antigen and the body makes the antibody to attach to them (highly specific)

Monoclonal antibodies are used to treat cancer cells, bring T-cells closer to cancer cells to facilitate an immune response

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What is a biomarker for breast cancer cells? (Found Online) 

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What is a biomarker for breast cancer cells? (Found Online) 

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Estrogen receptor (ER)

Bind to its ligand act directly as transcription factors

Progesterone receptor (PR)

Human epidermal growth factors 2 (HER2)

Breast cancer that is ER-positive depends on the hormone estrogen to grow, while PR-positive means the tumor depends on the hormone progesterone to grow.

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A biological molecule found in the blood or tissue that indicates the presence of a disease or process.

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How does it (H&E) help distinguish benign and malignant tumors? 

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How does it (H&E) help distinguish benign and malignant tumors? 

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The same cells have different morphology

High nuclear to cytoplasm ratio

H&E enhances nuclei and cytoplasm; altered in anaplastic cells, easier to see

Since the nucleus is already enlarged, the clumped chromatin is observable

Cancer cells have a significantly large cell (stained blue), bigger than other cells, invade other cells, and lose their shape

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Used for histology to look at the pattern and structure of cells in the sample

E stains the matrix , H stains the nuclei

Provides the researcher with a very detailed overview

Hematoxylin has an affinity for negatively charged molecules, while Eosin has an affinity for positively charged molecules

Hematoxylin → nucleic acids

Eosin → cytoplasm

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1. Tissue fixation → preserve the tissue to prevent autolysis or petrification

Chemical fixation works by linking together amino acids, glutaraldehyde, forms cyclopentane C5H10

Forming of methylene bridged to fix them

Makes cells harder, easiest to section

Use a scalpel to slightly cut it down and put it in another preservative

One might have to add wax or resin to make it even harder

1. Tissue processing

Dehydrating tissue by increasing the amount of alcohol

Clearing → use organic solves to remove the alcohol allowing paraffin wax to enter the tissue (embedding)

Paraffin wax will solidify it more

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The study of microscopic structures of tissues, focusing on relating physiology of cells to their function

Histopathology is the study of tissues infected by a disease, used for diagnosis and to determine at what stage and progress the condition of the patient.