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China already had a long history by the time its states were unified under its first emperor. Settlements in the Yellow and Yangtze River Valleys had grown into an agricultural civilization. Between the fifth and third centuries B.C., a time known as the Warring States period, at least seven kingdoms battled for supremacy in east-central China. The state of Qin, based in the Sichuan plains, eventually won out in 221 B.C. under the leadership of the ruthless King Zheng. The victorious monarch gave himself the title Qin Shi Huangdi (259-210 B.C.), First Qin Emperor.

With ferocious force of character, Shi Huangdi began to mold his diverse territories into a single Chinese empire obedient to his will. He divided the lands into 36 command areas, each supervised by a governor, a military commander, and an imperial inspector, all of whom reported to him. He relocated hundreds of thousands of influential families from their home provinces to the capital, Xianyang, where he could keep a close eye on them.

Weapons were confiscated and melted down. A new imperial currency was issued. Weights and measures were standardized. Even wagon axles were built according to a certain measure, so they could fit within the ruts in China's roads. The emperor ordered Chinese writing made uniform, such that all words with the same meaning in the country's varied languages would be represented by the same characters.

Shi Huangdi brutally suppressed dissent. Some accounts say that 460 scholars were rounded up and executed, and the texts they had used to criticize the government were confiscated or burned. Citizens of all ranks were encouraged to inform on one another; those convicted of crimes were executed, mutilated, or put to hard labor. ( Learn more about Confucius, a Chinese philosopher, politician, and teacher.)

Hundreds of thousands of men served in Qin armies, mobilized to defend against Xiongnu nomads in the north and other tribes in the south. Hundreds of thousands more toiled to build palaces, canals, and roads. According to Han historian Sima Qian, they also built "border defenses along the [Yellow] river, constructing 44 walled district cities overlooking the river and manning them with convict laborers ... The whole line of defenses stretched over 10,000 li [more than 3,000 miles]." That project, during which countless workers died, marked the beginning of the Great Wall. ( Did the Great Wall of China work?)

Quest for immortality

Not surprisingly, the autocratic emperor was the target of several assassination attempts. Perhaps in response, Shi Huangdi became obsessed with the idea of immortality. As Sima Qian records, his advisers counseled him that the herbs of immortality would not work until he could move about unobserved. Accordingly, he built walkways and passages connecting his palaces so that he could move about in seeming invisibility.

Doubtless the most megalomaniacal of his projects was his enormous tomb and buried terra-cotta horde, constructed at tremendous cost by 700,000 forced-labor conscripts. The thousands of life-size figures included infantrymen, archers, chariots with horses, officials, servants, and even entertainers, such as musicians and a strongman.

Arrayed in military formation, the soldiers bore traces of the bright paint that must have once enlivened them. Although formed from standardized pieces-with solid legs and hollow torsos-they were evidently finished by hand so that no two figures looked exactly alike. The ancient army was stationed just east of a necropolis surrounding the tomb of Qin Shi Huangdi and was meant to stand guard during the emperor's afterlife. Figures of acrobats and musicians would entertain the emperor through eternity. ( Find out what happened when an American stole a warrior's thumb.)

The tomb and statues were still in progress at the time of the emperor's death in 210 B.C. Today the vast terra-cotta host serves as a perfect symbol of the scale and ferocity of Shi Huangdi's reign and his efforts to forge a single Chinese empire.

This text is an excerpt from the National Geographic special issue The Most Influential Figures of Ancient History.

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China already had a long history by the time its states were unified under its first emperor. Settlements in the Yellow and Yangtze River Valleys had grown into an agricultural civilization. Between the fifth and third centuries B.C., a time known as the Warring States period, at least seven kingdoms battled for supremacy in east-central China.

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Fascinating Facts About China's Terracotta Army

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Shi Huangdi (l.259-210 BCE/r.221-210 BCE, also known as Qin Shi Huang, Qin Shih Huandi, Shi Huangti or Shih Huan-ti) was the first emperor of a unified China. Shi Huangdi means `First Emperor' and is a title, not a proper name. The Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE) he founded (pronounced `Chin') gave its name to China and it was he who first initiated the building of the Great Wall and construction of the Grand Canal.

He was born Ying Zheng (also known as Zhao Zheng) of the State of Qin to a dancing girl named Zhao Ji and King Zhuangxiang of Qin. According to the historian Szuma Chien ( Sima Qian, 145/35-86 BCE) he was not actually Zhuangxiang' s son as his mother was already pregnant by Lu Buwei, the wealthy merchant who brought Zhao Ji to the king. As Szuma Chien was hostile to Shi Huangdi (as almost all later writers are) this claim has been often disputed.

Rise to Power

The young prince grew up at the Qin court and assumed the throne at age 12 or 13 following his father's death. Lu Buwei had risen in the court to become a minister and was made regent until Ying Zheng came of age. Again according to Szuma Chien, Lu Buwei became concerned that his son would recognize him as father and so lose the throne and he therefore distanced himself from Zhao Ji and encouraged another of the court, Lao Ai, to keep her company in his place.

Lao Ai disguised himself as a palace eunuch and so came and went from the queen's chamber without suspicion. They had two sons together who were kept a secret from everyone at court except Lu Buwei. It occurred to Lu that one of these secret sons could better serve as King of Qin as he would then no longer have to worry about being exposed as the boy's father and so organized a coup.

In 238 BCE, when the young king was away from court on travels, Lao Ai used the signet ring of Zhao Ji to mobilize a segment of the army in revolt. The king sent his army against Lao Ai's forces, defeated them, and had Lao executed by being torn apart. He then had Lao's entire family executed and placed Zhao Ji in seclusion under virtual house arrest. Lu Buwei committed suicide by poison. King Ying Zheng then named his close associate Li Siu as Prime Minister and ruled fully over the state of Qin.

Shi Huangti's policies allowed for substantial building projects & prosperity.

Victory over the Warring States

The Warring States Period in China (c. 481-221 BCE) was a time when the central government of the Zhou Dynasty, located at Luoyang, was no longer able to administrate effectively. The country had broken into seven separate states, Chu, Han, Qi, Qin, Wei, Yan, and Zhao who continuously fought each other for supremacy. None of these states felt confident enough to wrest the Mandate of Heaven (the principle by which a ruler was legitimized) from the Zhou Dynasty as none were able to gain advantage over any other.

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Every state fought using the same tactics and strategies as the others and their aims were further hampered by the efforts of the pacifist philosopher Mo Ti, an able engineer, who seems to have provided each state with the same types of technology in order to neutralize any advantage. Although the state of Qin had a formidable army, iron weapons, and war chariots, King Zheng was unable to make any significant headway in victory over the other states.

One of the most influential statesmen in Qin was the politician Shang Yang (d. 338 BCE) who developed and codified the philosophy of Legalism and advocated total war. Prior to Shang's reforms, warfare was considered a nobleman's game of skill and strategy in which one observed definite rules which could not be broken. It was common practice to allow an enemy force to mobilize on the field and even to pass into position without molestation. A commanding general did not attack non-combatants and was expected to treat a defeated foe with honour.

At the Battle of Changping (260 BCE), the Qin employed Shang's ideology to defeat the state of Zhao but, afterwards, made little further progress. King Zheng, making full use of Shang Yang's philosophies, and leading an army of considerable size, swiftly defeated the six other states. Han fell in 230 BCE, Zhao in 228, Wei in 225, Chu, in 223, Yan in 222, and Qi in 221BCE. Zheng then united the states under his single rule, claimed the Mandate of Heaven from the Zhou Dynasty, and proclaimed himself First Emperor of China - `Shi Huangdi', founder of the Qin Dynasty.

Having consolidated his empire, he turned his attention to administration and, with the help of Li Siu, "resolved to base Chinese society not, as heretofore, upon custom and local autonomy, but upon explicit law and a powerful central government" (Durant, 695). Initially, this government served the people in that Shi Huangdi's policies allowed for substantial building projects and prosperity. Durant writes:

[He] simplified official ceremonies, issued a state coinage, divided most of the feudal estates, prepared for the prosperity of China by establishing peasant proprietorship of the soil, and paved the way for unity by building great highways in every direction from his capital...Traveling in disguise and unarmed, he made note of abuses and disorders, and then issued unmistakable orders for their correction. He encouraged science and discouraged letters. (696)

In all ways, the early Qin Dynasty worked to improve the lives of the people. The walls and fortifications which once enclosed the borders of the separate warring states were destroyed and the Great Wall was begun from their ruins, marking the northern boundary of the empire and protecting the land from marauding nomad tribes. In the south, the Lingqu Canal was built to aid in transport and in trade. Weapons of the defeated states were melted down and made into works of art.

This time of peace and prosperity, however, was short-lived. In 213 BCE Li Siu, having grown tired of hearing Confucian scholars criticize the regime by comparing it to the past dynasties of a `golden age', wrote, "I suggest that the official histories, with the exception of the Memoirs of Qin, be all burnt, and that those who attempt to hide [other works] be forced to bring them to the authorities to be burnt" (Durant, 697). Although life during The Warring States Period had been difficult, it had given rise to The Hundred Schools of Thought which comprised writings such as those of Confucius, Mo Ti, Mencius, Teng Shih, and Yang Zhu, among many, many others.

Maintaining Shang Yang's strict philosophy of Legalism as the official policy of the government (which he had instituted at the start of his reign) Shi Huangti re-wrote the legal codes, suppressed freedom of speech, burned the books, and put to death all that refused to comply. This period of his reign is known as the `Burning of the Books and the Burying of Philosophers'. Durant comments:

The only permanent result was to lend an aroma of sanctity to the proscribed literature and to make Shi Huangti unpopular with the Chinese historians. For generations the people expressed their judgment of him by befouling his grave. (697)

His own son, Fusu, criticized him in pointing out that Shi Huangti had copies in his private library of the same books he denied to the people.

Shi Huangti's Death & the Fall of the Qin

Shi Huangdi had been subject to assassination attempts in the past but now they increased. "He sat on his throne with a sword across his knees and let no man know in what room of his many palaces he would sleep" (Durant, 697). He became obsessed with death and sought elixirs of immortality. Failing in that, he set about to provide himself with as comfortable and secure an afterlife as the present one he was living.

He decreed a palace be built as his tomb and commissioned artisans to create an army of over 8,000 terracotta warriors, fully armed, to protect him on the other side. The tomb was so extravagant that it was said to be a vision of heaven and, once built, it was buried and booby-trapped to prevent looting.

In 210 BCE, Shi Huangdi died on a trip to find the elixir of life which would grant him immortality. Some sources indicate that he died by poisoning after drinking what he thought was the elixir. Li Siu kept his death a secret until he could change the emperor's will to name his young, pliable son as heir, whom Li Siu thought he could manipulate. He had Shi Huangdi's body brought back to the capital concealed in a merchant caravan of dead fish in order to hide the smell of the decomposing corpse, changed the will, and then announced the passing of the First Emperor and the accession of his son, Hu-Hai, who took the name Qin Er Shi.

The new king reigned poorly for three years and was famous for killing messengers who brought him bad news (marking his only legacy, the origin of the saying, `Don't kill the messenger'). During this time Li Siu was executed and his co-conspirator in raising Qin Er Shi to power, Zhao Gao, forced the young emperor to commit suicide.

Following this coup, Qin Er Shi's nephew took the throne and had Zhao Gao executed. At this point, with the government in complete disarray and no competent heir to the throne, the country rose in rebellion and the Qin Dynasty collapsed. A period of civil war, between the states of Chu and Han (known as the Chu-Han Contention, 206-202 BCE), ensued which was resolved in favor of the Han following the Battle of Gaixia in 202 BCE. Liu Bang (l. 256-195 BCE) of Han then took the throne name Emperor Gaozu and founded the Han Dynasty, among the greatest in China's history, which would rule from 202 BCE to 220 CE and establish many of the rites and traditions now integral to Chinese culture.

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Shi Huangdi (l.259-210 BCE/r.221-210 BCE, also known as Qin Shi Huang, Qin Shih Huandi, Shi Huangti or Shih Huan-ti) was the first emperor of a unified China. Shi Huangdi means `First Emperor' and is a title, not a proper name.

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The Warring States Period of Ancient China
480 BCE to 221 BCE

The period of the Warring States (Zhanguo or Chan-Kuo) refers to the era of about 475 BCE to 221 BCE. It commenced at a time of when the numerous petty city-state kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period had been consolidated into seven major contenders and a few minor enclaves. The above map shows a delineation of the states. The exact description of the states is subject to some uncertainty and the above map is based upon the map of the Warring States given inChina: Empire and Civilization edited by Edward L. Shaughnessy and published by Oxford University Press in 2000 on page 27.
There was a larger state of Jin which broke up into the states of Han, Wu and Zhao. There also was to the south the state of Chu and to the east the states of Qi and Yan. These states, Han, Wu, Zhao, Chu, Qi and Yan, were thought to be the six major contenders for domination. As it turned out it was the state of Qin in the west that emerged victorious. Qin was not only not initially considered one of the contenders, it was not even considered fully Chinese. It had barbarian roots. But that is a subject for later.

Advances in military technology gave superiority to larger states with the resources to take advantage of the newer technology. Part of this technology was the casting of individual weapons which allowed the arming of foot soldiers. In previous eras the fighting was done by aristocrats in chariots. Chariots were not produced on a mass production basis so participation in the battles was limited to a small proportion of the population, the ruling elite of the city-states. But with the development of the casting of individual weapons there was a marked advantage to states with the economic resources to produce the weapons and the population to provide large armies to use these weapons.

This military technology made the consolidation of smaller states into larger states an inevitability.

The Warring States period is usually interpreted as a time of endless brutal wars that came as a result of friction among the seven states and that this unfortunate state of affairs could end only with one state bringing all into one empire. This interpretation is probably propaganda for the "One China" policy. First of all the Warring States period was not so bleak. It was a time of great intellectual ferment. The Confucian philosophers Mencius and Hsun-tzu taught and wrote during the period. Administrative systems were developed for territorial states to replace the methods that worked only for relatively small city states. The wars that occurred were not generally ones due to diplomatic or territorial frictions among the seven states but instead were wars stemming from one state attempting to conquer and control all of the states. In other words, the formation of the empire came not as a result of anarchy but as a result of greed and drive for power. The wasteful and bloody conquest of the separate states was justified as an unfortunate necessity to end the era of anarchy, but the wars were primarily those of empire-building.

The kingdom of Qin of the northwest finally conquered the southeastern kingdom of Chu in 223 BCE. The last opponents were conquered two years later in 221 BCE, thus creating the Empire of Qin (China). This dynasty did not last long. After the death of Shihuangdi (First August Emperor) in 210 BCE his successor held the Qin Empire together for only a few years. Shihuang-di was searching for an elixir that would give him immortality. Some of the elixirs he tried may have shortened his life. For more on the rise and fall of the Qin Empire see Rise and Fall.

The ruling family of Han then took control of the former Qin Empire which became the Han Empire. The Han adopted from the Qin Empire the idea of professional bureaucrats running the empire, but instead of the legalists the Han bureaucrats were scholars chosen by competitive examinations. The Han Empire roughly matched the period of the Roman Empire in West.

For more on the history of China see China.

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The Warring States Period of Ancient China

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applet-magic.com Thayer Watkins Silicon Valley& Tornado AlleyUSA The Warring States Period of Ancient China480 BCE to 221 BCE The period of the Warring States (Zhanguo or Chan-Kuo) refers to the era of about 475 BCE to 221 BCE.

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What is Shihuangdi best known for?

Who were Shihuangdi's parents?

Where was Shihuangdi buried?

What was Shihuangdi's legacy?

Qin Shi Huang, also called Shihuangdi, Wade-Giles romanization Shih-huang-ti, personal name ( xingming) Zhao Zheng or Ying Zheng, (born c. 259 bce, Qin state, northwestern China-died 210 bce, Hebei), emperor (reigned 221-210 bce) of the Qin dynasty (221-207 bce) and creator of the first unified Chinese empire (which collapsed, however, less than four years after his death).

Early years

Zhao Zheng was born the son of Zhuangxiang (who later became king of the state of Qin in northwestern China) while his father was held hostage in the state of Zhao. His mother was a former concubine of a rich merchant, Lü Buwei, who, guided by financial interests, managed to install Zhuangxiang on the throne, even though he had not originally been designated as successor. The tradition, once widely accepted, that Zheng was actually Lü Buwei's natural son is probably a slanderous invention.

When Zheng, at age 13, formally ascended the throne in 246 bce, Qin already was the most powerful state and was likely to unite the rest of China under its rule. The central states had considered Qin to be a barbarous country, but by that time its strong position on the mountainous western periphery (with its centre in the modern province of Shaanxi) enabled Qin to develop a strong bureaucratic government and military organization as the basis of the totalitarian state philosophy known as legalism.

Until Zheng was officially declared of age in 238, his government was headed by Lü Buwei. Zheng's first act as king was to execute his mother's lover, who had joined the opposition, and to exile Lü, who had been involved in the affair. A decree ordering the expulsion of all aliens, which would have deprived the king of his most competent advisers, was annulled at the urging of Li Si, later grand councillor. By 221, with the help of espionage, extensive bribery, and the ruthlessly effective leadership of gifted generals, Zheng had eliminated one by one the remaining six rival states that constituted China at that time, and the annexation of the last enemy state, Qi, in 221 marked his final triumph: for the first time China was united, under the supreme rule of the Qin.

Emperor of China

To herald his achievement, Zheng assumed the sacred titles of legendary rulers and proclaimed himself Qin Shi Huang ("First Sovereign Emperor"). With unbounded confidence, he claimed that his dynasty would last "10,000 generations."

As emperor he initiated a series of reforms aimed at establishing a fully centralized administration, thus avoiding the rise of independent satrapies. Following the example of Qin and at the suggestion of Li Si, he abolished territorial feudal power in the empire, forced the wealthy aristocratic families to live in the capital, Xianyang, and divided the country into 36 military districts, each with its own military and civil administrator. He also issued orders for almost universal standardization-from weights, measures, and the axle lengths of carts to the written language and the laws. Construction of a network of roads and canals was begun, and fortresses erected for defense against barbarian invasions from the north were linked to form the Great Wall.

In 220 Qin Shi Huang undertook the first of a series of imperial inspection tours that marked the remaining 10 years of his reign. While supervising the consolidation and organization of the empire, he did not neglect to perform sacrifices in various sacred places, announcing to the gods that he had finally united the empire, and he erected stone tablets with ritual inscriptions to extol his achievements.

Another motive for Qin Shi Huang's travels was his interest in magic and alchemy and his search for masters in these arts who could provide him with the elixir of immortality. After the failure of such an expedition to the islands in the Eastern Sea-possibly Japan-in 219, the emperor repeatedly summoned magicians to his court. Confucian scholars strongly condemned the step as charlatanry, and it is said that 460 of them were executed for their opposition. The continuous controversy between the emperor and Confucian scholars who advocated a return to the old feudal order culminated in the famous burning of the books of 213, when, at Li Si's suggestion, all books not dealing with agriculture, medicine, or prognostication were burned, except historical records of Qin and books in the imperial library.

The last years of Qin Shi Huang's life were dominated by an ever-growing distrust of his entourage-at least three assassination attempts nearly succeeded-and his increasing isolation from the common people. Almost inaccessible in his huge palaces, the emperor led the life of a semidivine being. In 210 Qin Shi Huang died during an inspection tour. He was buried in a gigantic funerary compound hewn out of a mountain and shaped in conformity with the symbolic patterns of the cosmos. (Excavation of this enormous complex of some 20 square miles [50 square km]-now known as the Qin tomb-began in 1974, and the complex was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987. Among the findings at the site were some 8,000 life-sized terra-cotta soldier and horse figures forming an "army" for the dead king.) The disappearance of Qin Shi Huang's forceful personality immediately led to the outbreak of fighting among supporters of the old feudal factions that ended in the collapse of the Qin dynasty and the extermination of the entire imperial clan by 206.

Most of the information about Qin Shi Huang's life derives from the successor Han dynasty, which prized Confucian scholarship and thus had an interest in disparaging the Qin period. The report that Qin Shi Huang was an illegitimate son of Lü Buwei is possibly an invention of that epoch. Further, stories describing his excessive cruelty and the general defamation of his character must be viewed in the light of the distaste felt by the ultimately victorious Confucians for legalist philosophy in general.

Qin Shi Huang certainly had an imposing personality and showed an unbending will in pursuing his aim of uniting and strengthening the empire. His despotic rule and the draconian punishments he meted out were dictated largely by his belief in legalist ideas. With few exceptions, the traditional historiography of imperial China has regarded him as the villain par excellence, inhuman, uncultivated, and superstitious. Modern historians, however, generally stress the endurance of the bureaucratic and administrative structure institutionalized by Qin Shi Huang, which, despite its official denial, remained the basis of all subsequent dynasties in China.
Claudius Cornelius Müller The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

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Qin Shi Huang | Biography, Accomplishments, Family, United China, Tomb, & Facts

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Qin Shi Huang ("First Sovereign Emperor"), emperor (reigned 221-210 BCE) of the Qin dynasty and creator of the first unified Chinese empire. Learn more about his life, death, and huge burial complex, which includes a life-size terra-cotta army, in this article.

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Qin dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China and its reign lasted from 221 to 206 BC. Lasting only 15 years, it was the shortest dynasty in Chinese history. Though it ruled for only a short duration, Qin dynasty made several important contributions in the development of China. The most well known accomplishment of the dynasty was the unification of China for the first time in its history in 221 BC. The first Qin emperor, Qin Shi Huang, introduced many reforms including the first meritocratic administration system in China. Also there was standardization of the writing system, the code of law, the units of measurement and the currency. Qin dynasty is renowned for its feats of engineering which include the Great Wall, the famous Terracotta Army, Dujiangyan Irrigation System and the Lingqu Canal. Here are the 10 major achievements of the Qin dynasty.

#1 Qin dynasty unified China for the first time in history

The period in Chinese history before the reign of Qin dynasty is referred to as the Warring States period (475 BC - 221 BC). It was dominated by the Seven Warring States, namely, Han, Zhao, Yan, Wei, Chu, Qi and Qin. King Zheng of Qin started his campaign to conquer the remaining six states in 230 BC. Han was conquered in the same year, Zhao fell in 228 BC, Yan in 226 BC, Wei in 225 BC, the powerful Chu in 223 BC and Qi in 221 BC. Thus is 221 BC, for the first time in history, China became a unified centralized state. It took Zheng less than 10 years to unify China. He became the first emperor of a unified China and took the title of "Qin Shi Huang" or the "First Emperor of Qin".

#2 It had hugely influential figures like legalist Shang Yang and reformer Li Si

Shang Yang was a leading Chinese statesman of the State of Qin during the Warring States period. He reformed and promoted the political philosophy Legalism, which among other things, encouraged practical and ruthless warfare. Legalism aided Qin dynasty in their unification of China. During its reign, the Qin governed with the single philosophy of Legalism and other philosophies, including Confucianism, were suppressed. Though Legalism is criticized by some scholars for its flaws, it still remains influential in administration, policy and legal practice in China. Li Si served as Chancellor (or Prime Minister) of the Qin dynasty from 246 BC to 208 BC. He is considered one of the most influential figures in Chinese history. Li Si played a vital role in the cultural unification of China. Among other things, he standardized the code of law; governmental ordinances; the units of measurement; and the currency to the Ban liang coin. He also relaxed taxes and draconian punishments inherited from the Qin administration in their Warring States period.

#3 The writing system of China was standardized

Before the Qin achieved unification of China, local styles of characters evolved independently of one another for centuries, producing what are called the "Scripts of the Six States". This diversity was undesirable in a unified government as it hindered communication, trade, taxation and transportation. In 220 BC, Li Si, prime minister under Qin Shi Huang, systematized the written Chinese language by promoting as the imperial standard the Small Seal Script, which had already been in use in the state of Qin. The Small Seal Script was itself standardized through removal of variant forms within it. This standardized Chinese writing system; made it uniform across the whole country; and had a unification effect on the Chinese culture for thousands of years.

#4 Qin dynasty established the first meritocratic administration system in China

To avoid political chaos, Qin Shi Huang, with help from his prime minister Li Si, abolished the hereditary vassal system and replaced it was a new administrative arrangement. The Qin empire was divided into 3 6 Jun (prefectures), under which were a number of Xian (counties). Under each Xian, there were a number of Xiang (towns); under which there were Ting, which were further divided into Li, the smallest rural administrative units. The whole of China was thus divided into administrative units. More importantly, all officials were appointed based on merit rather than on hereditary rights with important positions going to military officers who distinguished themselves in battles. The administrative system of Qin achieved political unification and strongly reinforced the central government. Though it was modified by later dynasties, it formed the basis of Chinese administration for the next 2,000 years.

#5 The precursor to the Great Wall of China was built during the Qin era

Before unification, the various states had built walls to defend their own borders. Qin Shi Huang ordered the destruction of these fortifications that divided his empire. However, to protect his northern border, Huang ordered the construction of an enormous defensive wall con n ecting the fortifications along the empire's northern frontier. The wall was built primarily to guard against the Xiongnu tribes in the north and north-west, against which the Qin were involved in constant battle. Although little of this wall remains today, it was the precursor to the Great Wall of China. It is estimated that hundreds of thousands people died during the construction of this Qin wall.

#6 The Dujiangyan Irrigation System was engineered

Sichuan is a province in southwest China. The Min River central Sichuan, the longest tributary of the Yangtze River, flooded annually causing great difficulty on the area along its banks. Li Bing was a Chinese engineer who served as an administrator of the state of Qin. He initiated and oversaw the construction of the Dujiangyan Irrigation System which harnessed the Min River using a new method of channeling and dividing the water instead of following the old ways of dam building. The project not only handled the floods but also made Sichuan the most productive agricultural area in China. The Dujiangyan Irrigation System made Li Bing a Chinese cultural icon. Constructed around 256 BC, it is still in use to irrigate over 5,300 square km of land and is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is also a major tourist attraction due to its advanced features of engineering.

#7 The Lingqu Canal was constructed

In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang, in order to attack the Baiyue tribes in the south, ordered the construction of a canal connecting the Xiang and the Li rivers. This resulted in the formation of a 36.4 km long canal known as the Lingqu Canal. Designed by Qin architect Shi Lu and known as the Magic Canal, it also served the purpose of water conservation by diverting up to a third of the flow of the Xiang to the Li. The Lingqu Canal is the oldest contour canal in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Along with the Great Wall and the Sichuan Dujiangyan Irrigation System, it is considered one of the three great feats of ancient Chinese engineering.

#8 Great feats of Qin hydraulic engineering also include the Zhengguo Canal

During the Warring States period which preceded the Qin era, rival State of Han planned to drain the resources of Qin by engaging them in a grand construction project. They dispatched a water engineer named Zheng Guo to give them advice to do so. This resulted in the initiation of construction of the Zhengguo Canal, named after its designer. Zheng Guo switched sides and the canal was successfully completed in 246 BC. The plan of Han backfired as the Zhengguo Canal irrigated approximately 27,000 square kilometres of additional agricultural land, providing Qin dynasty with sufficient resources to increase the size of its already massive armies. The Zhengguo Canal in Shaanxi province, along with Dujiangyan Irrigation System and the Lingqu Canal, are collectively known as the "three great hydraulic engineering projects of the Qin dynasty."

#9 The famous Terracotta Army was created in the Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang

The most renowned construction project which took place during the reign of Qin dynasty was the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor Qin Shi Huang. Located in Xi'an in the Shaanxi province of China; it was constructed to enclose his burial chamber. It took 700,000 men and 38 years to construct it, from 246 to 208 BC. The mausoleum includes the famous Terracotta Army of life sized Terracotta Warriors, whose purpose was to protect the Emperor in the afterlife from evil spirits. Each terracotta soldier of the army appears to be unique in its facial features, revealing a high level of craftsmanship and artistry. The figures vary in height according to their roles, with the tallest being the generals. According to a 2007 estimate, the Terracotta Army held more than 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses and 150 cavalry horses. Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang is considered one of the greatest archaeological sites in the world.

#10 Qin military used the most advanced weaponry of the time

The Qin dynasty developed an extensive network of roads and canals connecting the provinces to improve trade between them. The length of the axles of carts was standardized to facilitate transport on the road system. The Qin military used the most advanced weaponry of the time. Though they initially used the bronze sword, by the third century BC, they were using stronger iron swords. During excavation of the pits containing the Terracotta Warriors, archaeologists found around 40,000 weapons, including battle axes, crossbows, arrowheads and spears. Among them was a 2,200-year-old crossbow. Twice as powerful as a modern-day assault rifle, it could have shot an arrow up to 2,600 feet. It was one of the most powerful crossbows of its era and might have been integral to important Qin military victories.

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10 Major Achievements of the Qin Dynasty of China

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Qin dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China and its reign lasted from 221 to 206 BC. Lasting only 15 years, it was the shortest dynasty in Chinese history. Though it ruled for only a short duration, Qin dynasty made several important contributions in the development of China.

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UNIFYING CHINA  - The Warring States Period 

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UNIFYING CHINA  - The Warring States Period 

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Introduction Origins of the Qin dynasty Qin Conquests The Qin Empire The Fall of the Qin dynasty Further study
Introduction

The period of the Qin dynasty, whilst much shorter than that of any other of the major dynasties in Ancient China, nevertheless forms a crucial phase in the development of Chinese civilization. It saw the first unification of China under the rule of a single emperor, and thus opened the curtain on China's long imperial history. This was an important moment in World History.

The Origins of the Qin dynasty

Qin was one of the leading states in the Warring States period of Ancient China. Its origins can be traced back to the beginnings of the Eastern Zhou, to 771 BCE. At that date one of the great catastrophes of Chinese history had just occurred when the Western Zhou capital was sacked by a coalition of barbarian invaders and Chinese rebels.

In the aftermath, a vassal lord loyal to the Zhou drove the barbarians back beyond the frontiers. In gratitude, the new Zhou king gave him lands around the old capital as a fief. He was also given a promise that he and his successors could keep any other lands that they were able to take from the barbarians.
A new principality
At this time the area was beset by hostile non-Chinese peoples ("barbarian tribes", as the Chinese viewed them). This prince and his successors had to fight hard to keep their land.

Little by little, however, they drove the barbarians back. Their fief gradually expanded in size to take its place amongst the many principalities of later Zhou China. Thus the state of Qin came into being. Like other states on the frontiers, it was regarded as semi-barbarian by the states of eastern China. While its rulers and people may have lacked culture and refinement, however, they were tough soldiers, and this would stand them in good stead in the future.

For a long time Qin continued to expand its territory by conquering neighbouring barbarian tribes. It was only in the mid-4th century BC that it began to engage in wars with other Chinese states.

Legalist reforms

A very capable man called Shang Yang became chief minister of Qin sometime in the 350s BCE.

Shang Yang was a follower of the Legalist school of thought, and set about strengthening the Qin state through a series of sweeping reforms. These focussed the state's institutions towards military ends.

Shang Yang an efficient bureaucracy, operating according to strict rules and regulations. He carried out economic measures to increase the wealth of the state, especially by large-scale irrigation projects which greatly expanded agricultural production.

Reproduced under
Marble Bust of Statesman Shang Yang.
Create Commons 2.5 license.

He permitted a free market in land, and required peasants to pay taxes in crops or money rather than labour services.

Most famously of all, he introduced a law code based on legalist principles. This was based on the idea that punishments should be so severe that no one would dare to commit crimes. To make it even harsher, it enforced a system of collective responsibility, whereby the population was divided into units of 5-10 families each, with all members of a unit collectively responsible for the crimes of any individual within that unit.

These measures increased strength that these reforms gave the state of Qin was soon apparent. Qin armies conquered large areas of neighbouring states to north and south. These conquests in turn led to further increases in strength; the Qin government carried out the largest irrigation project that had ever been undertaken in China (and therefore probably in the world) up to that point in its newly annexed southern territories, bringing much new land under cultivation.
The kingdom of Chu
The Qin state was by no means unique in carrying out such reforms. The southern state of Chu, for example, had also reformed its institutions to make itself more fitted to war.

Chu began the Warring States period as by far the largest state in China, the one which all other states feared. It continued to expand during the period, and like Qin, it benefited from the reforms carried out by a famous Legalist minister.

For example, Chu was the first to divide its territory into districts governed by officials appointed by the king to act on his behalf. The purpose of this was to make the Chu central government's control much more effective throughout all the localities of the land. This was the origin of the system of provincial administration which Qin adopted and later applied throughout China.

Timemap of the Warring States period of Ancient China

In Chu, however, unlike in Qin, these reforms were undermined by opposition from the local aristocracy. Chu was therefore unable to build on these reforms in an enduring way.

It seems, in fact, that the main thing which differentiated the Qin from the other states was its single-minded adherence to Shang Yang's reforms. This was probably due to its particularly exposed position on the frontiers with hostile barbarians, making efficient administration and effective military capability a constant necessity.

Moreover, Shang Yang had openly encouraged the Qin state to think in terms of unifying all China under its rule. This must have acted as a spur for the rulers nd their ministers to keep the state's military edge.

Qin conquests

In 256 BC, Qin destroyed the last feeble remnants of the Zhou ruling house - a clear statement of intent. Ten years later a new young king, Ying Zheng, came to throne. He was served by very capable chief ministers, Lu Buwei (249-237 BC) and Li Si (237 -208 BC). Like Shang Yang they were both followers of the Legalist school of thought, and they built on his earlier reforms to make Qin an even more despotic state.

They appointed men of merit rather than aristocratic birth to senior positions within the army and administration; they further strengthened the state's economy (for example, with another large irrigation project), and enlarged the army.
Divide, undermine and attack
They pursued a policy of divide and rule against the other states, and when they deemed the time was ripe, they launched a war of conquest.

In the Qin conquests, diplomacy and trickery seem to have been as important as military power. The Qin government took advantage of a great earthquake and famine suffered by the people of Zhao to attack it. When success still eluded them, the Qin sent secret agents to sow suspicion between the king of Zhao and his generals, which gravely compromised their defences.

In Wei, the Qin diverted the waters of the Yellow River straight into the capital, drowning over a hundred thousand people. In Qi, the Qin bribed the chief minister to persuade the king not to send any help to the other states as they were, one by one, swallowed up by Qin; and then at the due time, to surrender the state peacefully to Qin.

In places such as Chu, however, there was no alternative but for Qin forces to slog it out for years until opposition had been overcome.

The Qin empire

Within ten years the Qin had conquered all the other states. With the completion of the unification of China. the Qin king took the title of Qin Shi Huang - "August Emperor of Qin". He is thus known to history as the first emperor of China.

Once the Qin had established their power over all the other states, they set about a radical programme of measures to weld the different states, with their different practices and traditions, into one nation.

Qin Shi Huang The first emperor of China

Centralization

The leading states of the "Warring States" period had been divided into provinces and prefectures, under officials appointed by the rulers. Now the Qin extended this system in a uniform manner across the entire country to create a tightly centralized administration. This system of provincial government would last (with many adjustments) until the twentieth century.

The different legal systems of the states were abolished and the harsh Qin legal cod e imposed across the empire.

The leading nobles of the different states were forced to leave their ancestral lands and move to the capital, to be under the watchful eye of the emperor and his ministers, and where they could not easily prepare revolts in their home states.

Standardization

Whole communities were uprooted and sent into thinly populated regions, or despatched to strengthen defences and increase agricultural production on the frontier. Qin policy was very much concerned with maximising the agricultural base of the empire, and strong encouragement was given to this at the expense of trade.
Writing, weights and measures, roads and canals
Local writing scripts were suppressed and a uniform system of writing, known as small seal script, was adopted throughout the empire. Similar uniformity was applied to weights and measures, the gauge of wheeled vehicles and currency. New roads were constructed, radiating out from capital, linking the provinces with the centre (and enabling Qin armies to move speedily to deal with any invasion or rebellion); and new canals facilitating the transport of goods around the empire.

Ruthless as it was, the uniformity which the Qin imposed across their empire undoubtedly made long-distance trade easier.
Burning of the books
Not content with uniformity in all these practical matters, the Qin strove for unity of thought within their realm. They ordered - on penalty of a cruel death - that all books which contained ideas which went against their own Legalist views - that is, Confucian and Mohist books - should be burnt.

Thousands of books did suffer this fate, but many others were hidden away and the ideas they contained survived.

The borders of the Qin empire, and beyond

The Qin regime was equally vigorous in its dealing with external threats as it was with internal challenges.
The Great Wall of China
Previously, the various states bordering the northern steppes had built long walls for defence against the nomads (as well as against other states), The Qin incorporated these walls into a continuous defensive system stretching for more than a thousand miles. Some 300,000 men were engaged in this task.

The walls themselves were built of beaten earth. The breath-taking stone-built walls that can be seen today, marching across thousands of miles of mountains and plains, were built more than fifteen hundred years later, under the Ming dynasty (which ruled China from 1386 to 1644). Nevertheless, creating this system of walls was a huge achievement for ancient times. It undoubtedly strengthen the very idea of "China" by erecting a single defensive system to protect the Chinese people as a whole from the nomads of the steppes.

As well as these defensive measures, more aggressive steps were taken to enhance the Qin empire's strength and security.

Qin armies drove the most powerful of the steppe nomads, the Xiongnu, away from the borders of the empire back into central Asia.

They also sent large armies to conquer the south. Extensive areas were brought into the empire, but in the end they were not completely successful in this - the task would be completed by the Han dynasty.
Terracotta warriors
Finally, as if all these great manpower-consuming projects were not enough, the Qin emperor ordered some 700,000 men to construct his tomb at Lintong - a massive complex, where the famous terracotta army, a replica of the real Qin army, still stands guard.

A Terracotta Soldier and his Horse

The Fall of the Qin dynasty

The Qin's overriding aim was to turn China, by force if necessary, from a collection of different regions into one unified nation.

They were outstandingly successful in achieving many of their goals: the very word "China" probably derives ultimately from an Indian name for the Qin. This reflects the key part the dynasty played in the country's history.

The severity with which they set about their task, however, came as a shock to populations unused to the uncompromising harshness of Qin rule. The forced imposition of unity, although carrying immense benefits, was profoundly distressing to millions of people with deep-seated local loyalties. The huge construction projects and great military campaigns, in which hundreds of thousands of men died far from home and with millions more having their lives terribly disrupted, caused great suffering.

Rebellions

Very shortly after the First Emperor's death, in 210 BC, rebellions started breaking out in different parts of the empire.

These rebellions sprang from two main motives. Firstly, the former ruling elites of the old states which the Qin had conquered wished to restore their independence. Secondly, the common people wished to rid themselves of the harsh Qin regime. These motives mingled to spark simultaneous revolts in various places, which soon gathered strength and put the Qin forces on the defensive.

Matters were made much worse by the fact that the Qin court was wracked by bloody faction fighting. In this, the First Emperor's capable chief minister, Li Su, was ejected from power by his rivals and excited.

The Qin regime was unable to respond effectively to the challenges posed by the many rebellions. In 206 BC the Qin capital, Xian, fell to one of the rebel groups and the last Qin emperor surrendered his throne.

Fragmentation

By this point China had become engulfed in chaos. Each area was controlled by a different rebel group whose leader had declared himself king of a resurrected - or in many cases, entirely new - state; and they had all fallen to fighting amongst themselves.

It must have looked as if everything the Qin had achieved in uniting the vast country would be undone, with China again becoming a collection of many different states in place of a single empire.

Within a very few years, however, in what must be one of the most remarkable turn of events in world history, all the different rebel groups had been defeated by, or fallen under the control of, one man. His name was Liu Bang, and he became the founder of the Han dynasty, perhaps the most important of all the dynasties in China's long history.

Further Study
Civilization of Ancient China The evolution of state institutions in Ancient China The economy of Ancient China Society in Ancient China Thought and culture in Ancient China
Individual dynasties:
Shang dynasty China Zhou dynasty China Han dynasty China Divided China
To view maps charting the rise and fall of Ancient Chinese dynasties, go to our TimeMap of World History pages on Ancient China
Back to Civilization of Ancient China

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The Qin Dynasty of Ancient China: Unity and Chaos

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Introduction Origins of the Qin dynasty Qin Conquests The Qin Empire The Fall of the Qin dynasty Further study The period of the Qin dynasty, whilst much shorter than that of any other of the major dynasties in Ancient China, nevertheless forms a crucial phase in the development of Chinese civilization.

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Qin Shi Huangdi. Qin Shi Huangdi becomes King. Qin Shi Huangdi's father dies. Qin Shi Huangdi defeated Han. Qin Shi Huangdi defeated Zhao. Qin Shi Huangdi de...

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Terracotta Army: The greatest archeological find of the 20th century - BBC

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Terracotta Army: The greatest archeological find of the 20th century - BBC

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In March 1974, Chinese farmers digging a well unearthed the greatest archaeological find of the century - the buried Terracotta Army.  After coming across a life-sized human head made of clay in Xi’an, China, archaeologists were called in to investigate.  What they found was extraordinary.  Thousands of life-like terracotta figures from the Qin dynasty, fashioned 2,000 years ago to protect the First Emperor of China in the afterlife.  Archaeologist Li Xiuzhen has worked on the site since the 1980s.  Her team was the first to discover that each warrior was originally painted in bright colours.

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Terracotta Army: The greatest archaeological find of the 20th century - BBC News

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Questions to consider:

Why was it built? What purpose did it serve?

What was significant about the building of the Great Wall of China?

How long is it?

When was the Great Wall built?

What makes the Great Wall such a famous landmark?

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Qin Dynasty Construction

Though the beginning of the Great Wall of China can be traced to the fifth century B.C., many of the fortifications included in the wall date from hundreds of years earlier, when China was divided into a number of individual kingdoms during the so-called Warring States Period.

Around 220 B.C., Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a unified China under the Qin Dynasty, ordered that earlier fortifications between states be removed and a number of existing walls along the northern border be joined into a single system that would extend for more than 10,000 li (a li is about one-third of a mile) and protect China against attacks from the north.

Construction of the "Wan Li Chang Cheng," or 10,000-Li-Long Wall, was one of the most ambitious building projects ever undertaken by any civilization. The famous Chinese general Meng Tian initially directed the project, and was said to have used a massive army of soldiers, convicts and commoners as workers.

Made mostly of earth and stone, the wall stretched from the China Sea port of Shanhaiguan over 3,000 miles west into Gansu province. In some strategic areas, sections of the wall overlapped for maximum security (including the Badaling stretch, north of Beijing, that was later restored during the Ming Dynasty).

From a base of 15 to 50 feet, the Great Wall rose some 15-30 feet high and was topped by ramparts 12 feet or higher; guard towers were distributed at intervals along it.

Did you know? When Emperor Qin Shi Huang ordered construction of the Great Wall around 221 B.C., the labor force that built the wall was made up largely of soldiers and convicts. It is said that as many as 400,000 people died during the wall's construction; many of these workers were buried within the wall itself.

Great Wall of China Through the Centuries

With the death of Qin Shi Huang and the fall of the Qin Dynasty, much of the Great Wall fell into disrepair. After the fall of the later Han Dynasty, a series of frontier tribes seized control in northern China. The most powerful of these was the Northern Wei Dynasty, which repaired and extended the existing wall to defend against attacks from other tribes.

The Bei Qi kingdom (550-577) built or repaired more than 900 miles of wall, and the short-lived but effective Sui Dynasty (581-618) repaired and extended the Great Wall of China a number of times.

With the fall of the Sui and the rise of the Tang Dynasty, the Great Wall lost its importance as a fortification, as China had defeated the Tujue tribe to the north and expanded past the original frontier protected by the wall.

During the Song Dynasty, the Chinese were forced to withdraw under threat from the Liao and Jin peoples to the north, who took over many areas on both sides of the Great Wall. The powerful Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty (1206-1368), established by Genghis Khan, eventually controlled all of China, parts of Asia and sections of Europe.

Though the Great Wall held little importance for the Mongols as a military fortification, soldiers were assigned to man the wall in order to protect merchants and caravans traveling along the lucrative Silk Road trade routes established during this period.

Wall Building During the Ming Dynasty

Despite its long history, the Great Wall of China as it is exists today was constructed mainly during the mighty Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).

Like the Mongols, the early Ming rulers had little interest in building border fortifications, and wall building was limited before the late 15th century. In 1421, the Ming emperor Yongle proclaimed China's new capital, Beijing, on the site of the former Mongol city of Dadu.

Under the strong hand of the Ming rulers, Chinese culture flourished, and the period saw an immense amount of construction in addition to the Great Wall, including bridges, temples and pagodas.

The construction of the Great Wall as it is known today began around 1474. After an initial phase of territorial expansion, Ming rulers took a largely defensive stance, and their reformation and extension of the Great Wall was key to this strategy.

The Ming wall extended from the Yalu River in Liaoning Province to the eastern bank of the Taolai River in Gansu Province, and winded its way from east to west through today's Liaoning, Hebei, Tianjin, Beijing, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Ningxia and Gansu.

Starting west of Juyong Pass, the Great Wall was split into south and north lines, respectively named the Inner and Outer Walls. Strategic "passes" (i.e., fortresses) and gates were placed along the wall; the Juyong, Daoma and Zijing passes, closest to Beijing, were named the Three Inner Passes, while further west were Yanmen, Ningwu and Piantou, the Three Outer Passes.

All six passes were heavily garrisoned during the Ming period and considered vital to the defense of the capital.

Significance of the Great Wall of China

In the mid-17th century, the Manchus from central and southern Manchuria broke through the Great Wall and encroached on Beijing, eventually forcing the fall of the Ming Dynasty and beginning of the Qing Dynasty.

Between the 18th and 20th centuries, the Great Wall emerged as the most common emblem of China for the Western world, and a symbol both physical-as a manifestation of Chinese strength-and a psychological representation of the barrier maintained by the Chinese state to repel foreign influences and exert control over its citizens.

Today, the Great Wall is generally recognized as one of the most impressive architectural feats in human history. In 1987, UNESCO designated the Great Wall a World Heritage site, and a popular claim emerged in the 20th century that it is the only manmade structure visible from space ( NASA has since refuted this claim).

Over the years, roadways have been cut through the wall in various points, and many sections have deteriorated after centuries of neglect. The best-known section of the Great Wall of China-Badaling, located 43 miles (70 km) northwest of Beijing-was rebuilt in the late 1950s, and attracts thousands of national and foreign tourists every day.

Fact Check

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The Great Wall of China is an ancient series of walls and fortifications, totaling more than 13,000 miles in length, located in northern China. Perhaps the most recognizable symbol of China and its long and vivid history

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In the spring of 1974, farmers in Shaanxi Province, China were digging a new well when they struck a hard object. It turned out to be part of a terracotta soldier.

Soon, Chinese archaeologists realized that the entire area outside of the city of Xian (formerly Chang an) was underlain by an enormous necropolis; an army, complete with horses, chariots, officers and infantry, as well as a court, all made of terracotta. The farmers had discovered one of the world's greatest archaeological wonders: the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi.

What was the purpose of this magnificent army? Why did Qin Shi Huangdi, who was obsessed with immortality, make such elaborate arrangements for his burial?

The Reason Behind the Terracotta Army

Qin Shi Huangdi was buried with the terracotta army and court because he wanted to have the same military power and imperial status in the afterlife as he had enjoyed during his earthly lifetime. The first emperor of the Qin Dynasty, he unified much of modern-day northern and central China under his rule, which lasted from 246 to 210 BCE. Such an accomplishment would be difficult to replicate in the next life without a proper army, hence the 10,000 clay soldiers with weapons, horses, and chariots.

The great Chinese historian Sima Qian (145-90 BCE) reports that construction of the burial mound began as soon as Qin Shi Huangdi ascended the throne, and involved hundreds of thousands of artisans and laborers. Perhaps because the emperor ruled for more than three decades, his tomb grew to be one of the largest and most complex ever built.

According to surviving records, Qin Shi Huangdi was a cruel and ruthless ruler. A proponent of legalism, he had Confucian scholars stoned to death or buried alive because he disagreed with their philosophy.

However, the terracotta army is actually a merciful alternative to earlier traditions both in China and in other ancient cultures. Often, early rulers from the Shang and Zhou Dynasties had soldiers, officials, concubines and other attendants buried along with the dead emperor. Sometimes the sacrificial victims were killed first; even more horrifically, they were often entombed alive.

Either Qin Shi Huangdi himself or his advisors decided to substitute the intricately-made terracotta figures for actual human sacrifices, saving the lives of more than 10,000 men plus hundreds of horses. Each life-sized terracotta soldier is modeled on an actual person as they have distinct facial features and hairstyles.

The officers are depicted as being taller than the foot soldiers, with the generals tallest of all. Although higher-status families may have had better nutrition than lower-class ones, it is probable that this is symbolism rather than a reflection of every officer actually being taller than all of the regular troops.

After Qin Shi Huangdi's Death

Shortly after Qin Shi Huangdi's death in 210 BCE, his son's rival for the throne, Xiang Yu, may have looted the weapons of the terracotta army, and burned the support timbers. In any case, the timbers were burned and the section of the tomb containing the clay troops collapsed, smashing the figures to pieces. Approximately 1,000 of the 10,000 total have been put back together.

Qin Shi Huangdi himself is buried under an enormous pyramid-shaped mound that stands some distance from the excavated sections of the burial. According to ancient historian Sima Qian, the central tomb contains treasures and wondrous objects, including flowing rivers of pure mercury (which was associated with immortality). Soil testing nearby has revealed elevated levels of mercury, so there may be some truth to this legend.

Legend also records that the central tomb is booby-trapped to fend off looters and that the emperor himself placed a powerful curse on any who dared to invade his final resting place. Mercury vapor may be the real danger, but in any case, the government of China has been in no great hurry to excavate the central tomb itself. Perhaps it is best not to disturb China's infamous First Emperor.

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Why Was Qin Shi Huangdi Buried With Terracotta Soldiers?

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In the spring of 1974, farmers in Shaanxi Province, China were digging a new well when they struck a hard object. It turned out to be part of a terracotta soldier.

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The Qin Dynasty, pronounced like chin, emerged in 221 BCE. Qin Shihuang, the king of the Qin state at the time, conquered the many feudal territories vying for influence during the bloody Warring States period. He then united them all under one rule, thus putting an end to the notoriously violent chapter in Chinese history that lasted for 200 years.

Qin Shihuang was only 38 years old when he came into power. He created the title "Emperor" ( 皇帝, ) for himself, and thus is known as the first emperor of China.

While his dynasty only lasted 15 years, the shortest dynastic rule in Chinese history, the impact of the Qin Emperor on China cannot be understated. Although highly controversial, Qin Dynasty policies were very influential in uniting China and maintaining power.

The Qin Emperor was famously obsessed with immortality and even spent years trying to find an elixir to eternal life. Though he ultimately died, it would seem that Qin's quest to live forever was ultimately granted - his practices and policies were carried into the subsequent Han Dynasty and continue to flourish in present-day China.

Here are just a few remnants of Qin's legacy.

Central Rule

The dynasty adhered to Legalist principles, which is a Chinese philosophy that followed strict compliance with the rule of law. This belief allowed Qin to rule the population from a centralized power structure and proved to be a very effective way to govern.

Such a policy, however, did not allow for dissent. Anyone who protested Qin's power was quickly and brutally silenced or killed off.

Written Script

Qin instituted a uniform written language. Before then, different regions in China had different languages, dialects, and writing systems. Imposing a universal written language allowed for better communication and implementation of policies.

For example, a singular script allowed scholars to share information with a greater number of people. It also led to the sharing of culture that was previously only experienced by a few. Additionally, a single language allowed later dynasties to communicate with nomadic tribes and pass along information on how to negotiate or fight with them.

The construction of roads allowed for greater connections between provinces and major cities. The dynasty also standardized the length of axles in carts so that they could all ride on the newly-built roads.

Weights and Measures

The dynasty standardized all weights and measures, which led to more efficient commerce. This conversion also allowed subsequent dynasties to develop a taxation system.

In another effort to unify the empire, the Qin Dynasty standardized the Chinese currency. Doing so led to greater commerce across more regions.

The Great Wall

The Qin Dynasty was responsible for the construction of the Great Wall of China. The Great Wall marked national boundaries and acted as a defensive infrastructure to protect against invading nomadic tribes from the north. However, later dynasties were more expansionist and built beyond Qin's original wall.

Today, the Great Wall of China is easily one of China's most iconic pieces of architecture.

Terracotta Warriors

Another architectural feat that draws tourists to China is the enormous tomb in present-day Xian filled with terracotta warriors. This is also a part of Qin Shihuang's legacy.

When Qin Shihuang died, he was buried in a tomb accompanied by an army of hundreds of thousands of terracotta soldiers that were supposed to protect him in his afterlife. The tomb was uncovered by farmers digging for a well in 1974.

Strong Personality

One other lasting impact of the Qin Dynasty is the influence of a leader's personality in China. Qin Shihuang's relied on his top-down method of ruling, and, on the whole, people conformed to his rule because of the power of his personality. Many subjects followed Qin because he showed them something larger than their local kingdoms--a visionary idea of a cohesive nation-state.

While this is a very effective way to rule, once the leader dies, so can his dynasty. After Qin Shihuang's death in 210 BCE, his son, and later his grandson, took power, but both were short-lived. The Qin Dynasty came to a close in 206 BCE, just four years after Qin Shihuang's death.

Almost immediately following his death, the same warring states that he unified sprang up again and China was again under numerous leaders until it was unified under the Han Dynasty. The Han would last over 400 years, but much of its practices were started in the Qin Dynasty.

Similarities in charismatic cult personalities can be seen in subsequent leaders in Chinese history, such as Chairman Mao Zedong. In fact, Mao actually likened himself to Emperor Qin.

Representation in Pop Culture

Qin was popularized in Eastern and Western media in Chinese Director Zhang Yimou's 2002 film Hero. While some criticized the movie for advocating totalitarianism, movie-goers went to see it in droves.

A hit in China and Hong Kong, when it opened to North American audiences in 2004, it was the number one movie and grossed $18 million in its opening weekend - a rarity for a foreign film.

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The Qin Dynasty, pronounced like chin, emerged in 221 BCE. Qin Shihuang, the king of the Qin state at the time, conquered the many feudal territories vying for influence during the bloody Warring States period. He then united them all under one rule, thus putting an end to the notoriously violent chapter in Chinese history that lasted for 200 years.

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The incredible history of China's terracotta warriors - Megan Campisi and Pen-Pen Chen

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Unifying China

Writing system of China was standardised

Introduced universal system for weighing objects & measuring distance

Enforced a single currency

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Emperor Qin Shihuang

Before the early third century BC, what is now known as China was nothing but a number of warring states. In 221 BC, Qin Shihuang, king of Qin (from which the name of the country derives), united China and became the first emperor of China. In terms of his long-lasting impact on the history of China, Qin Shihuang's life was marked with extraordinary achievement. However, from a more humanitarian point of view, those achievements came at great costs, perhaps to a fault.

Here is a look at some of Qin Shihuang's greatest achievements and greatest faults, and my analysis of which outweighs the other.

Qin Shihuang's Top Five Achievements

Qin Shihuang achieved quite a few significant accomplishments. These include:

Uniting China

Establishing the Qin dynasty

Reinforcing legalism within the Chinese administrative system

Restructuring political divisions to form a more coherent state

Harmonising measurement units to allow for consistent, state-wide economic development

Standardising the different Chinese scripts

Building the Great Wall to protect the northern borders

Constructing the Lingqu canal in the south to connect the major waterways and prevent flooding

Building the overall infrastructure for national economic development

Building the impressive Terracotta Army.

Here I will elaborate on what I consider to be the emperor's top five achievements.

1. Unifying China

The most important achievement under Qin Shihuang is the unification of China. After the Qin state conquered all others, ending the Warring States period, Qin Shihuang declared himself the first emperor-until that point, there had only been kings. With that, he founded the first Chinese dynasty. He continued to expand the Qin dynasty after unifying China, going as far south as Vietnam. This laid a solid foundation for future Chinese dynasties until the collapse of the Qing dynasty in the early 1900s.

The second most important of his achievements was the reinforcement of legalism within the Chinese administrative systems. The impact of this achievement far outlasted the Qin dynasty, and survives even under the current Communist rule.

Legalism is a Chinese philosophy best captured in The Book of Lord Shang. It assumes that people are essentially bad and that the only way to maintain public order is through strict laws and severe penalties. It had a great influence on the operation of the Qin dynasty.

Another important change was that meritocracy was valued over aristocracy within the government. The high officials and generals could be anybody who had the skill and the competence for those posts, and only the ruler of the state derived his privilege from birthright. This had a fundamental impact on future Chinese dynasties, in which examinations were introduced to promote people into government capacities, as opposed to inheriting the positions, as had been done in the past.

Qin Shihuang's third most important achievement was reforming the political arrangements to ensure China would not fall again into the divisive conflict of the Warring States period. To form a more coherent state, Qin Shihuang created commanderies, or military districts, within all the conquered states. He divided his empire into 36 commanderies in all, each run by a military governor. Within each commandery were a number of counties. The central government's strong bond with its military commanderies prevented conflicts between states from turning into wars.

The fourth achievement was standardising everything from measurement units to writing scripts.

Economically, commerce was enhanced as currency, weights, roads and cart axle length were standardised. The development of roads and canals also created better connectivity between major trading regions.

Culturally, the writing script was standardised and made official throughout the dynasty. This created better internal communications for the state. All of these changes had very long-lasting impacts on later Chinese dynasties.

5. Building the Great Wall of China

Qin Shihuang also built the Great Wall of China to protect the dynasty from raids from the north. The construction of the wall lasted for 2,000 years after he began the project, and spans 13,171 mi (21,196 km) with all of its branches. It is so expansive that US Senator Jake Garn has said he could see the wall from space shuttle orbit. The wall is considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World.

This was not Qin Shihuang's only historic monument; he also built the impressive Terracotta Army in his pursuit of immortality. The army has over 8,000 figures, each personalized with facial details and holding actual weapons. The army was also accompanied by statues of chariots, horses, officials, acrobats, and musicians and was in fact part of an entire necropolis of offices, stables, and halls surrounding Qin Shihuang's mausoleum, built beneath a huge tomb mound. Qin Shihuang's mausoleum is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Both of these constructions withstood the test of time and are still here today, providing great cultural sites for the people of the modern era.

Qin Shihuang's Two Major Faults

Qin Shihuang's many faults and unattractive features derive in large part from his achievements.

One of his most well-known traits is harshness, which at times was considered despotic. He is said to have maintained strict order over his kingdom, and valued obedience above all. As the first ruler to have united many Warring States and subsequently impose a central government with astonishing alacrity, this trait may seem expected in some ways.

However, historical accounts should be taken with a grain of salt. Our only concrete sources about the Qin dynasty come largely from Han historians. Qin Shihuang's legalism, which believed strict rule was necessary because people inherently could not be trusted to govern themselves, was explicitly opposed to scholars' Confucianism, which believes that humans can and should try to improve themselves.From Qin Shihuang's legalist perspective, these views held by scholars were divisive, and consequently, scholars were persecuted in different ways, as seen below.

Ordinary people resented the Qin dynasty not only because of the emperor's harshness, but also because of legalism itself. While Qin Shihuang can be blamed partially for the faults of legalism, it was seen as the only way to unite the people and maintain order in the short term.

Qin Shihuang is most frequently faulted for the burning of books and burying of scholars. Technically it was not his idea, but that of Li Si to suppress thoughts and unify political and intellectual opinions by destroying books. The burning of books was also motivated by Qin Shihuang's desire to standardise scripts, because it was a method of removing books with non-standard writing. The many different political theories known as the 'Hundred Schools of Thought' and many history books were destroyed in the process, with the exception of books on legalism as well as a few on divination, medicine, agriculture, and war.

Historical accounts report that he buried alive between 400 and 700 scholars in the capital after being tricked by two alchemists. He was very concerned with mortality, as shown by his building the Terracotta Army as a monument to himself, and he was always looking for ways to extend his life through supernatural means.

Some of the scholars were also Confucians-despite his first son's advice to not do so, Qin Shihuang continued to suppress the philosophy. This was perhaps the greatest shock to his dynasty's foundation, as it caused a lot of resentment in the Confucian community. After his son warned him about the dangers of suppressing Confucianism, Qin Shihuang sent him into exhile, further proof that the first emperor was quite ruthless toward ideas he did not like.

From a long-term perspective, the burning of the books did not have a huge impact, because at the time most books were orally transmitted. The impact has also been mitigated by books that have been dug up in recent years. However, during the Qin dynasty, it was disastrous for the newly-founded empire. Not only did it create fear within the scholars and the educated community, but also it restricted intellectual freedom, fomenting resentment.

2. Embarking on Projects of Immense Scale and Human Costs

The emperor's other major fault lay in the inhumane conditions on his huge construction projects, such as the Great Wall, the canal, the Terracotta Army, and other infrastructure projects. Harshness was expected under legalist rule, and as a result, the people suffered immensely. Countless died in these construction projects, and the resentment toward the Qin rulers grew larger and larger. The harsh conditions of construction combined with the strict Qin laws meant that even the smallest mistakes and crimes would get punished unreasonably. All of these faults of Qin Shihuang and his first dynasty eventually caused the final collapse of the short-lived dynasty.

The Final Analysis

Did Qin Shihuang's achievements outweigh his faults? Personally, I would say yes. He did more good than harm. Fundamentally, he established a governance model that successive dynasties emulated throughout the rest of Chinese history. He had to do the unpopular work of getting everything in place for an empire, which later emperors were faced with the task maintaining, rather than creating. The Han dynasty simply re-arranged a few things to correct Qin Shihuang's mistakes and took off from where the Qin ended, wisely learning from its mistakes. Legalism was still infused into the Chinese administrative and legal system, except that later dynasties used a Confucian coating to make it more pleasant to the masses. This made it more sustainable and functional in the long term.

Admittedly, Qin Shihuang was not a benevolent figure and his actions were certainly harsh. Still, his achievements were very important and significant to the development of Chinese culture and history, despite the short-lived dynasty. Therefore, on a long term scale, Qin Shihuang's achievements outweigh his faults.

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The Achievements and Faults of Qin Shihuang, The First Emperor of China

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Before the early third century BC, what is now known as China was nothing but a number of warring states. In 221 BC, Qin Shihuang, king of Qin (from which the name of the country derives), united China and became the first emperor of China.

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What makes the Great Wall of China so extraordinary - Megan Campisi and Pen-Pen Chen