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Educational Buzzwords Defined: What Is Differentiation?

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Go beyond the jargon for a quick look at a few of the many ways to differentiate instruction in the classroom.

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Especially now, after a difficult year, strategies rooted in the science of learning can help middle and high school students more effectively retain what they're learning.

Michael Austin / theispot.com

Many schools will reopen this fall with significant uncertainty around student academic performance. Some students will have significant unfinished learning -content they normally would have mastered at their age but did not because of inefficiencies in remote and hybrid school environments and the greater social and emotional trauma of the pandemic.

Faced with this challenge of unfinished learning, many schools will be tempted to look to remediation strategies to catch kids up. In The Acceleration Imperative, a report released this spring by the Fordham Institute, researchers suggest that the focus should be on accelerated learning rather than remediation.

To do this, schools must devote the bulk of instructional time to challenging, grade-level content. Teachers will need to build small group work, classroom stations, and similar differentiated supports into their lessons to target specific gaps in student skills. For many, individualized tutoring will be necessary. However, the learning experiences within day-to-day class time remain the single most efficient and important opportunity to meet our students' academic needs.

It won't be easy. The challenge of unfinished learning and the need to accelerate demand efficiency in our instruction.

Fortunately, there are existing models to turn to. Over the last 20 years, the field of cognitive science has made enormous gains in understanding how students learn. Dubbed the science of learning, this field poses real promise for classroom practice and offers strategies for improved questioning, modeling, and feedback.

This spring, teacher leadership teams at two Bronx high schools studied key ideas within cognitive science as they made plans for the fall. Those ideas, which are rooted in strengthening memory and posing questions, will be explicitly folded into instruction.

Retrieval Practice

At New York City's High School of Violin and Dance-a comprehensive high school in the Bronx-a core group of teacher leaders, administrators, and coaches spent the spring studying research on retrieval practice.

This concept focuses not on how we get information into students' brains but on how students get information out of their brains. Cognitive scientists have discovered that when students struggle to bring information to mind ( as with quizzes), that act of retrieval actually boosts learning itself. In other words, memory is strengthened when students attempt to retrieve information-especially when a little forgetting has taken place to the degree that students struggle to recall.

In its weekly meetings, the team reviewed resources from the Learning Agency Lab and Retrieval Practice. Between meetings, teachers experimented with challenging students in their virtual classrooms to retrieve information from earlier lessons through individual warm-up exercises and exit tickets. Each week, the team reconvened to share their experiences and reflect.

Ultimately, the team landed on one common practice- mini-quizzes -that will become the hallmark of classroom instruction this coming academic year. Several times per week, teachers will devote five minutes of class time to ask all students three to five questions on content learned previously. These no-stakes questions will not be graded but will challenge students to recall what they learned last week, last month, or even earlier in the year.

It's a deceptively simple strategy, but the mini-quiz structure helps teachers accelerate learning by strengthening students' retrieval of what was previously taught. That will allow more time to move ahead with grade-level content.

Probing Questions

At Explorations Academy-another public Bronx high school-a similar team of teacher leaders spent the spring unpacking the late Barak Rosenshine's " principles of instruction," detailed in the Spring 2012 issue of American Educator. A renowned professor of educational psychology, Rosenshine dedicated his professional life to helping teachers understand how cognitive science and similar research, such as the study of master teachers, could be translated into classroom practice.

Rosenshine's 10 principles have only become more popular as time passes. While many of Rosenshine's ideas (like checking for understanding) may sound familiar, his entire article is a nuanced yet accessible exploration of practical research that challenges classroom orthodoxy with science. For example, Rosenshine offers a primer of how best to move from introducing and modeling a skill for students to supporting their independent mastery of it.

Ultimately, the teacher-leaders at Explorations Academy were most invigorated by Rosenshine's third principle: "Ask a large number of questions and check the responses of all students: Questions help students practice new information and practice new material to their prior learning." Rosenshine suggests that during guided practice in which students work together with their teacher through examples, teachers should frequently question the class to engage their thinking. Such questioning is the best way to gauge student understanding before they transition to independent work.

Rosenshine's research suggested that the most successful (and likely efficient) teachers spend more than half of their class time asking questions to determine how well students learned something. Most important, successful teachers ask students to explain the process used to answer a question. In other words, asking students to explain how they arrived at an answer is just as important as asking students what the answer is.

As they prepare for the coming year, the team members at Explorations are working to deepen their understanding of questioning techniques. They're also studying how engagement tools such as individual whiteboards or clickers like Kahoot and Plickers can ensure that all students in the room engage with the questions.

When the whole staff returns for the new school year, the team leaders will facilitate professional learning experiences to support their colleagues in making frequent, whole-class questioning-particularly around the process that students use-a hallmark of instruction throughout the school.

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Using Cognitive Science to Boost Learning

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Especially now, after a difficult year, strategies rooted in the science of learning can help middle and high school students more effectively retain what they're learning. Michael Austin / theispot.com Many schools will reopen this fall with significant uncertainty around student academic performance.

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Brain Science and Conflict Resolution

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Social & Emotional Learning (SEL)

When a teacher noticed her kids fighting at recess, she turned to neuroscience and mindfulness practice to help them take control of their emotions.

Five years into teaching conflict resolution to elementary school students, Linda Ryden realized she was missing the mark.

"On the surface, it all looked good. But day after day I would see children, often some of our most vulnerable and troubled students, being sent to the office for fighting at recess," Ryden, a peace teacher at Lafayette Elementary School in Washington, DC, writes for EdSurge. "Some of these kids would go straight from my classroom where we had been role-playing how to work out a conflict to the playground where they would get into a fight over who goes first on the swings."

Despite all her work, Ryden concluded that her students simply couldn't think clearly enough to make good choices when confronted with the actual moment of conflict. She went back to the drawing board, and found that the neuroscience of anger-the role of the amygdala in "hijacking" the brain's higher-order skills, like self-control, for example-provided useful context for her students. Once they understood this framework, students quickly adopted the language of brain-based learning, Ryden says, with one student approaching her to insist that he was "all amygdala" and needed help with his self-regulation.

But understanding how anger works isn't enough, Ryden knew. She had never been a meditator, she admits, "but as I was searching for ways to help my students I kept reading about mindfulness-in particular, breathing strategies that can calm us down in the moment. There isn't much research about its impact on students, yet, but what is out there appears promising."

The two strategies-the neuroscience of anger and the self-regulatory power of mindfulness-snapped together in a way that felt immediately useful. "Once I was able to teach my students what was happening in their brains when they were angry and how they could take care of their brains with mindful breathing, then working out the conflict was a breeze," she says. "Giving my students these tools quickly began to change their lives, my life, and the climate of the school."

Making It Tangible for Kids

To help her students understand what happens in their brains when they get angry, Ryden made a puppet using a mitten, googly eyes, and pompoms. The puppet is a tangible way to show her students what happens when their prefrontal cortex-the part of the brain responsible for thinking and executive function-goes offline when kids get angry and their amygdala-the part of the brain responsible for responding to threats and danger-takes over and begins making decisions for them. She realized this visual tool could be an important part of her practice after watching Daniel J. Siegel, a clinical professor of psychiatry at the UCLA School of Medicine, use his hand to demonstrate what happens in the brain when we get angry.

Once her students, beginning as early as first grade and continuing through fifth grade, gain a basic understanding of what's happening in their brains, Ryden begins teaching tools they can use to literally calm their brains. She does this by teaching them different techniques for taking deep and calming breaths, such as take 5 breathing, for example. "Neuroscientists have found that the act of taking deep breaths sends a message to your amygdala that everything is OK, that your amygdala can stand down and let other parts of the brain take over," Ryden says, noting that this is a simplified explanation of a very complex process. "Then you can deal with the problem that's causing you to be upset."

Integrating Mindfulness During the School Day

At Lafayette Elementary, Ryden says teachers give students opportunities twice a day for what she calls "mindful moments." This daily frequency and repetition is important because teaching, learning, and practicing mindfulness isn't a quick fix. "It takes a very long time for people to change their patterns and how they behave," she says. In class, teachers refer to a poster with nine different ways for students to practice mindfulness. These include gravity hands (sitting with hands palms up, breathing in while slowly lifting hands, then breathing out while slowly dropping them, palms down) and squeeze and release (tensing up muscles while breathing in, relaxing muscles while breathing out).

"A lot of mindfulness practice isn't about calming down," says Ryden. "It can be applied to life's challenges in so many ways. The goal shouldn't be: 'These kids are out of control, let's get mindfulness in here.' Rather, it should help you understand yourself better, how you think about things, and eventually, help make the world a better place."

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What Brain Science Teaches Us About Conflict Resolution

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When a teacher noticed her kids fighting at recess, she turned to neuroscience and mindfulness practice to help them take control of their emotions.

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Students Learn the Skill of Conflict Resolution

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The Forum: Students Learn the Skill of Conflict Resolution

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Seattle's AS-1 school offers an elective class where students from every grade come together to discuss and resolve their differences.

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Learning about Differences

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Windows and Mirrors: Learning About Difference-and Belonging-Through Books

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When there is diversity in classroom materials, students connect to the experiences of others-and have their own reflected and valued.

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These books help students explore historical and contemporary experiences of Asian American and Pacific Islander communities.

Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) communities have a long history in the United States, from Filipino sailors arriving as early as the 1750s to the present day, with AAPIs who have origins in more than 30 countries and number 22 million, nearly 6 percent of the U.S. population. Despite this growing presence, there remains a gap in curricula regarding AAPI communities and their experiences in our schools.

Children's literature offers one way to close this gap. Multicultural education experts, including Emily Style and Rudine Sims Bishop, developed the idea of children's literature serving as "windows" into others' realities and "mirrors" for children from backgrounds that have been historically excluded to see themselves and their families reflected in texts.

In research I've done with colleagues, we developed another category to add: the prism. A prism refracts a beam of light into various colors that go in different directions. Similarly, a text that serves as a prism allows for multiple conversations and critical engagements. While windows and mirrors offer opportunities for exploring and reflecting on cultural traditions, holidays, foods, and ways of life that are all extremely important, the prism, when applied to children's literature, presents the chance to critically analyze inequalities and injustices in age-appropriate ways.

While children's literature is a powerful way to center the experiences of marginalized communities in the classroom and present the many positive contributions these communities have made, reading a book is just one part of the lesson. Proper introduction of a text, followed by adequate unpacking of the themes and the questions they raise, is essential for engaging in conversations that can lay the foundation for further critical inquiry.

The following books offer windows (mirrors for some students) and prisms to discuss and analyze the historic and contemporary experiences of Asian American and Pacific Islander communities at the elementary school level. Where available, there are hyperlinks to lesson plans that offer educators ideas for using the book in their classrooms, along with sample questions for discussion during and after reading.

Books for Grades K-2

Ohana Means Family ( educator guide), written by Ilima Loomis and illustrated by Kenard Pak, tells the story of a Hawaiian luau through a rhyming poem about family and land. Centering on the story of one family and its cultural traditions, this book opens up discussions about the diverse traditions of students and their families at the early elementary school level.

Always Anjali ( educator/parent guide), written by Sheetal Sheth and illustrated by Jessica Blank, features a young girl named Anjali, who, after being teased about her name, decides to change it to Angie. Through the help of friends and discussions with her family, she finds pride in her name and ways to deal with those who have been bullying her.

Fish for Jimmy ( educator guide), written and illustrated by Katie Yamasaki, tells the story of a family in a Japanese internment camp in the United States during World War II. Taro's younger brother Jimmy isn't eating and is getting weak, so Taro sneaks out of the camp one night to find fish (Jimmy's favorite food) for him.

Danbi Leads the School Parade ( educator guide), written and illustrated by Anna Kim, is a touching story of a cultural encounter when a young girl from Korea first comes to a U.S. classroom. Unfamiliar with the games and foods of her American peers, Danbi finds her own way to connect across language and cultural barriers.

Paper Son: The Inspiring Story of Tyrus Wong, Immigrant and Artist ( educator guide), written by Julie Leung and illustrated by Chris Sasaki, tells the true story of a young immigrant from China in the early 1900s who faces limited opportunities, given restrictive immigration laws and discrimination, and later becomes a well-known artist.

Books for Grades 3-6

The Paper Boat: A Refugee Story ( educator guide), illustrated by Thao Lam, has no words-it's a series of powerful images about a family leaving Vietnam for the United States as refugees during the Vietnam War. The family's story intersects with the story of a group of ants who also play a central role in the book.

Journey for Justice: The Life of Larry Itliong ( educator guide), written by Dawn Bohulano Mabalon and Gayle Romasanta and illustrated by Andre Sibayan, tells the story of Larry Itliong, a farmworker and labor activist who, along with Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta, cofounded the United Farm Workers.

Fred Korematsu Speaks Up ( educator guide), written by Laura Atkins and Stan Yogi and illustrated by Yutaka Houlette, tells the story of Fred Korematsu, who was jailed for resisting Japanese internment during World War II. He took his case to the highest courts, fighting for justice for decades.

The Great Wall of Lucy Wu ( educator guide), by Wendy Wan-Long Shang, is a story about a young Chinese American girl whose aunt comes from China to live with the family. The story discusses themes of identity, family, and culture.

Through these books, and many others that offer a glimpse into distinct realities, educators can humanize and center AAPI communities whose stories have long been neglected in curricula. When our classrooms and schools reflect our rich diversity, we can ultimately foster greater empathy and respect in our society.

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Incorporating Asian American and Pacific Islander Experiences in Elementary School

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These books help students explore historical and contemporary experiences of Asian American and Pacific Islander communities. Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) communities have a long history in the United States, from Filipino sailors arriving as early as the 1750s to the present day, with AAPIs who have origins in more than 30 countries and number 22 million, nearly 6 percent of the U.S.

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Culturally Responsive Teaching

Many teachers are working to bring in books that provide students with windows and mirrors. Once the books are in the room, what's next?

Brownstock / Alamy Stock Photo

By now, most of us in education are familiar with the term "windows and mirrors" in relation to children's literature. Originally applied to curriculum as a whole, the term was famously used by Rudine Sims Bishop to discuss the way books and stories can act as windows in which children see a world outside of their own or mirrors in which they see a reflection of themselves in the world. Providing both windows and mirrors is critical in the development of individuals who will grow up to be caring and compassionate citizens of the world.

Luckily, there are many great resources to help teachers and principals find books that can be windows and mirrors for students. A Google search for "diverse book lists" will lead educators to collections of worthy books to share with students, and to organizations such as We Need Diverse Books that not only donate books to schools but work with publishers to ensure that previously underrepresented stories are told.

What we don't talk about often enough is what to do once we get these books into our schools and classrooms. What are the best strategies to hold up the mirror for a child to see a clear reflection of themselves? What can we do in the classroom to help kids see diversity in the world and develop a sense of empathy for others?

While it's important to provide access to these books, it's just as important to know what to do with them in your classroom. The ideas that follow are built around whole-class reading, and applying them to choice reading would take some adaptation-for example, a teacher could write up some background knowledge needed to understand a story and leave a printout in the book for interested students.

Getting the Most Out of Your Class Library

Discuss the importance of perspective: Is a story a window or a mirror? Or both? This depends on the perspective of the reader, of course. It's important to discuss this question as a classroom community so that students can find meaning in their own perspective and the perspective of others.

When reading R.J. Palacio's Wonder, for example, students may find themselves identifying with the lonely new kid who is so different from his classmates. Later in the same story, they may find a new understanding of a sibling who has been ignored and neglected at home. It's important for students to acknowledge and reflect on these perspectives. Teaching Tolerance has a great lesson plan to help facilitate these discussions.

Build background knowledge: Think about what students need to know before they read a particular book. Building their background knowledge can improve their reading comprehension by providing context for the story. For example, if you're going to read Write to Me: Letters From Japanese American Children to the Librarian They Left Behind by Cynthia Grady, you'll need to be sure that students have some understanding of the World War II internment camps.

Take on another point of view: If we're hoping books are windows, we want kids to see the world from another perspective, to experience a walk in someone else's shoes. What better way to facilitate this experience than having students ask themselves, "How would I feel if I were this person?" or "What would I do if I were in this situation?"

Activities such as journaling from a character's point of view can be helpful in getting students to reflect on these ideas. If a classroom was exploring the idea of sacrifice while reading Shel Silverstein's The Giving Tree, students could write a letter to the tree from the old man's perspective. What would he say? What did he learn in his life?

Some teachers may have students role-play different characters from a story to add another layer of reflection. While teachers need to be sensitive and careful not to reinforce stereotypes, role-playing characters such as Salma and Lily from The Sandwich Swap can help kids develop a deeper understanding of differences and similarities.

Compare and contrast: In Classroom Instruction That Works, Robert Marzano says that identifying similarities and differences is critical to enhancing students' understanding of and ability to use knowledge. This strategy can be used to highlight the similarities students have with characters as well as differences they see.

Using a graphic organizer such as a Venn diagram, a student can explore the ways they are similar to and different from a character such as Harry Potter or Wilbur from Charlotte's Web. In this type of activity, the student can develop a better sense of who they are and also understand the character on a deeper level.

Connect to the world now: Find ways to connect stories and characters to the real world. Can you bring in someone from the community who can speak to the experiences found in a book? If you're reading Last Stop on Market Street by Matt de la Peña, for example, a person who volunteers in a soup kitchen can be a window for kids who wonder what it's like to visit a soup kitchen-and a mirror for students who have been to one.

Sharing news articles and videos is another way to connect stories to the real world-reading about a current refugee crisis would be a great connection to Alan Gratz's Refugee.

For all of these strategies, you'll want to provide students with time to reflect on their learning. Ask them to share: What did they think and how did they feel as they saw themselves in a character in a story, or as they encountered a character who was very different from them?

It's also important to allow students to ask any questions that they may have. Many students may have strong feelings about new ideas, and it's important to debrief with them regarding how to move forward with empathy and kindness.

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How to Get the Most Out of a Diverse Classroom Library

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Culturally Responsive Teaching Many teachers are working to bring in books that provide students with windows and mirrors. Once the books are in the room, what's next? Brownstock / Alamy Stock Photo By now, most of us in education are familiar with the term "windows and mirrors" in relation to children's literature.

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Culturally Responsive Teaching

To effectively collaborate and problem-solve, students need to develop a greater understanding of themselves and others.

Jim West / Alamy Stock Photo

As more students return to in-person school in the near future, it seems wise to invest our time and energy on strategies to increase student engagement that work both virtually and in person. Like all of us, students are most engaged when their work honors their experiences, connects to their interests, and has the potential to lead them to improvement of themselves, their lives, and issues that matter to them. Teachers can increase student engagement by re-envisioning their curricula in the following ways.

Identity and Criticality

Dr. Gholdy Muhammad advocates that teachers engage students by giving equal consideration to what she terms identity and criticality, in addition to building knowledge and teaching skills. Muhammad suggests that teachers promote identity work by asking themselves, "How does my teaching and learning help students learn about themselves and others?" Teachers can encourage criticality by asking themselves, "How does my teaching and learning help students to understand power, equity, antiracism, and anti-oppression?"

Curriculum that's culturally responsive and grounded in identity work is relevant and engaging, as it helps students better understand not only their own history and truth but those of others. Students can read and analyze class texts with the purpose of learning about other people's lives, joys, and struggles as a way to build empathy for those around the world who may be (or may just seem to be) very different than they are. Muhammad stresses that in order to interact, collaborate, and problem-solve peacefully with different kinds of people, students need to develop a greater understanding of themselves and others.

Criticality engages students because it involves deep and analytical thinking that enables them to recognize their own strengths as they learn where they are positioned in terms of power and privilege. Students can begin to develop criticality by reading, watching, and examining social justice issues from a variety of perspectives, and then process their thinking through written reflection and classroom discussions. This deeper understanding of societal norms and the resulting inequities fosters agency for the students as they begin to identify how they can effect change and disrupt unfair policies and systems.

Mirrors, Windows, and Sliding Glass Doors

Academic pursuits should offer students the opportunity to see their image reflected back in their coursework as they also peek through windows to see what's possible and envision sliding glass doors to walk through toward greater opportunities. As educator Rudine Sims Bishop writes, "Reading, then, becomes a means of self-affirmation, and readers often seek their mirrors in books." Student engagement increases when school affirms their realities and the work they do connects to their lives.

Teachers and schools can begin by diversifying curricula to include texts that offer students the opportunity to see themselves in the books they read and glimpse worlds that depict people who look like them, who are accomplishing things they may never have thought possible. Teachers can offer opportunities for students to gain knowledge and practice skills while they engage in the practical application of real-world skills that matter. Then, students can metaphorically walk through doors on their own path by sharing their voice through slam poetry and podcasts, and their writing, art, and photography in blogs and contests.

Inquiry and Urgency

Students are even more likely to engage in culturally responsive classrooms when they consistently approach content in a spirit of curiosity and inquiry. Begin lessons by asking students questions like "What do you know?" "What do you think you know?" and "What do you want to know?" In a language arts class, an inquiry-based approach might ask students in a Think, Pair, Share to consider minor characters in a novel with questions like "Which characters would you identify as minor characters? What is their gender, role, socioeconomic status? Do they have any power? If so, over what or whom? What purpose do they serve in the novel? Why do you think the author didn't give them very much dialogue? What might this say about society at the time of the novel?

In other content areas, photographs can stimulate inquiry by motivating students to ask what they see, think, or wonder as they discuss observations of images across the globe that depict discrimination, economic instability, food insecurity, climate crises, public health issues, and other social injustices. Teachers can then recognize students' observations and raise this sense of urgency by asking students to think more broadly, with questions like "What are the consequences of...?" "What else does this connect to?" "Why is this significant?" and the ever-important "What can we do about it?" as students recognize themselves as change agents who can make an impact.

When teachers approach learning experiences with a willingness to learn and grow from what students bring to the conversation, we can introduce our knowledge and experience to elevate the conversation and promote student agency. In a classroom where students feel safe and valued, they can engage with confidence in all facets of inquiry driven by the understanding that their voices matter and it's in their power to improve their lives and the lives of others.

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Connecting Content to Students' Lives to Boost Engagement

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Culturally Responsive Teaching To effectively collaborate and problem-solve, students need to develop a greater understanding of themselves and others. Jim West / Alamy Stock Photo As more students return to in-person school in the near future, it seems wise to invest our time and energy on strategies to increase student engagement that work both virtually and in person.

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A deeper understanding of how the brain works can help teachers plan lessons that reach every student.

Olav Ahrens Røtne / Unsplash

Understanding, even minimally, how the brain works when it comes to learning can help teachers more effectively educate students. In her recently released book, Uncommon Sense Teaching: Practical Insights in Brain Science to Help Students Learn, Dr. Barbara Oakley and her coauthors provide easy-to-understand explanations of neuroscience concepts and practical tips for how teachers can help students learn more effectively no matter what the content. I recently met with Dr. Oakley and learned about some of the neuroscience concepts on which her book is based, as well as practical advice for how teachers can apply this information in the classroom.

Understanding Working Memory

As explained in Uncommon Sense Teaching, we can think of information as a collection of balls. (Metaphors are a powerful tool to help our brains hold on to information.) Information is kept alive in working memory, a temporary mental storage space, by focusing on or repeating ideas. Students can hold on to only so much information consciously in their working memories. A typical working memory can hold, or work on, only about four balls of information at once. Long-term memory's ability to hold on to information is just that-longer.

Special education teachers and learning specialists are well aware of the effect that working memory capacity can have on a student's ability to learn. However, Dr. Oakley and her coauthors noticed that these ideas are often not applied to general classroom teaching practices. "We would like to think that this is common knowledge among all teachers, but, at present, it isn't," Dr. Oakley said when I spoke with her. Even in a single class, working memory capacity among students can vary dramatically. For example, students with a lesser-capacity working memory often have trouble completing multistep directions, or they may omit or repeat words when writing a sentence.

"As teachers," Dr. Oakley told me in our interview, "we need to help kids realize that if you can't understand something the first time you sit down to try, that doesn't mean you are some kind of dummy. It just means that you are a member of the human race. Creating neural structures in long-term memory is what levels the playing field, so that a person with a low-capacity working memory can perform just as well as, or even better than, a person with high-capacity working memory."

Simple teaching techniques such as pausing periodically during a lesson to give students a chance to reread or displaying multistep directions so that students can free up working memory capacity for actual lesson content can show tangible results for those with lesser-capacity working memory.

Declarative Versus Procedural Pathways to Learning

Similar to differences in working memory capacity, pathways through which we teach and learn knowledge can vary. There are two main pathways the brain uses to deposit new information in long-term memory. The declarative pathway is often thought to involve facts or events. The procedural pathway involves learning complex patterns, such as those found in mathematics, or skills such as typing, tying a shoe, or solving a Rubik's Cube.

"Teachers need to know that both ways of learning are valuable and provide a deeper way for students to understand material," Dr. Oakley said. "When teachers emphasize only one system of learning, as by forcing students to explain declaratively every step in solving a problem, for example, it can make it more difficult for a student to be a successful overall learner. We are hurting students who learn well procedurally. This type of learning is often difficult or impossible to explain."

Offering opportunities for both declarative and procedural learning is key. One-minute summaries, where students write down everything they remember immediately following a lesson, or peer teaching, where students work with partners to teach one another facts and information from a lesson, are great ways for students to plug declarative information into long-term memory. Alternatively, teaching through procedural pathways requires the ability to practice, and actual practice of a skill helps automatize the information. Incorporating classroom activities that involve both types of pathways will optimize learning for all students.

Another important aspect of brain science is understanding focused versus diffuse modes of thinking. When the brain is in focused mode, working memory is hard at work. It's making neural connections and building an understanding of the material. Studying for a test, reading a text, or reviewing vocabulary in a foreign language are all examples of the brain working in focused mode.

In diffuse mode, the brain is less focused on the material. Instead, it's making subconscious connections to the material. Daydreaming while going for a walk or letting your mind wander while taking a shower are examples of the brain in diffuse mode. Optimal learning often involves both focused and diffuse modes of thinking. Teachers can guide students to recognize these two forms of learning. For example, when students study, they can begin to recognize the point at which they become frustrated. That's the point at which their focused mode is essentially maxed out. Taking brain breaks at this stage will switch their thinking to diffuse mode when neural links can begin to connect. As Dr. Oakley writes in Uncommon Sense Teaching, "Knowing when frustration has just reached a peak, so it's time to switch to something else or take a break, is a valuable learning meta-skill. It comes in particularly handy on tests, where students often can't unstick themselves once they become stuck on a problem."

Dr. Oakley is a passionate educator who wants the best for both teachers and students, and is developing an online course for teachers. "Teachers are heroes," she told me. "We wrote this book to help them teach even better and to help students excel in the subjects that can be the most difficult to learn." While many of these strategies may not seem novel to teachers, thinking of them in terms of the neuroscience concepts they employ can guide teachers in making thoughtful, science-based decisions when planning lessons and units.

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Applying Insights From Neuroscience in the Classroom

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A deeper understanding of how the brain works can help teachers plan lessons that reach every student. Olav Ahrens Røtne / Unsplash Understanding, even minimally, how the brain works when it comes to learning can help teachers more effectively educate students.

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Equity By Design - Design for Equity in Schools - Book

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In this equity resource, make the critical link between social justice and UDL and equip students and educators with the skills to enact positive change.

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To boost creativity and productivity, take time out for movement, calming exercises, and a healthy dose of fun.

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Anyone working in education knows the importance of finding the most effective way to impart knowledge. Brain-based learning is an advanced teaching method that aims to increase the speed and efficiency of learning. Let's take a closer look at how to use the latest discoveries in the classroom.

An overview of brain-based teaching

Scientists have been carrying out studies to find out more about how the human brain learns. The result of their work, known as brain-based teaching, is being used to design lessons and school programs that promote speedy and efficient learning.

Having an understanding of these methods helps teachers to tailor their teaching styles to their students' needs. Knowing how students learn in different ways as they mature allows educators to select the most appropriate classroom experiences for their cohort.

The theory behind brain-based education

Brain-based education aims to improve and accelerate the learning process by using the science behind learning to select a curriculum and form of delivery for each group of students. When adopting this method, educators must forget established conventions. They must also leave behind assumptions about learning and previous practices. Instead, they must look to the most recent cognitive science discoveries as inspiration for their future lesson delivery.

It was once thought that intelligence is fixed and remains virtually the same through someone's entire life. More recent discoveries reveal that physical changes take place in the brain during learning. When someone practices certain skills, they find it easier over time to carry on improving those abilities. Learning has been demonstrated to improve resiliency, working intelligence, and brain function. This discovery holds considerable potential for schools and educators everywhere.

The implications of brain-based learning are far-reaching. By putting this knowledge into practice, schools can create academic programs that are best suited to each year group. Individual teachers can also structure the most appropriate educational experiences for their own students.

What affects the way in which the human brain learns?

The majority of the academic dialogue and scientific research surrounding brain-based learning focuses on neuroplasticity. This is the idea that the brain's neural connections remap, reorganize, and change themselves when learning new concepts. This also happens when the individual has a new experience or practices different skills as time goes on.

The human brain is capable of performing several activities simultaneously. Moreover, identical information is able to be stored in several parts of the brain. Research has revealed that exercise, diet, stress, and emotional state affect learning. It has also found that the information itself is less important than the underlying meaning when the brain learns something new.

How can brain-based learning take shape in the classroom?

With such a wide range of scientific findings, it's clear that brain-based learning can take several forms. Schools and individual teachers can choose the best approach to facilitate learning for their students. For example, student stress could be reduced by playing calming music or arranging regular physical activities. Beanbag chairs or couches could replace traditional seating in studying and reading areas. A schoolwide promotion could encourage students to eat a healthier diet or to engage in more exercise, two factors that improve brain health.

The benefits of brain-based learning are already recognized by those who are responsible for training new educators. More universities and colleges are now offering degrees in this new and exciting field. As a result, those who are now entering the profession have an in-depth knowledge of how to help their students learn more effectively.

The principles of brain-based learning

There are several principles of brain-based learning that can help teachers to improve their pupils' learning experiences.

A healthy body promotes a healthy mind

Learning should engage the entire body. This means that eating healthily and exercising more helps the brain to work more effectively. Introducing walking breaks or more movement into classroom activities is also beneficial.

Emotions are key to memory, meaning, and attention

A happy student is able to think more effectively than an unhappy one. Positive praise is thus an effective tool for raising self-esteem in the classroom. When pupils feel capable, they remain motivated.

Interaction with others benefits brain development

Planning group projects and activities both in and out of class helps pupils to learn from each other. Cooperation is a highly effective way to learn.

Teaching each other boosts memory

Students who have the chance to impart their own knowledge to their peers find that they can retain more information. Encouraging students to teach each other promotes more effective learning.

Memory improves through practice

The brain is capable of memorizing information, but learning through trial and error is infinitely more efficient. Asking students questions and creating checklists for use immediately after teaching them new content helps them to retain that information.

Avoid long lectures

Only 5-10% of information imparted during a lecture is retained after just one day. Discussion is a more effective way of ensuring retention.

Make it meaningful

Teachers need to grab their students' attention within the first 20 seconds of introducing a new subject. This ensures that their students are more likely to commit the information to their long-term memory. Captivate your students with a topic that is meaningful and relevant. For example, make a lesson covering percentages more exciting by applying the principles they are learning to find discounts on popular smartphones or video game consoles. Or, if you're teaching students a new concept in biology, consider starting class with a fun and educational YouTube video to grab their attention.

Moving information from short- to long-term memory

Known as recording, one way to achieve this is by asking students to translate their learning via the written and spoken word.

Utilize humor, storytelling, movement, and games

This stimulates the brain's emotional center, the amygdala. This helps to reach students in a more engaging way so that their brains can process new material more efficiently.

Reduce stress for more effective learning

High levels of stress in the brain cause chemical changes. These, in turn, impair performance. Having an emotionally positive learning environment with a calm atmosphere encourages a higher level of performance.

At present, educational neuroscience is an emerging field. Cognitive science technologies and methods are still under development and are only starting to be tested in the classroom. The recent findings are interesting and show a lot of potential for future educational programs. It is important to remember, however, that theories are still evolving. It can be all too easy to misinterpret scientific evidence. Those who do so run the risk of adopting educational practices that have dubious value.

It is also essential to find the optimal balance between neuroscientific findings and the realities of teaching. While neuroscientists may recommend that lecturing should only last for a maximum of ten minutes, this is rarely going to be practical. Although research has found that the brain becomes more stimulated when learners are physically active, it will probably be unworkable to have treadmills inside classrooms. It's clear, then, that a more sensible approach is to use these findings as a basic guideline rather than an instruction that is set in stone.

Nevertheless, the evidence so far suggests that teachers who do use the principles of brain-based learning as the foundation for an engaging curriculum and creative environment can improve the efficiency and speed of their students' learning.

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What is brain-based learning? - Classcraft Blog

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Anyone working in education knows the importance of finding the most effective way to impart knowledge. Brain-based learning is an advanced teaching method that aims to increase the speed and efficiency of learning. Let's take a closer look at how to use the latest discoveries in the classroom.

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One of the strongest applications of research in psychology, neuroscience, and cognitive science is brain-based learning. It allows us to leverage research on how the brain learns in creating a new set of guiding principles for learning, teaching, training, and education.

What is Brain-Based Learning?

Brain-based learning is a paradigm of learning which addresses student learning and learning outcomes from the point of view of the human brain. It involves specific strategies for learning which are designed based on how human attention, memory, motivation, and conceptual knowledge acquisition work. Brain-based learning and teaching can optimize learning holistically.

Historically, teaching and learning are largely based on what the students, teachers, and policy-makers think. Their opinions, experiences, logical arguments, and quasi-experiments in the classroom inform the teaching and learning process. Brain-based learning takes a different approach. The way students are motivated, the way attention works, the way memories are formed, the way information is presented, etc. become the central aspects of teaching and learning.

One example is the construal level theory which can address the question - When and how should a student focus on the minute details contained in learning materials? Intuitively, one could say that details are important for mastery and students should learn details to demonstrate proficiency. However, this blanket statement isn't an evidence-based approach. The construal level theory shows that understanding an overview without the details can engage a larger network of concepts a student learns or is sensitized to. Understanding the essence of a certain topic can also promote creativity because capturing the essence of a concept makes the concept vague and abstract. An abstract entity links to more abstract entities and makes the learning broad as opposed to details making the learning narrow and specific.

This was just one example of how a brain-based learning approach can better inform teaching and learning.

A brain-based approach doesn't necessarily include intelligence testing, aptitude testing, and other standardized tests. While these can sometimes yield useful information, they are not required to utilize a brain-based approach. In some corner cases, it might be necessary - when there is significant cognitive impairment, physical disability, emotional distress due to confusion about careers, etc.

This approach can be considered quite accommodating because it doesn't discard anything that is useful or evidence-based because of superficial reasons like not falling into a particular perspective or pedagogy.

Brain-Based Learning Goals & Outcomes:

Considering that this approach is based on what and how much we know about the human brain and its interaction with the environment, we can broadly define a few learning goals:

Maximize the learning potential of a person

Minimize learning losses and wasted effort

Hijack known mechanisms to improve skills, knowledgebase, memory, and mental flexibility

Create verifiable improvements in learning and make people smarter (for lack of a better word).

Improve the productivity of students and teachers

What it isn't:

A way to improve intelligence test scores. This does not mean that brain-based learning cannot make people smarter, it only expects that as an outcome. Some of the aspects involved in intelligence such as working memory, attention, long-term memory, and verbal fluency are likely to improve due to the use of specialized techniques (see below). A core assumption is that intelligence is unique and changeable.

Brain-Based Learning: An overview

Let us now look at a few fundamentals across 3 categories.

Brain-Based learning theory

Brain-Based learning strategies

Brain-Based learning as a function of student's emotions

These factors can be construed as the markers and predictors of long-term learning.

I've covered these concepts across various other articles in different contexts. You'll see the links to original articles for a particular topic at relevant places. Here is a short overview of the fundamental processes involved in learning. It is an introduction to this article.

Caine and Caine (1994), in their original work, outline 12 core principles of brain-based teaching and learning:

1. The brain processes multiple things in parallel

2. The whole body is involved in learning (deliberately or unconsciously)

3. People have an innate need to seek meaning and make sense

4. Finding patterns, giving identity, and giving structure helps people make sense (patterning)

5. Emotions are important in patterning

6. The brain simultaneously perceives and creates parts (details) and wholes (global concept). That is the brain processes multiple construals.

7. Learning needs focused attention and peripheral perception

8. The brain simultaneously involves conscious (remembering) and unconscious processes (priming)

9. Humans have at least 2 important memory systems - spatial memory and rote learning memory

10. Spatial memory is the strongest, people remember better when knowledge is embedded in spatial memory

11. Challenge promotes learning and threat/lack of safety inhibits it

12. All brains are uniquely configured and uniquely adaptable

These factors cover most of the important aspects of brain-based learning but they miss out on emotional regulation, social learning, feedback, and cognitive space. I've reorganized these into controllable and applicable principles below.

Brain-Based Learning Theory

The first thing we need to do is understand the important factors and theories which either facilitate learning or govern learning processes. These are the processes that we can control and manipulate in a learning environment.

Associations and compatibility in memory: Human memory is spread across a network of informational units and meaningful knowledge emerges from those networks. Research suggests that humans are most likely to remember information that builds on existing information. In fact, the key reason metaphors and analogies are powerful learning tools is that they bind new information to old information. Neural mechanisms for memory have 2 important properties: associations and compatibility. Information associated with other information leads to better learning. And, information that is congruent, compatible, or consistent with other information promotes memory better than isolated bits of information, unless those isolated bits are sensational in some sense. So, building wider networks of information with robust connections is a neurally informed way to promote memory in the classroom. Students would find it easier to recall associations that are congruent with what they are learning. On the other hand, learning isolated trivia with no context or associations would be a bad way to learn.

Construal Level spectrum (CL): This describes the depth at which a concept or process is construed, also known as psychological distance. At the highest construal level, a mobile phone is a communication device. At the lowest construal, it is a Samsung S8. High construal is more abstract and widespread in how it relates to other concepts. Low construal is precise and concrete. The whole spectrum is valuable in effective learning. The CL can be managed and modified.

In this example, a communication device links to more related concepts and activates more members of the category - It can represent mobile phones, satellite phones, pagers, computers, etc. It can link to related concepts like communication strategies, pros and cons of the main communication devices, and communication channels (written word, radio frequencies, vocalizations, etc.) Now, a high construal level makes this network of interlinked concepts and information more available to memory. A low-level construal, such as Samsung S8, makes it harder to link to the "written word" as a communication channel - less available information.

Because the brain processes information in parallel and at multiple levels, the construal level theory aligns itself with the notion that the brain a)Learns with focused attention and peripheral perception (background information) and b) Simultaneously processes/creates parts of a whole and the whole (details and the big picture simultaneously).

Variance, feedback: Research shows working with small variations in content promotes global learning within a domain. For example, working on multiple similar mathematical problems is better than repeating the same type of problem. Feedback in the form of details and feedback in the form of outcome (success vs. failure) can both promote learning, but differentially.

Variation in the features of the content which needs to be learned (for example, analogous but dissimilar math problems) can help create an aggregated and flexible mental template to approach a problem. This goes for motor and fine motor learning too - dance movements, musical sequences, sports movements, etc. Minute variations in the approximate physical form can improve the learning of the movements along with generating a greater ability to improvise.

Feedback systems are closely tied in with variations because variations allow addressing changes. Feedback based on changes creates a seamless pathway to refine learning. Here are some common types of feedback mechanisms that improve learning:

1. Real-time monitoring of changes - movement, mental awareness, sensory inputs

2. Outcome-based feedback - whether the outcome was right or wrong, whether the outcome can be changed by addressing variables

3. Introspective feedback - evaluating the process in one's mind and applying modifications or reinforcements

Sensory integration: A large amount of information is embodied with sensory components. Information from multiple senses integrates before it is perceived. This creates an opportunity to pay attention to sensory elements. They become tethers for grounding information which translates into learning. Research suggests that the pairing of information from different senses for one concept can improve the strength of that concept.

Visual and auditory data is accessible in MOOCs and other online learning resources, and tactile data can be promoted via homework. The goal here is to encourage students to seek out opportunities that involve sensory inputs. Embodied cognition (without deeming it as an answer to "what is consciousness?") can further help organize information. When physical movement is linked to information in the mind, learning can be reinforced and conceptualized in a rich way. Movement and using the body is valuable in learning because spatial memory (the memory for locations) is a highly specialized and broad memory system that binds information together.

For example, students can line up and physically reorder themselves to embody a chemical reaction where a person can physically represent an atom or ion. Another example is how a student can create dance postures to represent a geometric coordinate system. Think: Can the YMCA dance moves represent any set of equations?

The Transfer effect: The transfer of learning describes how learning in one area can affect learning in another area. In some cases, transfer effects occur. In some cases, they are expected but rarely varied, and in some other cases, they are weak or non-existent. Current research is yet to draw a circle around the influence of transfer effects but there is evidence to show that transfer effects occur. The near transfer effect - learning something improves and transfers to something very similar - can be more readily leveraged than the far transfer effect - learning something transfers to superficially alien and disparate contexts.

Priming: In cognitive psychology, priming describes the influence of information on the cognitive processes that act on new information. You may have played this short game. First, I'll give you a word to say 10 times. After you say it, I'll ask you a question. You have to respond quickly. Say "Silk" 10 times. Silk Silk Silk Silk Silk Silk Silk Silk Silk Silk. What does a cow drink?

If you answered milk, you experienced the effects of priming. The sensory nature of the word silk primed your brain to utilize that sensory nature and manipulate your answer without your awareness (basically, because milk rhymes with silk). If you didn't fall for this, you just overcame the effects of priming. There are various types of priming where exposure to some type of information affects mental processing speed, memory, behavior, etc. Priming effects are hard to spot but they exist and strategic use of priming information can manipulate learning outcomes and solutions to problems.

Fun, Engagement, Curiosity, and Positive moods: Research shows that having fun while learning avails unique cognitive resources, associates reward and pleasure with information, strengthens and broadens memory networks, and toggles between 2 basic neural modes - one for diffused mind-wandering and the other for focused attention. This toggling is useful for learning details as well as the big, abstract picture. Having fun also directly affects a student's motivation and intrinsic motivation predicts quality learning and learning outcomes. Curiosity and wonder are huge facilitators of quality learning. Curiosity broadens mental resources and "acceptability of new learning" as well as induces a positive mood. Overall, an active, positive mood along with an "approach" motivation can help students learn while having a good time. Words are a powerful tool to make things fun and interesting.

Collaborative Learning: Learning isn't isolated from social contexts and interactions. A millennial learner typically wants active social interactions in the context of learning. Research shows that group activities and talking to others about learning can improve learning. But, they can also reinforce misinformation. Collaboration and learning in the presence of others engage a variety of mechanisms - expectations, judgments, ego-saving-demonstrations, etc. which can promote learning. However, social interactions can also create a number of negative scenarios - fear of failure, self-esteem-based negative self-evaluation, humiliation, etc. These negatives can be mitigated in some ways. For example, discussions on Reddit can be considered social and anonymity can reduce some anxiety. Collaboration also engages a powerful form of memory called transactive memory - knowledge of who knows what and where to find it.

Inherent thinking biases & errors: The brain has inherent tendencies to think in specific ways. These are called cognitive biases. Some biases create the tendency to assign meaning to information when it doesn't exist or has no utility. Some biases create the tendency to selectively look for specific information. Some logical arguments are filled with errors and we can be blinded to them because they feel intuitive. There are a few pervasive biases: a) The confirmation bias - we selectively attend to and remember information that fits our preconceptions, b) The survivorship bias - we focus on information that survives because the information which didn't survive is removed from awareness c) The conjunction fallacy - the likelihood of one independent thing happening is higher than the likelihood of two independent things but because we fail to judge if things are independent or not, we assume the opposite. Overcoming such biases improves objectivity, decision-making, evaluation, and analysis. Here is a detailed post on cognitive biases and here is one on how to overcome them.

Cognitive and Conceptual Space: At the simplest level, this area can be called the Mind's eye or The Mind. Most people can introspect and deliberate mental activities. A subset of what one can do with the mind is utilizing cognitive and conceptual spaces. Have you ever picked up clay or wet sand to create different shapes using it? You can do this to any type of information in this conceptual space. Conceptual spaces are closely related to working memory because they allow you to manipulate information in real-time. Think of a number. Now reverse the digits. Or take a shape and rotate it. You just utilized the cognitive and conceptual space you created for that number or shape. Manipulation in this space can get complex depending on how much you manipulate. Strategic thinking is one use of conceptual spaces. Shifting attention to different aspects of an idea is another use of cognitive space.

The environment: Classrooms, bedrooms, and your laptop can function as learning environments. One of the essential aspects of brain-based learning is to have a safe and encouraging learning environment. Any environment which makes someone uncomfortable and unsafe is likely to prime the body to enter a fight or flight mode. That means the environment can generate or mitigate stress which is known to compromise learning. The environment also includes social aspects like ease of communication, proximity to others, etc. Social interactions are necessary for learning because of its influence on well-being, feedback, collaboration, etc.

All of the factors mentioned above are actively present in various types of learning. Together, these aspects of cognition represent an active framework of learning.

Brain-Based Learning Strategies

When students learn, there is a considerable amount of loss in effective learning. These designed brain-based strategies should allow a student to reduce this loss as well as improve the baseline learning capacity by directly hijacking fundamental learning processes in the brain.

I've covered these techniques across 2 other articles on how to study efficiently and how to learn anything easily. You can read those for a detailed overview in a slightly different context.

Spaced repetition, Distributed practice, and Spacing Effects: Research shows that distributing learning over time and repeating information over increasing periods strengthens memories and buffers against forgetting. For example, a group of facts can be learned in 3 minutes. They can be repeated after 10 minutes, then in 30 minutes, then in 2 hours... then in 6 days. This helps to optimize memory for recall.

Improves: Memory for facts and details

Interleaving: Interleaving is learning similar and related concepts together in parallel. If there are 3 related math problems A, B, and C, practicing variations in the form ABC ABC ABC BAC CAB is more helpful than spending hours on doing AAAAA BBBBBB and CCCCC.

Improves: Memory and the relationship between similar concepts

Generative learning: Generative learning includes the act of creating art, teaching something to others, experiencing learning in real-world contexts, making blog posts, discussing it on forums, etc. The goal is to integrate to-be-learned information with prior knowledge that allows re-conceptualizing and re-organizing information. This reinforces learning and uncovers hidden gaps in knowledge.

Improves: Memory, understanding, depth and breadth of learning

Reproducing information: A common technique is using the production effect - information that is reproduced, verbally or visually, is often remembered better. Saying learned information out loud, or listening to someone say it out loud, or even teaching a friend is a quick way to hijack the brain's inherent tendency to solidify learned information. It is a form of externalizing and reinforcing a memory on purpose. It binds auditory or visual feedback into the memory.

Improves: Memory and recall

Retrieval practice & the testing effect: Proof of learning often comes from the ability to demonstrate learning. This includes remembering information, practice, and the deliberate act of self-validation. This does not necessarily counteract forgetting because forgetting and remembering are not opposing forces. Retrieval practice & testing reinforce existing learning and create the opportunity to accommodate new learning by exploring errors and snowballing around. Retrieval practice can reinforce memory in the context of remembering. The brain optimizes learning for memory differently than learning for recall and remembering. When it comes to applying what is learned, the ability to recall information is important.

Improves: Remembering, confidence, and test-taking capacity

Mental Models, Models, and Metaphors: Mental models are representations of ideas that create templates of thinking - feedback loops, natural selection, kinetic energy, etc. They are real-world processes that can be mentally represented and used as templates to hold information. These templates also permit creative thinking and a method of analyzing new information. For example, natural selection processes can be applied to some AI learning algorithms which learn to optimize over generations of "adjustments." It is possible to apply natural selection to AI because the mental model for natural selection can be repurposed. Metaphors can also function as models. Humans like narratives and analogies and they can be leveraged for improved learning. A metaphor can create a comparison between a known process and an unknown process, linking the two in simple, digestible ways. Once we use a metaphor, we "abstract" and understand the essence of the unknown process.

Improves: Memory, understanding, and relationships between ideas

Chunking: The act of grouping information in small & easily digestible bites, preferably with an overarching theme, is known as chunking information. Information can be chunked based on superficial attributes such as color, category, similarity, relationships, etc. Multiple chunks are easier to remember than multiple individual elements because the brain utilizes networks of information.

Improves: Memory and conceptual understanding

Concept formation: We learn concepts when we cluster information and see how it interacts with other information. The key principles for concept formation are understanding the pairing of examples and categories, differentiating examples and categories, finding similarities, noticing typical features, finding exceptions, giving the concept a sensory and verbal representation, and connecting that information to a context. With that in mind, a student learns concepts well and a teacher successfully communicates those concepts if they do the following:

1. Give lots of examples of things that belong to a category and things that do not belong to it

2. Identify co-occurring features between 2 related or unrelated concepts

3. Identify exceptions or improperly classified concepts

4. Refer to examples as examples and concepts as concepts, instead of interchanging the two in daily conversation

5. Assign visual models, sounds, movements, touch, taste, smell, and context when possible

6. Label concepts with words

7. Have variety in examples and properties

8. Differentiate between similar concepts

9. Draw similarities between 2 concepts to see if they converge or don't

10. Represent an associative network of concepts

11. Discuss concepts at their smallest feature levels and highest abstract levels (construal levels)

Improves: Depth of understanding and memory

Mental Manipulations: This is a skill that depends on working memory and other aspects of memory where you can direct your attention deliberately. Mental manipulations involve working in the cognitive space to change the nature of the information or use it to relate it to other aspects. Simple mental manipulations are like imagining a situation without certain elements - imagining how you can play football on a field with many potholes. Some may call this pure imagination. In that case, mental manipulations are deliberate and purposeful imagination. Complex mental manipulations are similar to how Dr. Manhattan sees the universe. 8)

Improves: Depth and breadth of learning, problem-solving, critical thinking, and creativity

Meta-cognition, language, and inquiry: Metacognition is thinking about thinking. Mental manipulations, Mental models, metaphors, etc. are all elements of meta-cognition. Inquiry is related, but not so closely. Inquiry involves asking questions, discovering answers, taking on new perspectives, updating information, snowballing around a topic, and tackling hidden assumptions and restraints. This process can help to optimize an idea and explore it with more depth.

While thinking about information, students and learners would benefit the most if they have an opportunity to make sense of information by using a context, finding some level of relatability, real-life application, innate structure, labels and limitations/boundaries, and relevance. Using language and labels is important to make information concrete. Words utilize powerful processing centers of the brain that bind abstract aspects and concrete data.

Improves: Depth and breadth of learning, problem-solving, critical thinking, and creativity

Learning as a function of student's emotions and motivation

It is easy to overlook this segment of learning. We don't need to always focus on improving cognitive abilities like attention, memory, mental simulations, mental rotations, pattern matching, analyzing concepts, hypothetical & counterfactual thinking, intelligence, verbal ability, and sensory awareness.

Sometimes, the problem is more about emotion, motivation, behavior, and mental health. Cognition and emotions aren't disparate entities but addressing one or the other can make addressing a problem irrelevant. Think: What use is memory training if a person has no inclination or intention to use it? Addressing both in a particular context is more holistic.

Here are a few emotional/motivational learning strategies. Students can often benefit from these because they address the emotions which percolate through one's learning space.

1. Manage cognitive load & change construals. Cognitive load is the weight of information and the strain on processing information. Changing the effort needed to process information can either hamper or promote learning. Construal levels can also be manipulated to target learning at various levels of detail. This changes the perceived and actual effort needed in learning which can change a student's motivation to get on board with learning. Cognitive load is known for one important application - extremely easy or extremely difficult content hampers learning. There is a sweet spot where the content is challenging enough to motivate, stimulate, and engage students to optimize their learning and memory. If the learning material is too obvious and unstimulating, making it difficult to process can improve the depth and breadth of understanding.

2. Tolerate aversive emotions to counteract procrastination and disliked content. Read this to understand why we procrastinate and how to overcome it.

3. Add personal meaning to learning contexts. Personal relevance promotes motivation and creates an intention to apply one's learning in the real world. Learning with a sense of meaning makes it easier for students. Making things relevant and relatable taps into the innate human motivation called sense-making, which enables us to conceptualize all sorts of information.

4. Address thoughts like "everything we are learning is wrong, so what's the point?" This is a segue into academic inquiry where students learn to update information and think about how and why information changes over time.

5. Cope with last-minute studies by addressing thoughts like, "Ok, I screwed up and I don't have time. What do I do now?"

6. Counter myths that sustain thoughts like, "I am dumb and stupid. I don't understand anything. What's the point?"

7. Use relaxation techniques and entertainment such as music & games to neutralize distress and lighten up the intense study mood to make it more fun and enjoyable. Having fun while learning has cognitive benefits.

You can read this article for a detailed how-to overview of evidence-based emotional regulation techniques. These will help in countering a number of problems that students face that indirectly affect their performance and learning - mental health, anxiety, stress, aversion, rebellion, etc. They are also useful for teachers to combat the pressure of teaching and they can help students address a wide range of issues.

There are many other aspects of learning that I've left out because this can go on and on. I'd like to highlight 3 other things.

1. The brain is plastic - it can change its form and neural structures up until old age to accommodate and allow new learning. I'm speaking about neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, and synaptic plasticity. Here is an introduction.

2. Sleep is important for the brain to function at its best. You compromise that, you compromise everything. Here is how sleep affects memory and learning. And here are some techniques to fall asleep faster, in case that's difficult for you.

3. Breaks from work & time-bound routines while enjoying the mental "space" is important to let your brain process information and consolidate learning, even boost creativity (for example, active procrastination). Even watching cute photos on the internet is a valid break because it can promote approach motivation and focused attention.

That's it for today, take this article as an introduction to brain-based learning.
For students & professionals:
Do you feel you are productive? Yes? Carry on with your day.:) No? You might be looking at productivity from an unfavorable angle because the common idea is to inculcate productive habits. But in reality, productivity involves mental health, functional fixedness, using efficient strategies, knowing where to draw the line, emotional regulation, decision-making, etc. I've prepared an exhaustive guide on how to be productive by addressing exactly what you need from the bottom up.
Further reading: https://oapub.org/edu/index.php/ejes/article/view/2356 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322543639_Effects_of_Brain-Based_Teaching_Method_on_Physics_achievement_among_ordinary_school_students https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03055698.2011.570004 https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED335141 http://etec.ctlt.ubc.ca/510wiki/Brain-based_Learning

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Brain-Based Learning: Theory, Strategies, And Concepts - Cognition Today

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Brain-based learning is about using the fundamentals of how the brain learns in education, training, and skill development. These learning strategies and techniques are designed to be brain & cognition-centric by addressing intelligence, memory, learning, emotions, and social elements. This approach can be adopted by students and teachers to improve the quality of classroom learning and real-world learning.

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By John McCarthy - Twitter: @JMcCarthyEdS

Planning for Differentiation can feel challenging and overwhelming. Having written on this topic numerous times, a common concern raised by teachers is how complex it appears to plan for six elements:

Instructional Planning: Content, Process, and Product

Learner Access: Readiness, Interests, and Learning Preferences

Planning should not be so difficult, especially for teachers experienced with designing and teaching quality lessons. But perceptions of Differentiation make these challenges seem like the reality. After careful reflection and interactions with teacher who are confident in instructional planning for differentiation, a new paradigm took shape. This approach takes the classic elements of Differentiation and explores them through a different lens then is typically considered.

The elements for Instructional Planning should be looked at as three steps for learning experiences.

1. Content is what learners need to know, understand, and do something with.

2. Process are the activities, methods, and/or structures for how learners participate "during" the learning experiences.

3. Products are the artifacts and evidence that learners complete or create that demonstrates their levels of comprehension and application.

The elements of Learner Access are used as pathways that influence each of the Instructional Planning steps. Readiness, Interests, and Learning Preferences can be used individually or in combination when developing each step for the Instructional Planning.

What follows is a breakdown of each Instructional Planning step and the role of the Learner Access elements. Share your questions at jmccarthy@openingpaths.org or on Twitter: @JMcCarthyEdS.

When designing differentiation into a lesson or activity, follow these steps to ensure a careful consideration of learner access needs based on the requirements of curriculum.
Content

1. Review the content and level of expected learning required.

2. Identify the combination of learner access needed based on data: Readiness, Interests, and/or Learning Preferences.

Process

1. Design activities that meet content learning expectations and learner access areas (Readiness, Interests, and/or Learning Preferences)

2. Review the lesson (or lesson collection) for addressing learner needs and revise where necessary.

Products

1. Craft or choose an artifact, assessment, or action that collects data on learner achievement(s) or gaps(s) based on the lesson experience.

2. Evaluate and revise the product for assessment fog before implementing.

3. Products should reflect one or more learner access area: Readiness, Interests, and/or Learning Preferences

Reflection

1. Review the lesson experience for strengths and opportunities for improvement based on the learner experience.

2. Where possible, get feedback from students and professional colleagues.

These steps are a quick view for developing effective and efficient intentional differentiation for all learners. What follows is an in-depth explanation of the relationship of the elements for instructional planning-Content + Process + Product through the lenses of Learner Access: Readiness, Interests, and Learning Preferences. The result will be stronger learning experiences that engage more learners.

Effective and efficient differentiation requires understanding the core language. Naming the components, understanding their roles, and how they work collectively can elevate how we meet the needs of all learners. What follows is clarifying language for each of the core elements for Differentiation. Also included are reflective questions and considerations for when and how to use the elements with learner needs at the center of decisions. Combined with the Differentiation Planning Guide steps, the resulting implementation can have a constructive and productive impact on learning.

Content

What are the knowledge, skills, and/or concepts that learners must level up by the end of the lesson or learning experience?

The first step with differentiation is to review the content. Be clear and concrete for students about what the curriculum outcomes require for achievement. This standard is kept as the end in mind when planning activities and lessons. Adaptations or modifications must align to the curriculum outcome(s).

What challenges and opportunities do learners bring to the experience, based on assessments and learner access data (Readiness, Interests, and/or Learning Preferences)?

Students digest content based on their varied approaches to processing, which are the Differentiation elements that form Learner Access: readiness, interests, and learning preferences. Considering and identifying one or more of these learner access elements is key to engagement and participation into a lesson that meets student needs. Reflect on these and other challenges and opportunities as a concrete way to use a student lens when deciding on needs and activities that will support the learner.
Challenges:

Gaps in baseline or fundamental knowledge or skills

Low interest or purpose

Lack of connecting to learner life context

Difficulty making sense of abstract concepts or ideas

Opportunities

Strong prior knowledge of the topics

Content contains relevance to interests of the learners

Contains multiple options for learners to self-explore

Self-directed learning opportunities

Real world connections to learner life context

Process

What activities, groupings, and/or personalized supports will best support learner access to the instructional focus? Include one or a combination of Learner Access elements: readiness, interests, and/or learning preferences.

Lessons are structures for students to build knowledge and comprehension, apply skills, and critically assess and synthesize concepts for deeper understanding. Choosing activities and crafting supports based on one or more Learner Access elements is how we intentionally plan for targeting needs of different learner groups.

What follows are explanations and examples of structures when organizing effective processes that students will use to achieve the content outcomes during a differentiation-based lesson.

Readiness

Learners succeed academically when they are challenged based on their level of understanding and skills. There are a variety of ways to meet learner Readiness needs. Here are three category approaches, which influence decisions about groupings and activity choices and structures.
Tiered Instruction:
All leveled activities directly address the learning outcome(s). In leveled groups, students will complete tasks that share a common structure. They will include differences in language and support based on what learners need to achieve the learning outcome(s).

Create an activity that addresses content at the expected outcome level.

Next, create one or more additional duplicates of the same activity that includes supports for:

learning gaps for groups of learners.

more complexity above the outcome level for groups of advanced learners

Leveled Instruction:
Activities and tasks may look differently for each leveled group based on their needs for scaffolds and/or extensions. Students with gaps in foundational knowledge will do some activities to address those needs before doing tasks that meet the target learning outcome(s).

Option 1: All leveled activities address the content at the expected level, including added scaffolds and supports.

Option 2: All leveled activities "align" with the learning outcome(s). However, some students complete activities that address building blocks or fundamentals needed before tackling the core outcome(s).

Curriculum Compacting
Learners who show mastery of the learning outcomes for the unit are given independent or team work that explores content above and beyond the expectations of the learning outcomes. Such work can take the form of a learning contract or independent project. Students are held accountable to demonstrating content mastery at a higher complexity level.

Interests

Empower students to explore content through the lens of what interests them, or is familiar to their world inside and outside of school. Here are three different approaches that can be applied individually or in powerful combinations.

Authenticity: How can content be presented and experiences in connection to the students' world beyond school? What contextual connection can be made between academic concepts and practical applications inside and beyond school?

Choice: What options can be given to students to choose what and how they learn content? This can lead to choices in artifacts learners will produce that have the most meaning to them.

Voice: How can students be given opportunities to design and propose their preferred way to learn content? This includes empowering them to propose the product form that best suits their ideas.

Learning Preferences

As learners, we process or make sense of ideas and concepts in a variety of ways. There are many documented approaches to thinking based on brain research and psychology. In education, Gardner's Theory on Multiple Intelligences and Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory on Multiple Intelligences are examples used or referenced. However, there is opposition to how effective their and other's work may be. For example, it is best not to label a learner as being strong in one area like visual, practical, or interpersonal. A better approach is to consider that learners are more complex in their processing for learning, and likely have strengths in multiple areas. Instead of planning activities that focus on one modality, include a variety and allow learners to be exposed to all of the modalities used. The result is that learners process the content from a variety of different perspectives, rather than be limited to only one approach, such as a lecture.

Here are tools for giving students multiple opportunities to process what they are learning "as" they are learning through their different preferences for sense-making.
3-Dimensional Thinking and Learning

What are 2-3 or more ways that your learners use to make sense of concepts?

What are 2-3 ways do learners process understanding?

What are three different ways to represent a concept or skill for learners to experience and practice?

What 2-3 learning preferences could students be exposed for processing ideas and skills?

Reflection and Metacognition

How can wait-time (5-20 seconds) be used to build students' skills for constructing answers?

How can think-time (30 seconds to 3 minutes) be used to build students' skills for self-reflection and comprehension?

Products

What types of products can students develop to show what they know and do not understand, based on the learning outcomes?

What potential assessment fog exists and needs to be cleared before implementation?

An important part of the learner experience is finding out what they know and do not understand after the activity or lesson. The artifact, assessment, or action they do after helps inform the students and teachers for intuitive support in the midst of the work and next steps for intentional differentiation before the next lesson. Products should be aligned to the content curriculum outcomes. This ensures that students who are on track maintain their progress and growth. It also ensures that students who have major gaps in their foundational knowledge are building those skills that follow a route that aligns with where all students are moving towards.

Make sure that the product is free of assessment fog. This means that logistical requirements are separated out from the content requirements that will be assessed. Also, ensure that the action steps do not require skills, not being assessed, to communicate content to be evaluated. For example, writing an explanation for how to solve a math equation could be difficult for someone with weak writing skills. They may need the option to explain orally so as to accurately assess their math thinking skills.

As with Process, designing products should be constructed through one or a combination of Learner Access elements: readiness, interests, and/or learning preferences. Look through the lens of how learners could experience the product development through the learner access elements, and thus intentionally craft the artifact, assessment or action. The purpose of Process is building the learning journey through activities and action steps. Products are the destination points to track progress and growth of learners along the map.

Readiness

How might the product or artifact be tiered or leveled?

When designing products based on readiness, there will be a different option or set of choices for each group of learners based on their current skill level and needs. It is important that each product aligns with the content curriculum outcomes.
Tiered Instruction:
All leveled products directly address the learning outcome(s). In leveled groups, students will complete an assigned product or artifact that shares a common structure. They will include differences in language and support based on what learners need to achieve the learning outcome(s).

Create a product that addresses content at the expected outcome level.

Next, create one or more additional duplicates of the same product directions that includes supports for:

learning gaps for groups of learners.

more complexity above the outcome level for groups of advanced learners

Leveled Instruction:
Products or artifacts may be different for each leveled group based on their needs for scaffolds and/or extensions. Students with gaps in foundational knowledge will work on products that address those needs before completing a product that meets the target learning outcome(s).

Option 1: All leveled product directions address the content at the expected level, including added scaffolds and supports.

Option 2: All leveled product directions "align" with the learning outcome(s). However, some students complete steps or components that address building blocks or fundamentals needed before tackling the core outcome(s).

Curriculum Compacting
Learners who show mastery of the learning outcomes for the unit are given independent or team work that explores content above and beyond the expectations of the learning outcomes. For products this can be in the form of artifacts that they create based on their advanced knowledge of the required curriculum. One effective approach is to give them the assessment criteria and challenge them to design their own product or artifact that reflects the criteria. Ensure that the criteria requires them to stretch their understanding, perhaps through synthesis. Such work can take the form of a learning contract or independent project. Students are held accountable to demonstrating content mastery at a higher complexity level.

Interests

Context matters for learners to make sense of content for creating products. A helpful approach is to connect the product to something that is an authentic part of the world that learners know or are familiar with. A result is that producing the product gains value and purpose. Choice and voice are powerful ways to engage learners into the product. Ownership and accountability is more present and valued by students when they are empowered with making those decisions.

Authenticity: How can product options connect to the students' world beyond school? What contextual connection can be made between academic concepts and practical applications inside and beyond school?

Choice: How can different product formats and topics be offered that may interest students?

Voice: How can students be given opportunities to design and propose their preferred way to demonstrate their learning? This includes empowering them to propose the product form that best suits their ideas.

Learning Preferences

As discussed in Process, we make sense of ideas and concepts in a variety of ways. Explore how products can include three or more modalities in its construction or offer multiple versions of the product, which includes a variation of modalities in each, and let the students choose the one that they prefer.

What are 3+ modalities or perspectives that learners will experience through the product?

What are at least 3 different versions of the product format and structure that can be offered to learners?

Planning Tool for Differentiation

After exploring and reflecting on this article, here is the Differentiation Planning Criteria Checklist ( word or pdf) to download and use for your planning.

Share your questions at jmccarthy@openingpaths.org or on Twitter: @JMcCarthyEdS.

May download and print this article to be retained, reused, and shared with others as a digital pdf or printed paper handout. May only be used for non-commercial purposes. Copies must include this paragraph for attribution. All rights reserved by John McCarthy and Opening Paths - © 2020 to present.

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By John McCarthy - Twitter: @JMcCarthyEdS Planning for Differentiation can feel challenging and overwhelming. Having written on this topic numerous times, a common concern raised by teachers is how complex it appears to plan for six elements: Instructional Planning: Content, Process, and Product Learner Access: Readiness, Interests, and Learning Preferences Planning should not be so difficult, especially for teachers experienced with designing and teaching quality lessons.

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Ohio's Learning Standards - Extended (OLS-E) also are commonly known as "the extended standards." These standards help to ensure that students with significant cognitive disabilities are provided with multiple ways to learn and demonstrate knowledge. At the same time, the extended standards are designed to maintain the rigor and high expectations of Ohio's Learning Standards.

The Offices for Curriculum, Assessment and Exceptional Children have worked collaboratively since July 2011 in the creation of extensions to Ohio's Learning Standards for English Language Arts and Math as well as the revised standards for Science and Social Studies. A committee comprised of special educators, regular educators, parents, administrators and other stakeholders in Ohio came together in the writing of these extensions to be used for students participating in the Alternate Assessment.

On September 18, 2018 the Ohio State Board of Education adopted the revised grade level Ohio Learning Standards-Extended (OLS-E) for students that are assessed on the Alternate Assessment for Student's with Significant Cognitive Disabilities (AASCD). The OLS-E are specific statements of knowledge and skills linked to the expectations in the Ohio Learning Standards. The purpose of the extensions is to build a bridge that provides grade level access for students with the most significant cognitive disabilities to the content of the Ohio Learning Standards.

Documents and Resources for Ohio's Learning Standards - Extended (OLS-E)

OHIO LEARNING STANDARDS-EXTENDED (revised September 2018)

Ohio Learning Standards - Extended (Revised September 2018) with Learning Progressions

Ohio English Language Proficiency Standards - Extended

Frequently Asked Questions

The Ohio Department of Education (ODE) offers online instructional modules for Ohio's Learning Standards - Extended (OLS-E). Educators can earn contact hours for completing these modules, which can be accessed at ohextendedstandards.org.

Questions?

For more information on the extended standards, contact:

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Ohio's Learning Standards - Extended (OLS-E) also are commonly known as "the extended standards." These standards help to ensure that students with significant cognitive disabilities are provided with multiple ways to learn and demonstrate knowledge. At the same time, the extended standards are designed to maintain the rigor and high expectations of Ohio's Learning Standards.

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Edutopia is a free source of information, inspiration, and practical strategies for learning and teaching in preK-12 education. We are published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization.

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Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is an evidence-based, tiered framework for supporting students' behavioral, academic, social, emotional, and mental health. When implemented with fidelity, PBIS improves social emotional competence, academic success, and school climate. It also improves teacher health and wellbeing. It is a way to create positive, predictable, equitable and safe learning environments where everyone thrives. We use 'students' to refer to all children and youth in any educational or therapeutic setting (e.g., K-12 school, early childhood program, treatment program, juvenile justice program). Learn more about PBIS in , classrooms, early childhood programs and juvenile justice programs on those topic pages.

Schools implementing PBIS:

Use a continuum of evidence-based practices to support student needs

Engage students, families, and community members to co-create culturally responsive practices

Regularly check the effectiveness of their practices

Rely on teams to guide implementation

Use data to identify strengths, uncover needs, and monitor student progress

Implement universal screening

Develop content expertise through coaching and on-going professional development

PBIS is not a curriculum you purchase or something you learn during a one-day professional development training. It is an ongoing commitment to supporting students, educators, and families through systems change. When you implement PBIS well, students experience improved behavioral, social, emotional, and academic outcomes; schools and programs reduce their use of exclusionary discipline practices and improve their overall climate.

Check out how schools across the country have implemented PBIS where they are.

Five Elements

PBIS emphasizes five inter-related elements: equity, systems, data, practices, and outcomes.

Equity

When you implement PBIS with fidelity, it fits seamlessly within your local context. To do that requires a focus on aspects of culture and equity. Leadership teams work with members of the school or program community - students, families, and community members - to prioritize valued outcomes and promote high expectations for all students. Centering equity also means supporting educators' roles in implementation, adapting practices to meet students' individual needs, and disaggregating data by student group to ensure success for everyone.

As you think about equity in your PBIS implementation, ask yourself: How can we enhance the experiences and outcomes of each educator and student?

Systems

Your foundational systems establish the way your schools and programs operate. Systems include teaming structures, training, coaching, and other supports for educators. In PBIS, these systems support accurate, durable implementation of practices and the effective use of data to achieve better outcomes.

As you think about the systems supporting your PBIS framework, ask yourself:
‍ What can we do to sustain our implementation over the long haul?

Data

Your school or program generates a wide range of data about your students every day. Within the PBIS framework, teams use data to select, monitor, and evaluate outcomes, practices, and systems across all three tiers.

As you think about the data available to you, ask yourself:
‍ What information do we need to make effective decisions about our PBIS implementation and outcomes?

Practices

The school and classroom practices you implement are critical to supporting students and creating a positive school climate. In PBIS, these interventions and strategies are backed by research and target the outcomes you and your community want to achieve.

As you think about the evidence-based practices you implement, ask yourself:
‍ How will we support our students' behavioral, social, emotional, and academic growth?

Outcomes

The ultimate goal of implementing PBIS data, systems, and practices is to improve outcomes. Families, students, and educators set goals and work together to achieve them. In PBIS, outcomes might include behavioral, social, emotional, and academic growth; positive school climate; or fewer office discipline referrals.

As you think about the outcomes you want to achieve, ask yourself:
‍ What is important to each of our communities?

Tiered PBIS Framework

Educators and practitioners provide a continuum of academic, behavioral, social, and emotional support matched to students' needs. We describe this continuum across three tiers of support.

A shared vision for a positive school social culture

A representative leadership team that meets regularly and shares expertise in coaching, social, emotional, behavioral, academic, equity, mental health, physical health, wellness, and trauma

Families are actively engaged‍

A supportive and involved school administration

On-going access to professional development for preparing all staff to implement each tier of PBIS

Systematic collection of screening, progress-monitoring, outcome, and fidelity data

Ongoing use of data for decision making

Disaggregating data to examine equity among student subgroups

Foundational systems across all three tiers include:

Tier 1: Universal, Primary Prevention (All)

Collaborating with students, families, and educators to define positive school/program-wide expectations and prioritize appropriate social, emotional, and behavioral skills

Aligning classroom expectations with school/program-wide expectations

Explicitly teaching expectations and skills to set all students up for success

Encouraging and acknowledging expected behavior

Preventing and responding to unwanted behavior in a respectful, instructional manner

Fostering school/program-family partnerships

Tier 1 systems, data, and practices support everyone - students, educators, and staff - across all school settings. They establish a foundation for positive and proactive support. Tier 1 support is robust, differentiated, and enables most (80% or more) students to experience success. Tier 1 practices include:

Tier 2: Targeted, Secondary Prevention (Some)

Providing additional instruction and practice for behavioral, social, emotional, and academic skills

Increasing adult support and supervision

Providing additional opportunities for positive reinforcement

Increasing prompts or reminders

Increasing access to academic supports

Increasing school-family communication

In addition to your Tier 1 foundation, students receiving Tier 2 supports get an added layer of systems, data, and practices targeting their specific needs. On average, about 10-15% of your students will need some type of Tier 2 support. The support you provide at Tier 2 is more focused than at Tier 1 and less intensive than at Tier 3. Tier 2 practices include:

Tier 3: Intensive and Individualized, Tertiary Prevention (Few)

Engaging students, educators, and families in functional behavioral assessments and intervention planning

Coordinating support through wraparound and person-centered planning

Implementing individualized, comprehensive, and function-based support

At most schools and programs, there are a small number (1-5%) of students for whom Tier 1 and Tier 2 supports have not been sufficient to experience success. At Tier 3, students receive more intensive, individualized support to improve their outcomes. Tier 3 supports are available to any student with intensive need, whether they receive special education services or not. Tier 3 practices include:

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Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is an evidence-based, tiered framework for supporting students’ behavioral, social, emotional, and academic growth. It is a way to create positive, predictable, and safe learning environments where everyone is successful.

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High-Leverage Practices

The heart of the TeachingWorks strategy is to ensure that all teachers have the training necessary for responsible teaching. We focus on a core set of fundamental capabilities that we call "high-leverage practices."

High-leverage practices are the basic fundamentals of teaching. These practices are used constantly and are critical to helping students learn important content. The high-leverage practices are also central to supporting students' social and emotional development. These high-leverage practices are used across subject areas, grade levels, and contexts. They are "high-leverage" not only because they matter to student learning but because they are basic for advancing skill in teaching.

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High-Leverage Practices The heart of the TeachingWorks strategy is to ensure that all teachers have the training necessary for responsible teaching. We focus on a core set of fundamental capabilities that we call "high-leverage practices." High-leverage practices are the basic fundamentals of teaching. These practices are used constantly and are critical to helping students learn important content.

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PBIS World | A Complete Tier 1 Through Tier 3 Positive Behavior Interventions & Supports System

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PBIS World is in no way affiliated, associated, or connected with any other website, entity, organization, or federal, state, local, or other government agency, department, program, policy, organization, or initiative.

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Essential Apps for the Physical and Digital Classroom

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Teacher-recommended tools for promoting collaboration, communication, creativity, critical thinking, and equity whether students are in school or at home.

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SWIFT Schoolwide Integrated Framework for Transformation

SWIFT Schoolwide Integrated Framework for Transformation

Leading the nation in equity-based Multi-tiered System of Support and inclusive education research and services.

We believe together we can transform education so that it benefits each and every student, their families, and ultimately the communities in which they live.

Equity

Children and youth are welcomed into schools that dynamically use all available resources to meet their needs.

Leaders

Leaders who move schools to an equity culture by building on what is successful and uniquely good in their community.

MTSS

Improving outcomes for all students through one system with a continuum of academic, behavioral, and social instruction and support.

We will meet you where you are-Anywhere! We offer products and services across the nation that build state education agency, service center, district, school and community capacity to implement or advance equity-based, multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) for inclusive education and improved academic, behavior and social-emotional outcomes for all students.

Contact Us

Our Services and Products

1

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Keep your team up-to-date

2

Fidelity of Implementation

Understand your school's current realities, monitor progress & avoid drift

3

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Identify your strengths and priorities

5

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SWIFT Framework

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Integrated Educational Framework

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Stories

SWIFT Unscripted Listen to interviews with teachers, administrators, family and community members, and researchers who are leading the transformation to equitybased MTSS. SWIFT Covid-19 Resources Covid-19 changed the way school looks, but some things remain. Check out resources on topics that matter more than ever. SWIFT Shelf Stories Watch our mini-films, Whatever It Takes, Together, and brief films on MTSS Universal, Additional and Intensified Support. Read, download, and share our Issue and Research to Practice Briefs, White Papers, Research Support and Bibliography, and more.

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Free SWIFT brochures and materials especially for family and community members may be downloaded for use in newsletters, on websites, or printed as handouts.

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SWIFT Schoolwide Integrated Framework for Transformation SWIFT Schoolwide Integrated Framework for Transformation Leading the nation in equity-based Multi-tiered System of Support and inclusive education research and services. We believe together we can transform education so that it benefits each and every student, their families, and ultimately the communities in which they live.

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RTI Strategies & Planning Tools | RTI Action Network

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RTI Action Network concentrates on customized approaches to RTI intervention strategies, building the essential steps for successful RTI implementation.

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Vol. 77

No. 2

Abstract

1. Expect Unexpected Responses

2. Employ Thoughtful Interactions

3. Be Specific About Relationship Building

4. Promote Predictability and Consistency

5. Teach Strategies to "Change the Channel"

6. Give Supportive Feedback to Reduce Negative Thinking

7. Create Islands of Competence

8. Limit Exclusionary Practices

Fostering a Feeling of Safety

Small changes in classroom interactions can make a big difference for traumatized students.

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Credit: Shannon Fagan

Abstract

1. Expect Unexpected Responses

2. Employ Thoughtful Interactions

3. Be Specific About Relationship Building

4. Promote Predictability and Consistency

5. Teach Strategies to "Change the Channel"

6. Give Supportive Feedback to Reduce Negative Thinking

7. Create Islands of Competence

8. Limit Exclusionary Practices

Fostering a Feeling of Safety

Up to two-thirds of U.S. children have experienced at least one type of serious childhood trauma, such as abuse, neglect, natural disaster, or experiencing or witnessing violence. Trauma is possibly the largest public health issue facing our children today (CDC, 2019). Traumatized students are especially prone to difficulty in self-regulation, negative thinking, being on high alert, difficulty trusting adults, and inappropriate social interactions (Lacoe, 2013; Terrasi & de Galarce, 2017). They often haven't learned to express emotions healthily and instead show their distress through aggression, avoidance, shutting down, or other off-putting behaviors. These actions can feel antagonistic to teachers who don't understand the root cause of the student's behavior, which can lead to misunderstandings, ineffective interventions, and missed learning time.

Neurobiologically, students can't learn if they don't feel safe, known, and cared for within their schools (Aupperle et al., 2012). When teachers are proactive and responsive to the needs of students suffering from traumatic stress and make small changes in the classroom that foster a feeling of safety, it makes a huge difference in their ability to learn. Here are some examples.

1. Expect Unexpected Responses

First, teachers must learn to put students' reactions into context-and not to take them personally. Students with trauma histories can react and behave in seemingly unexpected ways, such as having a sudden outburst during a favorite activity or crying out of the blue one second after laughing. Teachers may be taken by surprise. They say things like, "But he was fine this morning, I didn't see that coming!" or "She normally loves playing the drums in music class. I have no idea where her reaction came from." This uncertainty leaves the teacher in a constant state of hyper-alertness when interacting with the student. This in turn can result in fatigue, as the teacher is guarded and unable to predict what will happen from one moment to another.

One way to understand these reactions is to think of the student as a soda can, and events that may trigger their trauma stress as shaking that can. We can't tell by looking if the can was recently shaken, but if it was, opening the can results in an unexpected explosive, messy reaction. If a student is triggered and experiencing heightened emotion, even a benign direction such as, "Please move over to make room for Jenny" could result in an "explosion" that the teacher never saw coming. By using trauma-sensitive strategies in the classroom, we can help reduce the times our students are "shaken."

2. Employ Thoughtful Interactions

Traumatized students often behave in ways that may interfere with teaching and learning, which can be frustrating. Teachers are in a position of power, and these students may be overly defensive, anticipating adult criticism, or defiant, as a way to assert control (Jennings, 2018). Yet for traumatized students, the ability to learn and behave appropriately can be person-dependent. When they are with a safe and supportive adult, their behavior reflects that.

Consider this scenario drawn from schools I've worked with: Trevor, a 6th grader whose father overdosed on heroin two years ago and who has witnessed ongoing domestic abuse throughout his childhood, was in Ms. Carlton's class for part of the day and Ms. Finch's class for the other part. Ms. Carlton had a reputation of working well with hard-to-reach kids, and sure enough, Trevor behaved in a stellar way in her class. When he was with Ms. Finch, however, he was sent to the office nearly three times a week for explosive behavior.

The teacher is 50 percent of every interaction with a student: By changing the way we give a direction or respond, we can reduce problematic behavior. Ms. Carlton had taken the time to build a trusting relationship with Trevor and learned to give directions in a way that he would respond well to. Interaction strategies are a type of accommodation that typically go unnamed and unwritten, but they were the reason that Trevor could feel safe and access the curriculum (Minahan & Rappaport, 2012).

If Ms. Carlton had written down the successful strategies she used with Trevor, the list might have started with avoiding authoritative directives such as, "Pick that up." To give Trevor a sense of control, Ms. Carlton always embedded choice in her directions, asking, "Do you want to be in the front of the line or the back of the line?" instead of simply telling him to "line up." This helped prevent a poor reaction (Minahan, 2019).

Ms. Carlton also conveyed respect and transparency by providing the reason behind each direction. Instead of saying, "No backpacks on the floor. I don't want to trip and fall!" Ms. Carlton would say, "Oh dear, I hope I don't fall. I have a bad knee! Could you please move your backpack?" Stating the reason first assured that Trevor knew the context (and necessity) of the demand.

Conversely, Ms. Finch would often go up close to Trevor, tower over him, and say in front of his peers, "Stop tapping your pencil!" This typically ended in a power struggle and Trevor's escalating behavior. Trevor, like many traumatized students, had experienced a loss of control in his life, and power struggles with an authoritative figure were particularly triggering. Ms. Carlton instinctively knew that a more private nonverbal direction could be less confrontational for a student in "fight or flight" mode. She would write, "Please stop tapping" on a piece of paper, put it gently on Trevor's desk without his peers noticing, and then give him space by walking away quickly. When possible, she also gave Trevor extended time to comply with directions to avoid power struggles, asking, for example, "Can you please pick that up before lunch?" rather than, "Pick that up now" (Minahan, 2019). This allowed Trevor time to decompress and respond rationally.

3. Be Specific About Relationship Building

At one point in the year, Ms. Carlton told Ms. Finch that building a relationship with Trevor was key to her success with him, and she suggested that Ms. Finch do the same. Unfortunately, saying, "Build a relationship" is too vague and leaves too much up to the teacher's instincts. Instead, Ms. Carlton could have told Ms. Finch that she greeted Trevor every day at the classroom door and asked him about the Avengers or basketball. She could have told Ms. Finch how she used the "two by ten" rule; she talked to him for two minutes a day for 10 days in a row about topics unrelated to academics or behavior. Whenever Ms. Carlton could see she wouldn't have time for this in the 10-day period, she asked the counselor or special education teacher to cover her class for two minutes so she could go for a walk with Trevor. She repeated this trust-building strategy several times throughout the year, especially after he exhibited anger or frustration and after school vacations and long weekends.

Ms. Carlton skillfully used relationship-building and interaction strategies to work with Trevor. Yet the impact could have been greater had she written and shared those strategies with Ms. Finch and the rest of Trevor's team via a shared document, behavior plan, or student success plan (Minahan, 2019). Likewise, if counselors, school nurses, and psychologists write and share such techniques with each classroom teacher, kids like Trevor, when triggered, wouldn't always have to leave class to find a safe adult.

Not knowing what is coming next can put anyone on high alert, especially traumatized students. Providing predictability through visual schedules of the class agenda or school day can help. Ms. Carlton was adamant about previewing any changes to the normal routine ahead of time (saying, "We are going to have indoor recess today because of the snow," or "The DVD player isn't working so we can't watch a science video at the end of class today"). This prepared Trevor and thus elicited a calmer response.

A teacher's behavior can also feel unpredictable to traumatized students. When students are working independently and quietly-doing what they are supposed to be doing-they don't know when they will get the teacher's attention. But when students are doing the wrong thing-like drumming on the desk with a pencil in each hand or swearing-teachers are more predictable and react quickly! Because predictability is comforting to students with anxiety and trauma histories, they may resort to getting the teacher's attention through inappropriate means. Trevor could get Ms. Finch to react immediately by flipping his water bottle noisily, but could go 20 minutes without so much as eye contact from her when he was quietly reading.

To counter this imbalance and create an overall feeling of safety, teachers can use predictable positive attention (Minahan, 2014). During independent work time, if a teacher says to a student "Great work! I'll be back to check on you," the student has no way of predicting how long they need to wait-and from past experience they know that the teacher may forget to return altogether. Using predictable positive attention, however, the teacher can say, "I am going to check on you in 10 minutes," put a timer on the student's desk, and add, "Come tap me on the shoulder when the timer goes off." If the teacher has many students in the class that could benefit from this, she could transfer the strategy to small groups: "I will check on this desk group at X time."

Another strategy for providing predictable attention, especially for middle and high school students, is to hand an anxious or traumatized student a sticky note with a time on it as they walk into class each day. The first time, the note will need to be explained: "If you don't understand something in class, please don't worry-I am going to check on you during independent work time at 11:45, and I will answer any questions you have then." Ms. Carlton found this strategy comforting to Trevor. This predictable check-in pairs the negative thoughts the student may have ("I don't know how to do this") with a reassuring thought ("But my teacher will be here in seven minutes!"). The student can better tolerate uncomfortable feelings when they know help and a positive interaction are coming. Telling the student what will happen and when and always following through establishes the teacher as a consistent, reliable adult.

5. Teach Strategies to "Change the Channel"

Traumatized students often engage in inaccurate thinking, tending to focus on the negative. Common classroom management strategies often only exasperate this tendency. How many of us have seen frequent movement breaks on a student's IEP or student success plan? It is one of the most common accommodations that we offer to students who seem dysregulated. Unfortunately, during these breaks, students can ruminate on negative memories, current stressors, angry thoughts, or worries. If we ask a high school student who is getting angry and becoming agitated to take a walk, he may ruminate the whole time and return just as angry. Sending a 1st grader to a "calming chair" can leave her to perseverate on worrying thoughts. Instead, we need to help them "change the channel." Both Ms. Carlton and Ms. Finch used breaks with Trevor, but in vastly different ways.

When adults can't sleep, we often read a book or watch TV, which distracts us from uncomfortable thoughts so we can fall back asleep. Teachers can use the same principle for kids with trauma and anxiety: Teach students that their brain is like a remote control that they can use to "switch the channel" to help them calm down (Minahan & Rappaport, 2012). These switching activities are called cognitive distractions or thought breaks and are incompatible with negative thinking. A listening center or "find the picture" activity can be helpful to young children. For older students, you might try Mad Libs, trivia, or more abstract strategies such as counting all the green items in the room, saying the alphabet backwards, or thinking of the first 10 lines of a favorite movie. Ms. Carlton taught Trevor to do Star Wars trivia when he was upset, which helped him calm down quickly. Conversely when Ms. Finch had Trevor go for a walk, his negative thinking would escalate, and he would often not return to class.

6. Give Supportive Feedback to Reduce Negative Thinking

Many traumatized students interpret information through a negativity amplifier. When a teacher says, "Please correct the first problem," the student might hear, "You are stupid." Or a student might report that the teacher screamed at her when the teacher was really using a calm tone, as even neutral facial expressions can be misinterpreted. It is helpful to smile and explicitly say when you are happy with the student, a strategy Ms. Carlton utilized. When giving negative feedback, teachers can use the positive sandwich approach-starting and ending with a positive comment: (1) "I love how you remembered the formula," (2) "You made a small calculation error there," (3) "Great job getting problem #3 correct."

7. Create Islands of Competence

Recognizing areas of strength in students is a powerful way to combat the poor self-concept and negative thinking associated with trauma (Jennings, 2018). To support a more accurate self-concept, teachers can provide what Robert Brooks calls "islands of competence" for students swimming in a sea of inadequacy (2003). When a student thinks negatively, the negative moments during the day tend to weigh more heavily than the positive moments. We need to counter this effect with positive experiences. Educator teams need to ask themselves, "Does the student feel competent during the day?" If the answer is no, contriving an island of competence for the student is in order. Ms. Carlton often asked Trevor to help a younger student or a peer who was struggling in an academic area Trevor was strong in, or had him fix the stapler when it was malfunctioning. She would also point out in a written note to Trevor that he was the first student to finish a math activity. In high school, educators may want to foster students' talents by never letting them drop electives (which might require creativity in scheduling academic support in core classes).

It is important that students experience competence to develop a more accurate self-narrative and to begin to create a positive future picture of themselves. We want them to say, "I really helped that student with her artwork. When I grow up, I could work with kids." Or "I am good at fixing things. I could be a mechanic someday."

8. Limit Exclusionary Practices

Behavior is communication, and we've looked at how traumatized students often communicate feelings through their behavior. Teachers' behavior is also communication-and it may not be communicating the message we are striving to send. Common teacher practices such as ignoring inappropriate behavior, sending students to the office, or sending younger kids to sit alone at a back table or in the hallway can unintentionally trigger students who have experienced abandonment or neglect. We need to remember that when some of our students were young and cried, no one came. Ignoring them can trigger a trauma response and make them feel the teacher doesn't like them or is even happy that they are upset.

Ms. Finch would ignore Trevor when he was expressing anger, such as by crumpling up a paper, growling, or slinging a book from his desk onto the floor. On the other hand, Ms. Carlton responded to such moments at the beginning of the year by validating Trevor's feelings ("I am sorry you are upset" or "I see that you are angry"). This is a much more empathetic approach, will preserve the relationship, and will avoid triggering a trauma response in the student.

Another practice to be cautious about is using time with a preferred adult as an incentive. For example, a principal might say, "If you get all your homework done this week, you and I will have lunch together!" The problem with this is that if the student doesn't get all their homework done, then the principal withholds their attention and time. This implies the relationship is conditional and can trigger an abandonment trauma response for some students. It is better to use one-to-one time with students in a noncontingent way. This way adults are communicating, "I like you for who you are," not "I like you when you behave the right way."

Fostering a Feeling of Safety

Students can't learn unless they feel safe. When it comes to student trauma, there is much that is beyond educators' power, but there is also a great deal they can do to build a supportive and sensitive environment where students feel safe, comfortable, take risks, learn, and even heal.

Reflect & Discuss

➛ As Minahan writes, "Students can't learn if they don't feel safe." What small changes are you willing to try in your classroom to foster a sense of safety among traumatized students?

➛ Think about one of your students who struggles with behavior. How could you help him "switch the channel" when he is upset?

➛ Do you routinely share-and exchange ideas about-what's working with a traumatized student? How could you better improve lines of communication across the whole support team?

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Small changes in classroom interactions can make a big difference for traumatized students.