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This video is news coverage for a mass shooting that happened at a Christian church in Texas. It talks about the people who attended and how the community came together afterwards to honor and remember the victims. It does not however explain why this specific religious building was targeted, a bigger area of interest.

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Texans Mourn Those Lost in Church Massacre

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As residents in Sutherland Springs start the healing process, authorities have learned that five days before the shooting, the gunman brought his children to the church where he’d carry out the massacre.

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This video taks about the wisdom of the Goddess Annapurna and why she is worshipped in Hinduism. It explains her importance and how people continue to worship her.

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Antara Raychaudhuri and Iseult Gillespie

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Antara Raychaudhuri and Iseult Gillespie: The legend of Annapurna, Hindu goddess of nourishment

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Historically, the union between Shiva and Parvati was a glorious one: a sacred combination which brought fertility and connection to all living things. Yet a rift had grown between these two forces. Setting out to prove the importance of her work, Parvati withdrew from the world and sent the Earth into darkness.

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This article talks about the Baha'i temple in the US and how thought out the design was, reflecting the belief in inclusion of all religions. It is really interesting the amount of planning that went into not only the design and actual build of the temple, but also the gardens. Everything about the temple and its surroundings align with the Baha'i principles and goals.

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All of the teachings of the Baha'i Faith revolve around the concept of oneness. There is one God, Who created one human family, and Who sends us divine educators from age to age to revive the spirit of love and create greater unity among people.

The architecture of the Baha'i House of Worship embodies the concept of oneness.

Enjoy a look at how the architectural features of the House of Worship illustrate Baha'i concepts of oneness.

The second video showcases the stunning beauty of the House of Worship in all four seasons.

Rain or shine, the House of Worship gardens offer a peaceful and refreshing transition into the Temple.

Long before he had heard of the Baha'i Faith, French Canadian architect Louis Bourgeois (1856-1930) believed that his mission in life was to create a universal temple to Truth as a gathering place for all humanity.

Bourgeois became a Baha'i in New York City in 1907, and two years later responded to the call for designs for the Temple. In 1920, delegates from across the country unanimously selected his innovative design. Bourgeois traveled to Haifa (in present-day Israel) to consult with 'Abdu'l-Bahá, the son of the Founder of the Baha'i Faith. With 'Abdu'l-Bahá's encouragement, Bourgeois refined and scaled down the size of his design.

Baha'i principles are communicated throughout the design. For example, to illustrate the Baha'i belief in the unity of religion, Bourgeois brought together elements of religious architecture from around the world. The Temple's arabesque panels embrace natural light during the day and illuminate from within at night, creating a "Temple of Light and Unity."

The Gardens

The Baha'i House of Worship gardens are part of the sacred space. The nine gardens are planted with foliage of various colors and fragrances to convey the beauty of unity in diversity. The nine rectangular approaches to the Temple, some incorporating reflecting pools, are reminiscent of those found in the East. The nine circular gardens, with round fountains, represent Western landscapes and serve as outdoor rooms for prayer.

The Temple project took 50 years and continued through two World Wars and the Great Depression. The building was financed entirely by voluntary contributions from Baha'is around the world.

More than five thousand people gathered for dedication services as the Baha'i House of Worship was opened to the public on May 2, 1953. This video shows excerpts of the devotional service held that day with readings from five major religions.

We would love to hear from you

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Architecture - Bahá'ís of the United States

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All of the teachings of the Baha'i Faith revolve around the concept of oneness. There is one God, Who created one human family, and Who sends us divine educators from age to age to revive the spirit of love and create greater unity among people.

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This article defines Islamic architecture as it discusses its history, influences, characteristics, and well known examples. Its style has spread around the world, although it remains most popular in the Middle east and Europe, as well as extending outside of religious buldings.

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Islamic architecture can be found primarily in Arab States and Muslim-majority countries around the world, as well as in European countries with Arab or Islamic histories, such as Spain and Portugal.

History of Islamic Architecture

Islamic architecture refers to a style of architecture that was created as a physical manifestation of the principles of Islam by the Mohammedan (people of Islamic faith) in the 7th century, a tradition that continues to the present day. The building that is most frequently associated with Islamic architecture is the mosque, or Muslim place of worship.

But Islamic architecture encompasses both secular and religious buildings, including everything from large-scale mosques, fortresses, palaces, tombs, and public buildings such as schools to smaller-scale structures including fountains, public baths, and domestic structures.

Early Islamic architecture was influenced by existing styles such as Roman, Byzantine, and Persian architecture. As Islamic architecture spread from the Middle East throughout the world, specifically to places such as Asia, it was influenced by Chinese and Mughal architecture.

Islamic-esque architecture in parts of Europe is a version of Islamic architecture that was developed by the North African Muslims who conquered the Iberian Peninsula and many surrounding Western Mediterranean islands and developed the style over hundreds of years of reign. Many prominent examples of this style can be found in Spain. In the mid-19th century, a revival movement included the work of Catalan architect Antoni Gaudi, whose work was highly influenced by Islamic style in Spain.

Key Characteristics of Islamic Architecture

Towering spires with interior staircases and small windows, minarets are striking to look at and serve an integral function, calling Muslims to prayer five times a day.

Islamic architecture features domes placed on structures called pendentives that make it possible to fit a round dome on a rectangular or square room. Pendentives are often decorated with mosaic tiling.

Muqarnas Vaulting

Resembling a honeycomb or stalactite pattern, elaborate muqarnas vaulting adds a textural and monochromatic touch to the ceilings of often intricately and colorfully tiled interiors.

Horseshoe (or keyhole); pointed (precursor to Gothic); scalloped multifoil; and ogee-style arches.

Ornamental Details

Islamic decoration often includes multi-colored mosaic tiling featuring repeated patterns and non-figurative geometric or vegetal motifs and patterns such as the arabesque. It also typically includes the use of Arabic calligraphy scripts, such as passages from the Qur'an.

Another striking feature is mashrabiya, or wood lattice work, that is used on windows for privacy and climate control and sometimes used in a modern context as a purely decorative element or option for dividing interior spaces. Other decorative elements of Islamic design include wall paintings; stucco sculpture and wall panels; and decorative woodwork.

Outdoor Elements

Islamic architecture often features gardens; walled interior courtyards; open hypostyle halls held up by columns; and vaulting.

Famous Examples of Islamic Architecture

The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, Israel

Dating from the 7th century, this famous public shrine is the world's oldest standing Islamic monument. The first Islamic building to feature a Byzantine-style dome, the construction of The Dome of the Rock was one of the earliest examples in the development of an Islamic style. The gold-plated wood dome is situated on an octagonal base. The building itself is decorated with floral and geometric mosaics.

The Taj Mahal in Agra, India

A UNESCO World Heritage Site Often and one of the New Seven Wonders of the World, the Taj Mahal is cited as the most famous example of Islamic architecture on the planet. Combining elements of Persian, Indian, and Islamic architecture, this sprawling 17th-century mausoleum complex has become one of the world's most popular tourist attractions and prized selfie backdrops, instantly recognizable thanks to its imposing central white marble tomb. Closer inspection reveals intricate details such as precious inlaid stones and Arabic calligraphy.

The Alhambra in Granada, Spain

The Alhambra is a 14th-century palace and fortress and UNESCO World Heritage Site built on a plateau overlooking Granada, Spain. While the complex has lost some of its original structures over the last 700 years, what remains of this grand complex is a stunning example of Islamic architectural ornament, such as carved wood and stucco, colorful tiling, calligraphy, and muqarnas that decorate the Court of Lions.

Heydar Aliyev Center in Baku, Azerbaijan

A well-known example of a modernized version of Islamic style is this award-winning 2013 cultural center designed by the Iraqi-British architect Zaha Hadid, who died in 2016. The building reinterprets the characteristic flow of architectural elements found in traditional Islamic design, resonating with centuries of tradition while appearing resolutely contemporary.

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Islamic architecture can be found primarily in Arab States and Muslim-majority countries around the world, as well as in European countries with Arab or Islamic histories, such as Spain and Portugal.

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This article outlines some of the most important and well known locations and architecture to Buddhism in India. It talks about the history of each site and how it relates to pilgrimage and its overall significance to the origin of Buddhism.

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Qarshi This history of Buddhism is knotted with that of India's. And why not, our country is the birthplace of Lord Gautam Buddha, the founder of Buddhism. Buddhism gained prominence in India during the rule of Emperor Ashoka. Several sites for propagating the religion was built during his reign, no wonder, India houses many prominent structures portaging Buddhist Architecture at its best.

Pita Kotte Dedicating to the magnificence of Buddhist Architecture, Wienerberger India curates 7 classic examples of Buddhist Architecture in India.

Buddhist Architecture In India

Deeply rooted in the Indian soil, Buddhist architecture is the very birthplace of Buddha's teachings. This form of architecture begun with the development of various symbols, representing different aspects of Lord Buddha's life. It was the Indian Emperor Ashoka who established Buddhism as the religion of his state (Magadh Empire). He also constructed different architectural monuments to spread Buddhism across the country.

Buddhist Architecture is primarily represented by three prominent building types:

The Chaitya Hall (Place Of Worship)

The Vihara (Monastery)

The Stupa (Hemispherical Mound For Worship/Memory)

Distinctive Buddhist architectural structures and sculptures like, Stupas, Pagodas, caves, and monasteries have been mere spectators of different eras of the Buddhist era and speech about the different phases. Being the spiritual symbols of Buddhism, these structures are not just monastic or holy places but also serve as a sacred land which has the power to purify one's soul.

Buddhist Architecture - 7 Classic Examples

1. Bodh Gaya, Bihar

It wouldn't be wrong to say; Bodh Gaya is the center of Buddhism in India. This religious site and place of pilgrimage is connected with the Mahabodhi Temple Complex in the state of Bihar, Gaya. One of the major reason that contributes to the incredible popularity of this place is that it is the place where Gautama Buddha is said to have achieved Enlightenment (Pali: bodhi) under the most popular Bodhi Tree. The Mahabodhi Temple, located in Bodh Gaya, was declared UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2002.

Since ancient times, this Buddhist architecture wonder has remained the object of pilgrimage and reverence for both Buddhists and Hindus.

2. Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh

Sarnath is located at just 10 kilometers from the holy city of Varanasi near the union of the rivers the Ganges and Varuna Uttar Pradesh, India. What makes this place famous? Well, the deer park in Sarnath is the place where Gautam Buddha first preached the Dharma. This is also the place where the Buddhist Sangha came into existence through the enlightenment of Kondanna.

Sarnath is one of the 4 sacred Buddhist places in our country with astounding structures like Dhamekh Stupa and Chaukhandi Stupa which truly celebrate its historical significance.

3. Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh

Buddhists believe, Lord Buddha attained the highest stage of salvation (Parinirvana) in this small town in Uttar Pradesh - following his death. Kushinagar is one among the 4 most sacred places for Buddhists. In the age of 81, Lord Buddha passed away in this tiny town. This site is also renowned as Buddha imparted his last lessons here, it is in Kushinagar where he said

All things must pass. Decay is inherent in all things.

The area houses the very popular Rambhar Stupa and the Mahaparinirvana temple which holds the world-popular statue of Buddha in reclining position.

4. Shravasti, Uttar Pradesh

A beautiful ancient city located on the banks of River Rapti, this city was one of the sixth largest city during Lord Buddha's era. Shravasti is very popular and happens to be a very famous Buddhist pilgrimage site. The city is named after King Shravasta from Mahabharatha and it is believed that Lord Buddha spend 24 vasant (rainy season) in a monastery built by Anathapindika, his follower.

The city is peaceful as it is uncrowded and full of stunning Buddhist and Jain vestiges. Apart from the monastery where Buddha spent considerable time of his life, popular Stupas like "Kachhi Kuti" and "Pakki Kuti" can be spotted here.

5. Barabar Caves, Bihar

These Buddhist cave temples are among the first-born rock-cut caves still surviving in India. Dating back to the third-century B.C.E, these caves are set in the state of Gaya, Bihar. For generations, Barabar caves were used by Buddhist as well as by Jains. It is believed, these caves were built by the famous Emperor Ashoka.

Including 4 major caves, named Karan Chaupar, Sudama, Lomas Rishi, and Visva Zopri, each of these caves are detailed with elaborate sculptures and inscriptions.

6. Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh

Also known as Sanci, this architectural site is a Buddhist complex, most popular for its Great Stupa. The Sanchi Stupa is located on a hilltop in the town of Sanchi in Raisen District, Madhya Pradesh. The Great Stupa is one of the oldest structures built with stone and is a very important monument in the list of Indian Architectural wonders.

The Stupa is built over relics of Buddha and contains few of the most gorgeous carvings on its gates and entrances.

7. Nalanda, Bihar

Nalanda has a marvelous history dating back to 6th century in the times of Gautam Buddha and Lord Mahavir and today it's surely one magnificent site of culture and learning. The notable Nalanda University was founded long back in the 5th century BC, it was a popular center of learning in the region.

Nalanda is also one of UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is also one of our country's most primitive universities and today it remains to be one popular tourist hotspot in India.

India has much more to offer anyone curious to know about Buddhist Architecture. From ancient Buddhist cave temples to gigantic statues of the Buddha - This list wasn't an all-inclusive one for sure.

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7 Classic Examples Of Buddhist Architecture In India | Go Smart Bricks

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This history of Buddhism is knotted with that of India's. And why not, our country is the birthplace of Lord Gautam Buddha, the founder of Buddhism. Buddhism gained prominence in India during the rule of Emperor Ashoka. Several sites for propagating the religion was built during his reign, no wo ...

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This pdf shows the concept of worship in Islam and it talks about the misunderstandings of worship and what is considered an act of worship.

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This interview with Andrew Walls is about the expansion of Christianity and how Christianity moved multiple times and found a new center.

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Andrew Walls was a missionary to Sierra Leone and Nigeria, now teaching at the University of Edinburgh.

This article appeared in The Christian Century, August 2-9, 2000, pp. 792- 799. Copyright by The Christian Century Foundation; used by permission. Current articles and subscription information can be found at www.christiancentury.org. This material was prepared for Religion Online by Ted and Winnie Brock.

SUMMARY

We live now at a time when the church is multicultural. The fullness of the stature of Christ will emerge only when Christians from all different cultures come together.

A former missionary to Sierra Leone and Nigeria, Andrew Walls taught for many years at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland. He is founder-director of the Centre for the Study of Christianity in the Non-Western World at the University of Edinburgh, and founding editor of the Journal of Religion in Africa. He recently wrote The Missionary Movement in Christian History (1996). He is currently guest professor at Princeton Theological Seminary, and also teaches regularly in Ghana. We spoke to him about African Christianity and about the history of missionary expansion.

In writing about the expansion of Christianity, you have drawn attention to the way Christianity has over the centuries established new centers of the faith in different cultures and in different parts of the globe. What is so significant about this pattern?

If you consider the expansion of Islam or Buddhism, the pattern is one of steady expansion. And in general, the lands that have been Islamic have stayed Islamic, and the lands that have been Buddhist have stayed Buddhist. Christian history is quite different. The original center, Jerusalem, is no longer a center of Christianity -- not the kind of center that Mecca is, for example. And if you consider other places that at different times have been centers of Christianity -- such as North Africa, Egypt, Serbia, Asia Minor, Great Britain -- it's evident that these are no longer centers of the faith. My own country, Scotland, is full of churches that have been turned into garages or nightclubs.

What happened in each case was decay in the heartland that appeared to be at the center of the faith. At the same time, through the missionary effort, Christianity moved to or beyond the periphery, and established a new center. When the Jerusalem church was scattered to the winds, Hellenistic Christianity arose as a result of the mission to the gentiles. And when Hellenistic society collapsed, the faith was seized by the barbarians of northern and western Europe. By the time Christianity was receding in Europe, the churches of Africa, Asia and Latin America were coming into their own. The movement of Christianity is one of serial, not progressive, expansion.

Is this process more than an historical curiosity -- does it have theological significance?

Well, this pattern does make one ask why Christianity does not seem to maintain its hold on people the way Islam has. One must conclude, I think, that there is a certain vulnerability, a fragility, at the heart of Christianity. You might say that this is the vulnerability of the cross. Perhaps the chief theological point is that nobody owns the Christian faith. That is, there is no "Christian civilization" or "Christian culture" in the way that there is an "Islamic culture," which you can recognize from Pakistan to Tunisia to Morocco.

It seems that Christianity is able to localize itself or indigenize itself in a variety of cultures. Do you see this as in some way consistent with the Christian belief in the incarnation?

Yes. Christians' central affirmation is that God became human. He didn't become a generalized humanity -- he became human under particular conditions of time and space. Furthermore, we affirm that Christ is formed in people. Paul says in his Letter to the Galatians that he is in travail "until Christ be formed in you." If all that is the case, then when people come to Christ, Christ is in some sense taking shape in new social forms.

I think cultural diversity was built into the Christian faith with that first great decision by the Council in Jerusalem, recorded in Acts 15, which declared that the new gentile Christians didn't have to enter Jewish religious culture. They didn't have to receive circumcision and keep the law. I'm not sure we've grasped all the implications of that decision. After all, up to that moment there was only one Christian lifestyle and everybody knew what it was. The Lord himself had led the life of an observant Jew, and he had said that not a jot or tittle of the law should pass away. The apostles continued that tradition. The obvious thing, surely, for the new church to do was to insist that the gentile converts do what gentile converts had always done -- take on the mark of the covenant.

The early church made the extraordinary decision not to continue the tribal model of the faith. Once it decided that there was no requirement of circumcision and no requirement to keep every part of the law, then things were wide open. People no longer knew what a Christian lifestyle looked like. The converts had to work out, under the guidance of the Holy Spilt, a Hellenistic way of being Christian.

Think how much of the material in the Epistles needn't have been written if the church had made the opposite decision. Paul wouldn't have needed to discuss with the Corinthians what to do if a pagan friend invites you to dinner and you're not sure whether the meat had been offered in sacrifice the day before. That was not a problem for any of the apostles or any of the Christians in Jerusalem. They were not going to be eating with pagans in the first place, since observant Jews don't sit down at the table with pagans. But in Hellenistic Christianity this was an issue. These Christians were faced with the task of changing the Hellenistic lifestyle from the inside.

Early in your own career you were a teacher in West Africa. You have said that while teaching African Christians about the early church, you suddenly came to the realization that the African Christians were living in their own version of the early church. In a way, you were living amid the early church that you were teaching about. Tell us about this moment.

This was a very important realization. At the time I was still thinking of African Christian history as a sort of hobby, not part of the study of mainstream Christian history. I was wrong about that.

It became clear to me that we can better understand the early church in light of the recent experience of the churches in Africa and Asia. Our knowledge of the early church prior to the Council of Nicaea in 325 is fragmentary, but the fragments reveal many of the concerns African churches have today, from distinguishing between true and false prophets to deciding what should happen to church members who behave badly. Even the literary forms are often similar.

I think the experience of the African churches also brings into focus the period when Western Europe was converted to Christianity. We have a tendency to forget about this period, to jump from Augustine to Luther and forget about Bede and Gregory of Tours. During this period Christian missionaries had to explain Christianity to the inhabitants of Europe in light of the indigenous religions -- the religions of the Goths, for example, or the Celts. And they had to answer practical moral questions, because the people who were abandoning their old gods needed to know what the new God demanded. Reading the pre-Nicene literature and the literature of the European conversion period in the light of modern African experience cast floods of light. African and Asian Christians can vastly illuminate "our" church history.

What are the theological questions that are urgent in Africa today?

Well,theology insouthern Africa has had a political edge, because people have had to maintain their faith within a system of oppression which itself often had a Christian theological justification, as in South Africa. And throughout Africa, Christians have to ask questions about the nation state which Western Christians have never asked, because Western Christianity more or less grew up with the nation state.

The nation state doesn't seem to operate well in parts of Africa. Sometimes the churches are the only form of civil society still operating in Africa. In that respect, too, Africa today resembles the pre-Carolingian stage of Europe, after the collapse of the Roman Empire, when the only institution that worked was the church.

The other important theological questions are cultural, and have to do with coping theologically with the African past.

What do you mean by "coping theologically with the past"?

Africans have a need to understand how God was at work among their own traditions. This question is alive for Africans just as it was for Greek converts in the ancient Hellenistic world. Do we have to reject our entire history and culture when we become Christians?

I think one can distinguish three stages in dealing with the non-Christian past: the missionary stage, the convert stage and the reconfiguration stage. African Christians are now in the reconfiguration stage.

We should remember that Paul was functioning in the missionary stage. He was himself a foreign missionary. He could use a Hellenistic idea like the pleroma, but he was still an outsider. Dealing with the Greek past became a much more pressing issue for converts of a later generation, such as Justin Martyr of the second century. Justin wanted to know how God had been at work among the pagan philosophers before the time of Christ. Were they totally without value? Did God have nothing to do with Socrates? Justin worked out the theory that the pagan philosophers who had been speaking according to reason, the logos, were in fact speaking also in accordance with the Logos. He found a way to reject part of his cultural tradition, affirm part of it and modify part of it.

The next stage of reconfiguring the past is represented by Origen, in the third century. He was not a convert; he grew up in a Christian home. But he also had a thorough Greek education. Origen was able to reconfigure the whole of the Greek tradition from a Christian perspective. He could do this because he was perfectly at home with the Christian tradition, whereas Justin was still uneasy within it. Justin was always afraid of demons, for example, whereas Origen wasn't afraid of the demons because he knew Christ had dealt with them.

What aspects of the African experience are being reconfigured in Christian terms?

The role of ancestors and witchcraft are two important issues. Academic theologians in the West may not put witchcraft high on the agenda, but it's the issue that hits ordinary African Christians full in the face.

Of course, Western theology has made its peace with the Enlightenment, the fundamental assumption of which is that there is a firm line between the empirical world and the transcendent world or spirit world. If you're a rationalistic person of the Enlightenment, you'll say either that there's nothing on the other side of the line or that we can't know anything about it. Western Christians have particular points on which they cross the line -- incarnation, resurrection, prayer, miracles and so on -- but on the whole they still assume the existence of that firm division.

The world of most African Christians doesn't have this firm line between the world of experience and the transcendent world. It's an open frontier which is being crossed all the time. They are very aware, for example, of the active forms that evil takes.

So what does a Christian theologian do when somebody says he's a witch? Our instinct in the West is to say, Oh no, of course you are not a witch. But what do you do when a person tells you she has killed somebody, that she hated some woman so much she wanted her baby to die -- and then the baby dies. This can be a pressing pastoral issue in Africa.

When African Christians read the New Testament, they naturally see things that Western Christians miss. They can see, for example, that the New Testament plainly deals with demons, and that it also deals with healing -- issues that Western Christians tend to think are part of an outdated world.

It seems that African Christians have two challenges: they are reinterpreting their traditional religious culture in the light of Christian teachings, and at the same time they are responding to the pressure of the Enlightenment worldview and Enlightenment-sponsored technology.

Traditional and Enlightenment worldviews can live together very well. You can drive a car and watch television and still be very much aware of the objective force of evil and may want to call it witchcraft. And the reconfiguration process has a variety of solutions. African traditional universes have several components. Many recognize not only God, but also lesser divinities who are rulers of territories and of departments of life, as well as ancestors who are mediators. In African Christian thought, the God-component is enlarged -- but what happens to the divinities? They are sometimes interpreted in terms of angels and ministers of God, sometimes in terms of demons and enemies of God. African Christianity has a lively sense of the demonic. Ancestor mediation produces still more complex theological questions. All three kinds of answers emerge within African Christianity. But Western theology is not very helpful in providing answers to such questions, because it doesn't even understand the questions.

John Mbiti has a wonderful story about the African student who goes home to his village with a Ph.D. in theology. This son of the village is greeted with a service of welcome and afterward a big party. During the party there's a shrieking and a howling and a banging in the tent -- his sister has become possessed. Of course, the villagers immediately turn to the new Ph.D. -- he's the expert, the one who has received the best theological training. But he's completely incapacitated for dealing with this African event.

The notion that the center of Christianity has moved to the southern world, to Africa and Asia, is familiar to U.S. Christians, but it doesn't seem to make much of a dent in how we operate or how we do theological education. How do you think this fact should influence us?

The center has changed, and though I wouldn't say there's no future for Western Christianity or no important task for Western theologians, it and they will be less and less significant for the future of Christianity. Already what they're doing is pretty parochial. The events that are shaping 21st century Christianity are happening in Africa and Asia.

Part of what this change means is that the big ecumenical questions are no longer how Lutherans will get on with Baptists or Reformation churches with Rome. The urgent ecumenical question is how African, Asian, Latin American, North American and European Christians can live together in the same church, authentically expressing the same faith of Christ and love of Christ.

Itseems to me that now, more than at any time in history, the church looks like the great multitude described in the Book of Revelation -- a multitude from every tribe and nation.

Paul speaks of Jews and gentiles growing together, and he says that only when the two strands are one will they have grown into the full stature of Christ. At the time, no one had any idea how important the missions to the gentiles would prove to be. After the fall of Jerusalem, the church became as monocultural in a Hellenistic way as it had been in its earliest days in a Jewish way.

We live now at a time when the church is multicultural. I think that the fullness of the stature of Christ will emerge only when Christians from all these cultures come together. If I understand what Paul says in Ephesians correctly, it is as though Christ himself is growing as the different cultures are brought together in him.

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The Expansion of Christianity: An Interview with Andrew Walls

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Andrew Walls was a missionary to Sierra Leone and Nigeria, now teaching at the University of Edinburgh. This article appeared in The Christian Century, August 2-9, 2000, pp. 792- 799. Copyright by The Christian Century Foundation; used by permission. Current articles and subscription information can be found at www.christiancentury.org.

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Possibly the most recognizable painting or work of art in the world of Christianity; The Last Supper. This painting depicts an immaculate moment where Jesus and the disciples gather around for one "last supper" together before Jesus is to be nailed to a cross and crucified. This is also when Jesus is told to have turned water to wine.

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This article explains some significant events that took place in India in 2002. The government had recently published a "Universities Handbook" based on a survey
of 273 colleges. One of the reports on the given colleges found that only 5% of the schools offered any courses related to religious studies. The selected few that did offer any courses included the studies of Islam and Buddhism, but   had an absence of Hinduism in all 273 of them. The odd part of the situation, this study was constructed in a country where the overwhelming majority consists of Hindus.

file:///media/fuse/drivefs-ecb4ccb15893613c8b46e0a7ab9b3050/root/religions-12-00085-v2%20(1).pdf

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This article talks about how there are internal conflicts with Buddhism in Thailand and the war since violence goes against Buddhist beliefs. However, Buddhist nations have historically fought to use the Buddhist doctrine to justify war, as soldiers who have "a cool, calm, clear head, with good intentions, than those that are hot headed" (Shadbolt). The article discusses whether or not the Buddhist doctrine can justify violence for the sake of peace.

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conflict in buddhism: 'violence for the sake of peace?' - cnn

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Conflict in Buddhism: 'Violence for the sake of peace?' - CNN

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For Thailand's Queen Sirikit, the 2007 attack on a minibus in southern Thailand's Yala province -- in which suspected Muslim militants shot eight Buddhists through the head in broad daylight -- was simply further proof of what she'd been saying for more than three years.

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The article explains how the Islamic religion is based on the "Five Pillars of Islam", which are Shadadah, Salat, Zakat, Sawm, and Hajj. It also discusses how people use the five pillars to guide them through life along with highlighting the fact that the implementation of the five pillars is always changing in order to fall in line with societal, technological, and scientific changes.

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Among Sunni Muslims, the key practices of Islam are referred to as "The Five Pillars" and include: shahadah (statement of faith), salat (prayer five times a day), zakat (giving a portion of one's possession, usually 2.5% of annual wealth, through local mosques or organizations), sawm (fasting from sunrise to sunset in the month of Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to the Ka'bah in Mecca during the month of Dhu'l-Hijjah).

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In the article, many significant forms of Buddha art/statues, such as the Buddha himself, are mentioned. The other notable Buddhist art examples include the Eight Auspicious Symbols, Mudras, Daibutsu, the footprint of Buddha, the Great Stupa, etc. With each of these examples, the article breaks down the specific importance and symbolism the art piece has in relation to the religion.

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Buddha-one of the many pseudonyms of an influential teacher from northern India who was active around the fifth century B.C.-is perhaps one of the most recognizable and widely known figures depicted in Eastern art. Often posed in a meditative state, Buddha reflects a path to enlightenment, honor, and separation from the frivolousness of the modern world. In addition to figurative representations of the icon himself, his teachings are also represented in Buddhist art through other symbols such as the Lotus, Eternal Knot, and Dharma Wheel.

The origins of Buddhism began in the fourth and fifth centuries B.C., at a time of great internal reflection and ethical exploration. While Buddha was often compared to notable philosophers of this time such as Socrates and Plato, Buddha took a new approach, exploring the intersection of religion and enlightenment with reflections on the human experience. This multifaceted approach is what draws so many to Buddhism and the cultural teachings of the religion. The Sage Business Researcher sites that four in ten American adu lts meditate on a weekly basis , demonstrating in part why Buddhist art and its teachings have become increasingly in fluential amidst a crowded modern landscape.

Additionally, as mindfulness gains traction in the Western world for its many health-related benefits , the teachings of Buddha are more relevant than ever. Here, we explore the fundamentals of Buddhism and Buddhist art, its defining principles, and notable examples from art history.

A Brief History of Buddhist Art

What separates Buddhist art from other religious symbolism is that physical representations of Buddha and his teachings did not begin until after his death. This is in part because of what is known as the "middle path of moderation," or the balance between self-indulgence and self-mortification, to which Buddha devoted his life. With the understanding that those who had not achieved enlightenment would eventually be reincarnated, he rejected both asceticism as well as the physical desires of the current world.

Siddhartha, later known as Buddha, was born into the royal family of Kapilavastu in Lumbini (present-day Nepal) and was thought to be the next great leader, either in battle or as a leader of higher thinking and understanding. In his youth, Siddhartha came to understand that the luxury he was accustomed to in his affluent upbringing would not help him find a higher purpose, and he left his family to seek out a new path. After experimenting with asceticism, or restraint from all physical needs and desires, he eventually found meditation and used the practice as a path toward enlightenment, what he believed was the only way to understand the true meaning of life and to end the cycle of reincarnation.

Throughout his life, Buddha spoke on the value of respect, peace, honesty, and wisdom to help others achieve a higher sense of consciousness. However, it wasn't until after his death that artists depicted his teachings as an act of contemplation and a focal point for those looking to achieve nirvana. The very first Buddhist artworks were , or caskets, filled with Buddha's ashes after his death. These caskets drew visitors seeking a higher purpose and ultimately contributed to the proliferation of new forms of Buddhist art.

The perceived spiritual value of the stupas drove artists to create other statues and monuments that could serve as a place of worship and deep reflection for those looking to follow Buddha's path. Aniconic symbolism , or symbolism that represents the idea of the religious figure, was the first to emerge, and artists often used negative space in their work to depict Buddha's teachings.

Buddhist Symbolism in Art

The most ubiquitous Buddhist symbol is the statue of Buddha himself, which has been slightly altered with various (symbolic hand gestures), halos, and facial expressions. Other common symbols and motifs in Buddhist art are outlined below.

Aniconic Symbols

In the earliest examples of Buddhist art, the likeness of Buddha himself was never depicted. Instead, virtuosos used aniconic symbolism to reflect nirvana. Nirvana, a state of being considered to be a release from the physical body and all the earthly desires that accompany it, is known as the first goal in Buddhism and is only achieved after many life cycles of one entity.

Footprints, a horse without a rider, and an empty chair are some of the best-known representations of Buddha in the first century B.C. This is in part due to the artistic style of the time, which rejected vanity and instead focused on depicting Buddha's teachings, which scholars felt was the most important part of the process.

The Eight Auspicious Symbols

The Eight Auspicious Symbols are among the most common iconography depicted in Buddhist art, and are thought to represent offerings that the gods made to Buddha after his enlightenment. Each symbol represents a different lesson that must be understood in order to achieve enlightenment, and include the Parasol, Two Golden Fish, the Conch Shell, the Lotus, the Banner of Victory, the Vase, the Dharma Wheel (or Dharmachakra), and the Eternal Knot.

The symbols didn't come from Buddha himself, but were adopted by his followers after his death, and were widely taught as representations of the god's gifts to Buddha after his death and subsequent enlightenment. Often used in meditation practices, these objects are said to help anchor the mind and invoke a deeper understanding of Buddha's teachings.

Buddha Statue

It wasn't until first century A.D. that statues of Buddha himself became popularized. These relics helped to expand the teachings of the religion and inspired creators to adopt this symbol in a variety of ways. For example, in Gandhara (parts of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan), artists drew inspiration from Roman civilization to create sculptures unique to the area. In these forms, Buddha was displayed as a youthful man, with stylized curls cascading around his face and a shawl lightly draped over his body.

The sculptures in Mathura, a city in northern India, tended to focus more his teachings of the sacred breath of prana, depicting him with a expanded chest full of air. They also chose to leave the right shoulder bare. But the most wide-reaching version of this statue, often known as the "ideal image," wasn't created until 4th century A.D. Artwork from the Gupta period draws on previous depictions of Buddha to create an all-knowing statue that has become a beacon for Buddhists.

Mudras

Even as the "ideal image" of Buddha became well known, some Buddhists were concerned that these works of art did not properly honor the deity. Buddha was opposed to the idea of using himself as a prop for his teachings, and artists of the time were apprehensive about doing anything that might disrespect his wishes.

In order to make changes without dishonoring his scared being, most of the differences seen in the early statues of Buddha are through mudras. are hand gestures depicted in Buddhist art, and each have their own distinct meaning. The most common mudra is the Chin or Gyan Mudra, where the thumb and index finger come together to form a circle. It is said to be a gesture of knowledge, wisdom, and the unity of human cognizance.

Notable Examples of Buddhist Art

Daibutsu

Otherwise known as the "Great Buddha," the Daibutsu is a reflection of the importance of Buddhism's reach outside of its country of origin. Located in Kamakura in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, this bronze statue was created inside the Kotoku-in Temple in 1252. Standing at approximately 43.8 feet tall, the statue is hollow to allow visitors to enter and worship. The original version of this statue was wooden, and funded by Lady Inada back in 1243. After sustaining damage, casters Ono Goroemon and Tanji Hisatomo were tasked with re-creating the piece in gold.

Although this outdoor statue has undergone much reconstruction due to tsunamis, earthquakes, and vandalism, it is one of the most famous landmarks in Japan. It is said that traces of gold leaf can still be found near Buddha's ears, even after a complete reconstruction in 1498. This work of art has also been assigned a national treasure status and is being considered for inclusion in UNESCO's World Heritage Series.

Footprint of Buddha

Part of the age of aniconic symbolism, Buddha's footprints were a traditional rendering of the divine and are thought to serve as a reminder to all about the fleeting nature of humanity's time on earth, as well as a representation of the path of righteousness Buddha left for others to follow. This symbol in art is often accompanied by a mark such as a Dharmachakra , or The Dharma Wheel, at the sole of the foot and takes over 3,000 different forms across India, Japan, Sri Lanka, and other neighboring countries.

Historians believe that Buddha left his footprints in every land that his teachings were to make a lasting impression, with the largest impression left atop the Sri Padaya mountain in Sri Lanka. This mountain is considered a sacred space across several religions, and many Buddhists make the pilgrimage up the mountain each year to worship.

The Great Stupa

The Great Stupa was built in 3rd century B.C. by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in Sanchi, India. The dome stands at 120 feet high and 54 feet wide and reflects heaven enclosing the earth, and is one of the oldest Buddhist monuments in the country.

Each addition to the Stupa was carefully considered and represents various Buddhist ideals. The central pillar, yashti, supports the three jewels of Buddhism: Buddha, the sharma, and the sangha. Those who wish to worship at this sacred space must walk clockwise around the , or railing around the dome, before entering through the . The toranas are ceremonial gateways and are focal points located at the four cardinal points of the Stupa. Inscribed on the toranas are stories and events of Buddha's life as well as the names of those who contributed to restoration of the religious site.

Gedun Truppa, 1st Dalai Lama

The institution of the Dalai Lama is one that can be traced back to 1578 C.E., and serves as a spiritual leader to Buddhist culture in Tibet. There are four major schools of the Tibetan Buddhist religion, and while all honor the Dalai Lama and his teachings, he is most revered in the Gelug sector. Gedun Truppa, named after its subject, features the first Dalai Lama from Tibet in the 17th and 18th century.

Reflecting the teachings of Buddha, the Dalai Lama translates to "ocean of wisdom" and embodies compassion, peace and reason. Unlike the traditional Buddhist framework, a number of humanitarian leaders have taken on the role of the Dalai Lama and used this position of power to achieve peace and promote a greater sense of self across Tibet.

Ayuthaya Buddha Head

One of the most iconic Buddhist statues in Thailand depicts Buddha's head enveloped in the roots of a large tree. Originally, this work belonged to a full statue of Buddha in deep meditation state outside a temple, but it was destroyed in 1767 by the Burmese army. Remarkably, the head remained intact, which was rare for Buddhist sculptures in the surrounding areas. The statue was eventually overtaken by a neighboring tree.

Honoring Buddha's teachings of the soul's connection to nature, many historians call upon the symbolic value of the Ayuthaya Buddha Head. As the first Buddha achieved enlightenment under the shade of a Bodhi tree, this statue is often seen as a reminder to return to the basics of the Buddhist principles to reach the higher spiritual level.

Buddhist teachings have been widespread for many centuries, but continue to serve as a source of strength and inspiration. The philosophy of Buddha is simple and solitary; something that anyone can achieve if they focus inward, and the practice of inward reflection has gained traction in recent years.

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Buddhist Art: History, Symbolism and Notable Examples

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Buddha-one of the many pseudonyms of an influential teacher from northern India who was active around the fifth century B.C.-is perhaps one of the most recognizable and widely known figures depicted in Eastern art. Often posed in a meditative state, Buddha reflects a path to enlightenment, honor, and separation from the frivolousness of the modern world.

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This article goes into detail on the tradition of Lent and how you can participate as an everyday Christian. It also provides an overview of the specific days within Lent that give deeper meaning like Ash Wednesday and Shrove Tuesday.

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40acts - the Lent generosity challenge from Stewardship

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Lent is the six week period leading up to Easter. It's one of the most important times of year for many Christians around the world, particularly those within the Anglican, Catholic and Orthodox traditions, held at a similar level of importance to Advent - the build up to Christmas.

While Advent is a celebration and a time of great anticipation, Lent is more frequently seen as a time of solemn observance and preparation for the celebration of the death and resurrection of Jesus at Easter. From its start on Ash Wednesday until its conclusion on Easter Sunday, Lent has been a traditional time for fasting or giving something up or abstinence. Just as we carefully prepare for events in our personal lives, as a wedding, or birthday; a commencement Lent invites us to make our minds and hearts ready for remembering Jesus' life, death and body resurrection.

When does Lent start?

Because Lent follows the liturgical calendar, the exact date that Lent falls each year changes. Lent begins on Ash Wednesday, which is always held 46 days (40 fasting days and 6 Sundays) before Easter Sunday.

Ash Wednesday is the day after Shrove Tuesday, which in the UK is more commonly known as Pancake Day. Elsewhere in the world Shrove Tuesday is known as Mardi Gras (meaning 'Fat Tuesday' in French).

What do Christians do during Lent?

These days, Christians around the world observe Lent in many ways. Many from more orthodox and traditional denominations will still observe the fast strictly, beginning with the wearing of ashes on Ash Wednesday and abstinence of meat, fish, eggs and fats until Easter Sunday.

Others will choose to give up just one item for Lent, more commonly a 'luxury' such as chocolate, meat or alcohol. It is also becoming increasingly common for people to give up other things in order to refocus their faith during this time; such as watching TV, going to the gym, even social media.

Many Christians also use Lent to study their Bibles and pray more intensively, making use of the many devotional books and courses now available to.

And, of course, more and more Christians are turning to the 40acts challenge as a way of doing Lent differently; using simple daily reflections and acts of generosity as a way of putting others first during preparations for Easter.

Sundays during Lent are very important to Christians around the world. Where the Monday to Saturday of each of the six weeks are concerned with fasting and abstinence, the Sunday is a celebration symbolic of Christ's resurrection. Instead of fasting, Christians hold feasts in remembrance of Christ's sacrifice. The fourth and sixth Sundays are particularly important in the UK - the fourth because it is Mothering Sunday (Mother's Day) and the sixth because it's Palm Sunday.

What does Shrove Tuesday mean?

Shrove Tuesday comes originally from the word shrive (meaning "absolve").

As the last day before the Lent, Shrove Tuesday was a day of self-examination where Christians would consider what sins they needed to repent of and what changes to their life or spiritual growth they would focus on during the fast.

While Shrove Tuesday was a day for the purification of the soul, it also had a practical significance too, from which would emerge our modern day tradition of pancakes.

In preparation for Lent centuries ago, those observing the fast would use Shrove Tuesday to also purify and remove from their house any of the items that they were foregoing for the 40 days. Traditionally this included meat, fish, eggs, fats, milk and sugar - so Shrove Tuesday became the final blowout before Lent began!

These ingredients combine easily to make pancake batter, hence why in the UK Shrove Tuesday is now synonymous with the making, tossing and racing of pancakes.

The gorging on rich foods on Shrove Tuesday also gives us the alternative name of Mardi Gras (meaning 'Fat Tuesday' in Fench), which in turn has grown into a whole carnival feast in Louisiana, USA.

Why is Ash Wednesday called Ash Wednesday?

Ash Wednesday begins Lent. The day gets its name from the traditional blessing of the ashes taken after the burning of Palm branches (or crosses made from Palm leaves) from the previous year's Palm Sunday celebrations. In some churches the ashes are used to draw a cross on the head of people to mark the beginning of their Lent fast. The drawing of a cross is often done while repeating the words "Repent and believe in the Gospel" (Mark 1:15) or "Remember that you are dust, and to dust you shall return" (Genesis 3:19).

What is Holy Week?

Palm Sunday marks the beginning of Holy Week - the last week of Lent leading up to Easter. On Palm Sunday Christians everywhere remember Jesus' triumphant arrival in Jerusalem. Church services will often include a procession of palm branches, symbolic of the ones laid at Jesus' feet as he rode into the city. Palm crosses will also be distributed on this day, to be kept until the following year's Ash Wednesday as a reminder of the death and resurrection of Jesus.

Palm branches can be quite hard to come across in colder climates like here in the UK, so many people choose to use branches from native trees instead, with willow, olive, box and yew branches all being common replacements.

As Holy Week draws to a close and Easter approaches, we have Holy Wednesday, commemorating Judas Iscariot's intent to betray Jesus; Maundy Thursday, commemorating the Last Supper Jesus shared with his disciples in which he predicts his betrayal by the following denial by Peter; and Good Friday, the day on which Christians around the world remember Jesus' crucifixion and burial.

With Good Friday over, Christians look forward to Easter Sunday, the day on which Jesus rose from his tomb.

As they entered the tomb, they saw a young man dressed in a white robe sitting on the right side, and they were alarmed. "Don't be alarmed," he said. "You are looking for Jesus the Nazarene, who was crucified. He has risen! He is not here. See the place where they laid him. But go, tell his disciples and Peter, 'He is going ahead of you into Galilee. There you will see him, just as he told you.' " Mark 16:5-7

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What is Lent? When does Lent start? What to do during Lent? - 40acts - 40acts - the Lent generosity challenge from Stewardship

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Lent is the six week period leading up to Easter. It's one of the most important times of year for many Christians around the world, particularly those within the Anglican, Catholic and Orthodox traditions, held at a similar level of importance to Advent - the build up to Christmas.

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https://youtu.be/x7Bru730ZKo

This is an interview that shows the in depth details of Hinduism. The interview is conducted by a college professor and meditation teacher. The video is about 46 minutes long and shows many layers of what it is like to be in their shoes.

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Acharya Bharat On Hinduism - Interview by Dr. Prof. Metzger, Multnomah University, Portland, Oregon

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This article speaks on the fasting or dieting practices about the Bahái´í Faith and how sense it is a combination of all religions it also partakes in this process of the spiritual journey. It also includes different fasting practices of other religions and how they influence Bahái´í.

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Saturday, March 4, 2000

Fasting as a Spiritual Experience, Not as a Fashion Statement, Draws Growing Numbers of Adherents

By LARRY B. STAMMER, MARGARET RAMIREZ, Times Staff Writers

To feel good and look good, Americans spend millions each year on everything from tummy tucks to health club memberships.
Through it all the mantra is exercise and diet.
Now, with the Christian penitential season of Lent fast approaching, millions of the faithful are preparing to go on a diet for God.
The goal is not to lose weight or to indulge one's vanity but to practice a spiritual discipline--one that believers say sharpens their awareness of God and God's purpose in their lives. It's called fasting.
"We see in the natural sense those who want to fast just to get their weight down," said Sister Mary Colombiere of the Carmelite Sisters of the Most Sacred Heart, a Roman Catholic women's religious order in Alhambra.
"There's a kind of supernatural fasting, too, so that we can become self-disciplined and rise above the natural to live the supernatural life."
Lent begins with next week's observance of Ash Wednesday for Western liturgical churches, including the Roman Catholic, Episcopal and Lutheran churches. Eastern Orthodox churches begin their 40 day "Great Lent" on March 13, known as "Clean Monday," because believers abstain from eating meat, poultry, fish and dairy products.
Fasting is a widespread religious phenomenon. Indeed, religious leaders say they can't recall a time in contemporary history when fasting has been so widely practiced.
This week, for example, members of the Bahai faith began fasting to take their minds away from the physical world and concentrate on spiritual awareness. While the Bahai have no fixed rituals or sacraments, all members are expected to participate in a 19-day fast before the feast of Naw-Ruz, which is the religion's New Year celebration. This year's fast ends March 21.
Hindus, many of whom currently maintain a fast for Shiva, the Hindu deity of destruction, also see fasting as a key to focusing on the divine. The Hindi word for fasting, upavasa, means "sitting near" the divinity.
"Fasting has a way of neutralizing or minimizing chaos in the body," said Lina Gupta, associate professor of philosophy and religion at Glendale Community College and an authority on Hinduism. Instead of focusing on food, "Your whole body would assist you in going in that spiritual direction."
Among Jews, 53% nationwide attend services on Rosh Hashana or Yom Kippur, according to a Los Angeles Times poll conducted in 1998. Rabbi Harvey J. Fields of Wilshire Boulevard Temple said he believes a growing number are participating in the traditional Yom Kippur fast.
"There's a deeper sense that fasting has some real meaning if it's attached to the notion of giving up for a day all of those material things that claw at us, including our appetites," Fields said.
Usually associated with faiths that observe a liturgical calendar--Jews on Yom Kippur and Muslims during their holy month of Ramadan, in addition to Christians at Lent--fasting is fast coming into vogue among evangelical Protestants as well. Last year, for example, the National Assn. of Evangelicals called for 40 days of fasting and prayer by 30 million members of the association's member churches.
In one large demonstration of fasting and prayer, 2 million Protestants from more than 40 countries last November joined in a worldwide 24-hour fast, according to Campus Crusade for Christ, which led the event.
Opinions vary as to why the number of those who fast is growing among evangelical Protestants. Clearly there is a concern for the moral direction of the country, Bright said. Evangelicals are mindful of the scriptural injunction found in 2 Chronicles 7:14: "If my people who are called by my name humble themselves, pray, seek my face, and turn from their wicked ways, then I will hear from heaven, and will forgive their sin and heal their land."
Others say evangelicals, whose worship services can seem austere, may yearn for a more tactile and traditional expression of an inward search for holiness.
"When the Scripture says to love the Lord your God with all your heart, soul and mind and strength, often we Christians may pray while we are comfortable sitting in a plush chair with one hand on a Diet Coke and the other in a bag of peanuts," said the Rev. Kevin W. Mannoia, president of the National Assn. of Evangelicals. "The virtue of going without food or other things somehow moves God to do i omething extraordinary."
Rapturous experiences are reported by some who fast. Immersed in what they believe to be God's presence and overcome by a sense of well-being, they report a feeling of peace and unity that passes understanding.
"Something wonderful happens," said Bill Bright, founder and president of Campus Crusade for Christ. Bright, 78, has fasted 40 days for each of the past six years, drinking only juice and taking vitamin and mineral supplements. He cautioned that those considering a fast should begin slowly, and first consult their physician.
When he fasts, Bright said that he has a sense of entering into "protracted communion" with the God of the universe.
"Witnessing doesn't do it. Reading the Bible doesn't do it. Prayer in general doesn't do it," said Bright. The experience, he said, is "spiritually revolutionary."
Of course, Bright and other religious leaders caution that one's motive for fasting must be to seek God alone, not simply to have a spiritual high.
Seeking God alone is a tradition and spiritual exercise many thousands of years old. Christian Scripture recounts that Jesus fasted 40 days in the wilderness to gird himself for his earthly ministry.
"Our whole life is a walk toward our Lord, that union with God in eternity," Colombiere said. "He is the first one that we seek and it is for him that we live."
Fasting can mean more than giving up food, said Michael Mata, director of the Urban Leadership Institute in Los Angeles. He said, "It has evolved to take on new nuances like fasting from television or going to the ball game. Giving up some activity and doing prayer or meditation, anything that helps center yourself to God."
Similarly, the reforms of the Second Vatican Council in the mid-1960s said that Catholics no longer need abstain from meat on Fridays, a point well received. What went largely unnoticed, some priests lament, is that the reforms also said Catholics who decide to eat meat must substitute another penance of their choosing.
Fasting, religious leaders stress, should not be a time for public display or for drawing attention to causes. It differs, for example, from a hunger strike by prisoners.
"Fasting is not to make you a great hero, but to make you more compassionate, more sensitive," said Rabbi Gilbert Kollin, a Conservative rabbi in Pasadena and president of the Southern California Board of Rabbis.
"Ultimately," he said, "you are pleading your case to God because you know you've got a bad one. [You are saying] don't judge me on the evidence. Judge me on my potential."

©Copyright 2000, Los Angeles Times

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Saturday, March 4, 2000 Fasting as a Spiritual Experience, Not as a Fashion Statement, Draws Growing Numbers of Adherents By LARRY B. STAMMER, MARGARET RAMIREZ, Times Staff Writers To feel good and look good, Americans spend millions each year on everything from tummy tucks to health club memberships.

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Interview about Buddhism Today (Vevay S)

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Interview about Buddhism Today (Vevay S)

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This talks about Buddhism and how it plays a role in peoples lives today.

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Stephen Batchelor talks to Buddhadharma deputy editor Koun Franz about the importance of study in Buddhist practice and the relevance of the Buddha's teachings to modern life.

Recently, I had the pleasure of interviewing Stephen Batchelor, author of Buddhism Without Beliefs, about the role of study in Buddhist practice. Often, it seems Buddhists fall into talking about two possible paths: that of the practitioner, and that of the scholar, as if there's no one path wide enough for both approaches. Batchelor bridges that gap, showing how practice opens up questions we can pursue with an attitude of curiosity-not just by going deeper into the practice but by investigating its foundations, the arguments against it, Western philosophy, psychology, and more, going wherever the questions may lead.
-Koun Franz
Koun Franz: I want to focus on the question of study and the role of study in relation to the Buddhist path. I know this is a kind of a big topic for you. What study is for you, what, how do you define that?

Stephen Batchelor: I think study in a dharma context has to do with arriving at a more fully-rounded and integrated understanding of the dharma, utilizing and valorizing both the reflective critical functions of our minds and our rational functions, which one seeks to bring into alignment, to support the formal, more contemplative practices, like shamatha-vipassana and so on.

Study is an integral part for me of what it means to arrive at a fully rounded comprehension of a particular theme or topic or insight of the dharma.

Study, for me, has always been an integral part of my practice. I find it hard to understand how someone could somehow dismiss it as irrelevant or missing the point. I hear people say things like, you know, "I don't need to study, I want to practice." The best response I've heard to that was when I was training as a Tibetan Buddhist monk, 30 or 40 years ago. We were doing a course, which was extremely dry, on Buddhist logic and syllogisms with an old Mongolian Lama called Geshe Ngawang Nyima. And one of the students at the end of the class said, "Why do we have to do all this study? Why can't we do more practice?" And he said, "If you really knew how to study, you would be practicing." That, to me, has always been my point of reference with regard to this question. Study - developing and refining one's critical faculty of reason - is an integral part for me of what it means to arrive at a fully rounded comprehension of a particular theme or topic or insight of the dharma.

KF: When you're working with a teacher, it's very clear what to study, because someone says, "Study this." But many of the people who read our magazines are a little more isolated. They're working out the practice for themselves. How do we know what to study?

SB: I think you have to follow your nose. If your meditation practice is something that leads to your asking certain kinds of questions - I would very much hope that it throws your sense of who you are, of what the world is, into question. As soon as we step back in meditation - whatever practice we're doing - it opens up a space whereby our habitual assumptions and beliefs and views and opinions are allowed to be questioned. As soon as such a questioning occurs, then you are embarking on a process that could entail what we call studying. For many people, that might involve reading books, it might involve listening to podcasts, it might involve actually attending courses online. There's an amazing amount of stuff that is now available.

You don't need a teacher to somehow say, "Okay, now we've covered this and these are the sort of issues you need to be clear about. And now we're going to go onto that." You're kind of thrown back on your own resources really. The key, to me, is being more and more clear about what other questions your practice is giving rise to that call for some kind of clarity and consonance and coherence within everything else you believe. A primary part of study is learning to bring your various insights - what you've learned from life itself, really - into alignment.

Something useful, particularly those in isolation, is to start writing down what you think, you know. It's sometimes quite interesting. You're on retreat, for example, you and you arrive at what feels to be a really new insight into something or other. Write it down. Articulate it. Spell it out. Set yourself a little project, like, describe this in a thousand words or five hundred words, and then start writing it out. As soon as you start writing, you get much closer to the actual logic of your thinking. What this often leads to is you realize that actually it's not as clear-cut and coherent as you thought. And also - and I find this again and again - by writing down what you think you understand, it leads you to places that you otherwise may not have reached.

I find again and again that the writing I do - which is my vocation really - is not just a transcription of my brilliant ideas. It's actually part of the learning process itself. It's through the writing that I push against the envelope of what I currently understand and the different sentences that unfold in a paragraph very often take me to something I hadn't really thought of before. And I don't think I would have done that just by doing a few more hours on the cushion. So, to me, the process of writing - or maybe writing poetry, maybe painting a picture, maybe giving articulate form to your practice - is a very integral part of making that practice become more and more lucid and clear in terms of what it reveals about yourself and others in the world.

KF: I love this exercise of asking people to write down what they know. Because I suspect that if we're honest that that list is pretty short.

SB: When we start analyzing what it is we think we know, it doesn't turn out to be as secure and certain as we might have imagined. But, at the same time, we hold lots of opinions and views, but they may not be registered consciously as opinions and views. So, study is a way of functioning as a kind of an internal critical investigation into your own assumptions - into your own views.

Buddhist teachers make all kinds of incredible claims. They talk about absolute truth, for example. Now, whoa, I think that could be looked at a little carefully. The language of Buddhist teaching often makes considerable metaphysical claims. "The ultimate nature of reality is emptiness." What does that mean? I mean, what's going on? Does that really make sense? How does that work within everything else I think?

KF: It also seems that another benefit of study is that you can be challenged by it. Especially if you're not working with a teacher. It's so easy to design a Buddhism that's made just for you - that perfectly suits your own preferences and tastes and worldview. We need something to interrupt that.

SB: This is very crucial. I think as one develops a relationship with the classical texts, in particular, the canonical texts in the different schools, you constantly find yourself exposed to ways of thinking that you either don't understand actually seems to contradict what you think. So, to me, the process of study is really being willing to engage in an ongoing conversation. I find that what I really value most in study is being able to engage in a dialogue with the textual tradition. When I read a Pali sutta, or The Record of Lin-chi, or something, it's not just that this is some objective bunch of data that I have to intellectually get to grips with; I find myself in dialogue with the Buddha or Sariputta or Lin-chi, or whoever it is. And it's that dialogic relationship to texts that I think is what drives the process of study forward - both in challenging your own views and, also, it can sometimes reveal inadequacies within the written texts as well. Ideas that perhaps were fine 2000 years ago, but nowadays we might not give such credence to. So, it's a two-way process. In traditional Tibetan training, this would be done through the process of debate, which I did for many years.

KF: I'm interested in the idea of debate. Debate hasn't found a lot of foothold in the West. I wonder if you have thoughts on how communities can establish a kind of space around that, where it's not just that people are arguing with each other, but they're taking up a debate intentionally as, as part of this process. How would people begin that and start to dig into the value of that?

SB: I think we first have to say a few things about how the tradition has utilized debate. We must be a little careful to think of Tibetan Buddhist debate in the Gelug school - where it mainly goes on - as a kind of Socratic, unconditional inquiry into what the hell is going on. It's actually more a training methodology to get clear about the logic of the tradition's own arguments. In other words, it's using logic and reason as a means to support your understanding of the doctrines. Ultimately, I think, it supports your faith. I think debate will only get you so far.

As a teacher today, I don't instruct people in debate. I think it would have limited value to transpose this tradition into English and to do it as the Tibetan Buddhists have done.

But, it's very common in Buddhism to assume that you have a lama or roshi or ajahn on a throne at the end of the room. And this person will sometimes speak for one or two hours without interruption, delivering the great truths of the dharma. And maybe it's a brilliant talk, but the audience is very often left passive, meant to just absorb all this stuff. There might be a few questions added on at the end. I think we have to really question that as the normative learning model that the Buddhist tradition has passed down to us. It's a very authoritarian model of learning. It somehow rests implicitly upon the insight, or the enlightenment, of the teacher. And the student is effectively supposed to just be a passive recipient of this knowledge. Of course, a lot of this knowledge is practical - the teacher is trying to get you to do something, but often the "do something" is to go and meditate more or to go and do good works in the community or whatever. I feel that there's a lot can be gained by challenging that learning model.

I feel it's really crucial to enable students to struggle with what's being taught to them so that they are forced to think more deeply with some of these ideas.

So, get the teacher to speak less. Instead of speaking for an hour, speak for 20 minutes - and I'm talking about myself as a teacher. I've started doing this more and more, and then immediately breaking up the room into little groups and go over this stuff. What have you understood from what's just been said? But more importantly, what don't you understand? What questions has this brought up? And then, after 20-30 minutes of doing that, you bring the questions back to the larger group as a way to feed back to the teacher and the fellow students how you're actually processing this material yourself. You're not just a recipient. You're an active learner. This kind of peer learning is a modern pedagogical tool that I think is probably just as effective as the traditional debate system. I feel it's really crucial to enable students to struggle with what's being taught to them so that they are forced to think more deeply with some of these ideas.

KF: I was just talking to a teacher the other day who described a system almost identical to what you just described. I wonder if we're moving in that direction. It's, it's an exciting direction, if so.

SB: Yeah, I kind of hope so. It's emerging. It's emerged fairly organically out of my own teaching work. But I have had a number of conversations with one friend who's an educational psychologist, working completely independently of Buddhism. That has been very helpful. I think the Western educational systems have really considered different modalities of learning and I can only see that our Buddhist traditions can gain from that.

KF: We've been talking about study primarily in terms of studying the dharma. Are there other fields of study that you feel are also critical to developing that worldview? In terms of science or history or of art - what place does that have in this conversation?

SB: I think it has a huge place in this conversation. I think there's often a risk in formal Buddhist educations. You're basically being enclosed within a circle of teachers, students, monks, and nuns, and the aim of the study is to get as good an understanding of your tradition's views and reasoning as you possibly can. That's all very well in your sangha, but it's probably going to be of limited value in how you actually embody and address these ideas in your everyday life. Most of us are probably not interacting with other Buddhists most of the time.

So, since I came back from India when I did my first training in the early seventies, my study of Buddhism has always gone side by side with the study of Western philosophy Western theology. I studied a lot of theology, psychology, science. To be quite honest, I read more non-Buddhist materials than Buddhist materials. At the moment, I'm reading an extraordinary book by Martin Hägglund, who's a professor of philosophy at Yale called This Life: Secular Faith and Spiritual Freedom. Remarkable book. I'm also reading I'm reading Seneca's Epistles to Lucilius. I think there's a lot to be gained by going back to the Greek Hellenistic traditions, which I think are very, very similar - lots of family resemblances to the Buddhist practices. The last two weekends, I was teaching with my colleague John peacock in Amsterdam and London. We didn't cite anybody's texts. We just worked with Lucretius and Epicurus and presented the dharma through them.

And also - and this can sometimes be more challenging for some Buddhists - is reading other what the other Buddhist traditions say, and to have a better understanding of how your own tradition is historically situated. Nowadays, in the West, we are unavoidably exposed to perspectives on Buddhism that are not going to be the same as ours. And yet they could be those of our friends living across the road. It's something we can't ignore anymore. We don't have the luxury of that geographical isolation that most Buddhist cultures have evolved in.

So, study - as we can see from this conversation - can take us everywhere. One might argue: Well, where do we draw the line? I mean, we can't study all of this stuff. We just don't have the time. We have specific things we really need to get to grips with. Again, my advice has to be, as I said earlier: follow your nose, see, see which ideas really grip you, and then see where they have their origin, see who else has spoken about them. Start to develop your own little journey through literature and books. And in doing so, I think you may find a great richness.

KF: Finally, can you tell us about Bodhi College?

SB: Yes, it's a European educational initiative, primarily focused on the study and the practice of what we call "Early Buddhism." In other words, going back primarily to the Pali and also some Chinese sources that preserve what the Buddha and his immediate disciples said and did two-and-a-half thousand years ago, trying to get back to these original texts before they mutated into the different forms that we now know of Buddhism. It's trying to get back to the Buddha before Buddhism - the dharma, before it became an Indian religion. So, Bodhi college offers a number of module-based courses.

We're small-scale. We have a small faculty. But we've been running now for four or five years and we're trying to very much engage with these ideas, not just out of historical interest - that is part of it - but particularly to ask ourselves: What do these primary Buddhist ideas have to say to our lives in the world today, in the secular world in which we live? How do they speak to our condition, now? How can we integrate and internalize some of these insights to make our lives flourish more fully in the non-Buddhist environment that many of us live in?

KF: Thank you.
Bodhi College held it's first Day of Celebration and Discovery in December 2019. Find recordings of the event, including dharma talks and debates, at the Bodhi College website.

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How Does Buddhism Speak to Us Today: An Interview with Stephen Batchelor

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Stephen Batchelor talks to Buddhadharma deputy editor Koun Franz about the importance of study in Buddhist practice and the relevance of the Buddha's teachings to modern life. Recently, I had the pleasure of interviewing Stephen Batchelor, author of Buddhism Without Beliefs, about the role of study in Buddhist practice.

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This article explains certain art and architecture especially this piece above. These are mosaic tiles decorating the ceiling of the pavilion in Iran. All Islamic art has circumstances and rituals that have led to it's creation.

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Pictured above: Mosaic tiles decorating the ceiling of the pavilion that stands over the tomb of the celebrated Persian poet, Hafez, located in Shiraz, Iran.

In a Washington Post article on the importance of teaching the history of art and architecture in the Islamic world, Professor Kishwar Rizvi observed: "We are not just surveying the form of buildings or noting their dates of construction; rather, we discuss their political circumstances and the rituals that gave life to them. Studying the architecture and culture of a society allows us to recognize the essential humanity in each other, even in those far removed by time and geography...while the Middle East today may be defined by war and strife, not long ago, it comprised great cities, home to poets, artists and craftsmen. And I want [my students] to know that these places are worth saving."

The following links connect educators to resources for teaching about Islamic art and architecture. These resources might be of particular interest to world history teachers eager to supplement historical narratives with visual content and to art history or AP art history teachers who are developing a unit on the the arts and culture of the Islamic world. Islamic art is rich in geometric designs, proportionality, and repeating patterns and thus teachers of math may find these materials useful in illustrating and reinforcing certain mathematical concepts.

Comprehensive Surveys and Overviews

Art of the Islamic World: A Resource for Educators - The Metropolitan Museum of Art's collection of Islamic art is one of the most important and comprehensive in the world. It comprises more than twelve thousand works of art created in a vast geographical area, stretching from Spain to India. This guide and the organization of the Museum's galleries emphasize the diversity of regional traditions and their cultural contexts, rather than presenting the art and culture of the Islamic world as a single monolithic entity dominated by religion. Learn about art and culture of the Islamic world and glean ideas for supporting studies of English language arts, math, science, social studies, world history, and visual arts. The Introduction and each of the seven units are available as downloadable PDFs.

Islamic Art and Culture: A Resource for Teachers - Produced by the National Gallery of Art, this booklet contains introductory material, slide descriptions, teaching suggestions, maps, a glossary, and resources.

Victoria and Albert Museum: Islamic Middle East Collection - A series of interlinked webpages showcasing the Victoria and Albert Museum's collection of Islamic artifiacts. Explore several subject hubs on Islamic Art & Design and Islamic Architecture as well as supplemental articles on calligraphy and textiles.

Islamic Art as an Educational Tool about the Teaching of Islam

Architecture

Archnet - A collaborative digital humanities project focused on Islamic architecture and the built environment of Muslim societies more generally. Conceptualized in 1998 and originally developed at the MIT School of Architecture and Planning in co-operation with the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, it has been maintained by the Aga Khan Documentation Center at MIT and the Aga Khan Trust for Culture since 2011. Educators will benefit from the Archnet Pedagogy Collection, which is designed to make well-crafted and practical resources publicly available for those teaching the subject of Islamic art and architecture.

Manuscripts and Calligraphy

How to Look at a Qur'an: Freer | Sackler Educator Resource - A short guide for educators to help them understand how artists, historians, and practicing Muslims understand the significance of a Qur'anic manuscript in different ways.

Lapis and Gold and Wondrous Words - Explore a Qur'anic manuscript by flipping through the pages and clicking on hotspots to learn more. The folios in "Lapis and Gold" contain the last fourteen chapters of the Qur'an. Completed in September 1517, this luxurious manuscript is a triumph of illumination and calligraphy that showcases the skill of artists at the Ottoman court. The folios in "Wondrous Words" are from a Qur'an commissioned by the Mongol ruler Uljaytu (reigned 1304-16) for his monumental tomb in Sultaniyya, which is in northwestern Iran.

Traces of the Calligrapher: Islamic Calligraphy in Practice 1600-1900 - This exhibition and its companion exhibition, Writing the Word of God: Calligraphy and the Qur'an, explore Islamic art's quintessential art form: calligraphy.

Art of Arabic Calligraphy

​Math and Islamic Art

Islamic Art and Geometric Design: Activities for Learning - The Metropolian Museum of Art has produced this activity booklet to help educators and students examine the principles of geometric design that are the basis for the beautiful and intricate patterns in the art of the Islamic world. This resource includes a brief overview of Islamic art, an introduction to related works in the Museum, and a series of pattern-making activities (including reproducible grids) for use in the classroom. Teachers can readily adapt these materials to create exciting lessons in art, culture, math, and geometry.

Common Core Math and Islamic Art - One of the skills highlighted in the Common Core State Standards for mathematics involves generating and analyzing patterns and pattern relationships. Islamic art made for a religious purpose or setting does not include images of people, and often focuses on intricate geometric designs. A close look at Islamic art provides an opportunity, not only for the reinforcement of these Common Core skills, but also for a glimpse inside this important culture.

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Pictured above: Mosaic tiles decorating the ceiling of the pavilion that stands over the tomb of the celebrated Persian poet, Hafez, located in Shiraz, Iran.

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Buddhist art and architecture plays an important role in their culture and also provides insight about their culture and history. It also details Indian culture and its influence on Buddhist art.

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Rama Navami is a famous Hindu festival celebrated on March 25th. It celebrates the birth of Lord Ram and marks the last day of Chaitra Navaratri.

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Latest News, Breaking News, LIVE News, Top News Headlines, Viral Video, Cricket LIVE, Sports, Entertainment, Business, Health, Lifestyle and Utility News | India.Com

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Rama Navami 2018: Know the Importance, Celebration and Complete Details Here

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This year, Rama Navami is celebrated on 25th March, Sunday. It is celebrated on the ninth day. - Rama Navami 2018: Why Is Rama Navami Celebrated? What Is Its Importance? Know Complete Details About Rama Navami

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This article lists the ten most common types of worship for Hinduism and how they worship in temples. A scripture is also shared; "If one offers me with love a leaf, fruit, flower, or water, I will accept it.” which shows their deep connection to nature.

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Within Hinduism, worship can include a wide range of practices and the boundaries between worship, service, glorification, etc. are not always distinct. Below we list ten principal acts of worship. Of these, the first two are most important. Keep in mind, though, that some traditions will differ. The Arya Samaj (see The Reform Movements), for example, places havan at the top of their list).

Some of these practices are performed individually and some congregationally - and many can be both. Additionally, all of them can be performed at home as well as in the temple.

Ten Types of Worship

1. Puja - ritual worship, especially of the deity

2. Arti - the greeting ceremony with lamps, etc.

3. Bhajan or Kirtan - hymns and chants (often during arti)

4. Darshan - taking audience of a deity or holy person

5. Prasad - offering and eating sacred food

6. Pravachan - talk or lecture on the scriptures

7. Havan - the sacred fire ceremony

8. Japa/Meditation/Prayer - internal practices of worship

9. Parikram/Pradakshina - circumambulation

10. Seva - active service, to the deity, holy people, etc.

Scriptural Passages

"If one offers me with love a leaf, fruit, flower, or water, I will accept it."

Lord Krishna in Bhagavad-gita 9.26

Visiting the temple

At about six in the morning, I do my own puja at home. Later, on my way to work, I briefly visit the temple for darshan. I ring the bell as I enter the temple room and pay my obeisance to the murtis. I say some prayers for God's protection and put a few coins in the donation box. I then sip some charanamrita (holy water) and one of the priests gives me some prasada [sanctified food].

On Sundays we sometimes go for the early morning arti at 4.30 a.m. After that we worship Tulsi by circumambulating her and having kirtan. Then I join the other devotees for japa meditation on our beads. Later, after the priests have dressed the deities in their day outfits, the curtains open and we greet them with a short arti. After this comes guru-puja, in which we offer flowers to the spiritual master.Then one of the priests sings a short bhajan and gives a lecture. Sometimes at the end I ask questions about spiritual life. After breakfast I do some service, often by helping set up for a wedding. During the wedding there is a sacred-fire ceremony.

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Within Hinduism, worship can include a wide range of practices and the boundaries between worship, service, glorification, etc. are not always distinct. Below we list ten principal acts of worship. Of these, the first two are most important. Keep in mind, though, that some traditions will differ.

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The Festival of Ridván celebrates the 12 days in 1863 when Bahá’u’lláh announced his mission as God's Messenger. The first, ninth, and twelfth days are the most holy. This article goes over the rituals on each of those days and also the rituals on some other holy days within the Baha'i Faith.

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This article is interesting because it goes in depth on different writings of Buddhism and varying perspectives held by authors. It helps show different opinions or beliefs on what Buddha´s journey means to different people.This writing gives direct quotes from Buddha and describes his journey step by step by weaving in different stories.

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If when my wife is sleeping
and the baby and Kathleen
are sleeping
and the sun is a flame-white disc
in silken mists
above shining trees,-
if I in my north room
dance naked, grotesquely
before my mirror
waving my shirt round my head
and singing softly to myself:
"I am lonely, lonely.
I was born to be lonely,
I am best so!"
If I admire my arms, my face,
my shoulders, flanks, buttocks
against the yellow drawn shades,-
Who shall say I am not
the happy genius of my household?
-- William Carlos Williams

Joseph Campbell, in his epochal book 'The Hero with a Thousand Faces,' emphasizes that the essential trait of a hero in the making is his restlessness. Not at ease with his immediate environment and circumstances, a constant unease gnaws at his heart, prompting him to question the very nature of his existence. This inner strife is the first inkling that a greater destiny lies ahead of the potential hero.

Campbell divides the evolution of the hero into five distinct phases:

1). The Call to Adventure
2). Crossing of the Threshold (Entering the Unknown)
3). Trials and Tribulations of the Journey
4). Attainment of Enlightenment
5). Return of the Hero

The Buddha's journey to spiritual awakening or 'Nirvana,' as it is popularly called, perfectly mirrors the above mentioned progressive development of a hero.

Gautam Buddha was born as Prince Siddhartha, in the lap of luxury. Exposed to an overdose of riches and comfort right from the beginning, the prince, while still relatively young, exhausted for himself the fields of fleshly joy, thus becoming ripe for a higher, transcendent experience.

The young prince remained glued to his pleasure chambers and had no contact with ground reality. His palace, and the sensual pleasures which it contained, were his only limiting worlds.

Once, after a particularly hectic schedule of sensual frenzy, Siddhartha was suddenly awakened from his blissful sleep, in the middle of the night. Surrounding him were the remnants of last night's debauchery and revelry. The sight of the shameless naked flesh and the overflowing wine pitchers jarred him into the unreality of his own reality. He felt suffocated in those very environs which had once given him what he thought were the pleasures of paradise. He immediately arose form his gold -gilded bed, descended the stairs and asked his favorite charioteer to take him to an open space where he could breathe more freely.

He had traveled only a few miles when he came across a sight which was totally new to him in terms of the distressing emotions it stirred up in the innermost depths of his heart.

Right in front of him was an old man, tottering on a stick, his physical frame entirely ravaged by the trials of time. Never having been exposed to such an image, Siddhartha asked his charioteer who that individual was, and why he was the way he was?

When he heard that the man had deteriorated due to his advancing age, the next natural question was whether he himself, Siddhartha, the prince of the mighty Shakya clan, and all those whom he loved would one day be exposed to the same degradation? Confronted with the truth, the reply completely shattered him, and he asked to be taken back to the comforting environs of the palace.

In the journey of the hero, a figure suddenly appears as a guide, marking a turning point in the biography . This symbolic figure is somehow profoundly familiar to the unconscious, but is unknown, and even frightening to the conscious self. Thereafter, even though the hero returns for a while to his familiar occupations, he finds them unfruitful. A continuing series of signs of increasing force will then become visible. According to Campbell, "The Four Signs," which appeared to the Buddha, are the most celebrated examples of the call to adventure in the literature of the world. These are signals from a higher domain, summons, which can no longer be denied.

Here it is also significant to note that being awakened in the midst of his blissful sleep was another call of destiny. Modern psychoanalysis has confirmed that when we are asleep, we travel to realms unavailable to our waking moments. These are the depths of our consciousness, which is but a part of the combined heritage of humanity. To quote the words of Jung, in a dream: "man is no longer a distinct individual but his mind widens out and merges into the mind of the mankind - not the conscious mind, but the unconscious mind of mankind, where we are all the same."

Jolted from his subliminal dream state, the immediate horror of his temporal circumstances made Siddhartha, the future Buddha, realize his own cutting of from this eternal dimension of life. Thus a feeling of rootlessness gripped him and he felt himself disjointed and lonely, even amongst the multitude of those who loved him. The hero's journey almost always begins with such a call.

According to Campbell, the moment the hero is ready for the destined adventure, the proper heralds, or callers to his destiny appear automatically, as if by divine design. We have already noticed the first such herald, namely the old man above. The Buddha later came across three more such signs: a sick man, a dead man and a monk.

His mind greatly agitated by the first three disturbing views, Buddha at last came upon his final call, when he laid his eyes upon the monk. The confident spiritual calm he perceived within the monk emboldened him to the fact that amidst the inevitability of suffering and distress, there was still ground for sufficient optimism, and salvation.

Thus the first stage of the mythological journey, which is the 'call to adventure,' signifies that destiny has summoned the hero, and transferred his spiritual center of gravity from within the pale of his society to a zone unknown.

Crossing of the Threshold (Entering the Unknown)
Your real duty
is to go away from the community
to find your bliss. Breaking out
is following your bliss pattern,
quitting the old place,
starting your hero journey,
following your bliss. You throw off yesterday
as the snake sheds its skin. Its by going down into the abyss
that we recover the treasures of
The hero feels off-center, and when one is off-center, it's time to go. The hero leaves a certain social situation, moves into his own loneliness and finds the jewel. This departure occurs when the hero feels something has been lost and goes to find it. It is the crossing of the threshold into a new life. It is a dangerous adventure, since one is moving out of the known into the unexplored, unknown sphere.

The disenchanted prince Siddhartha believed that he was setting out on an exciting adventure. He felt the lure of the 'wide open' road, and the shining, perfect state of 'homelessness.'

But even then, it was not easy enough for him to leave behind the structured space of his home for the untamed forests. Texts mention that before finally leaving his palace, he could not resist the temptation to take a last peek at his wife and son sleeping upstairs. But his resolve was strong enough to bear the emotional brunt of the separation. Not looking back again, he went directly to his destined quest.

Trials and Tribulations of the Journey

When he set about on his journey, the Buddha did not know what lay in store for him. What he did know was that:
The goal of life
is to make your heartbeat
match the beat of the universe,
to match your nature with Nature.
The joy of the hero's adventure lies in exploring the unknown, through which nature unfolds and reveals its hidden treasures. The Buddha too experimented with various unexplored avenues, before coming to the ultimate spiritual realization.

He first tried asceticism. Since he believed his disillusionment to stem from the cravings of his body, his first reaction was to negate it totally, even to the extent that he stopped eating. Consequently, his bones stuck out like a row of spindles, and when he touched his stomach, he could almost feel his spine. His hair fell out and his skin became withered. But all this was in vain. However severe his austerities, perhaps even because of them, the body still clamored for attention, and he was still plagued by lust and craving. In fact, he seemed more conscious of himself than ever. Finally, Buddha had to face the fact that asceticism had failed to redeem him. All he had achieved after this heroic assault upon his body was a prominent rib cage, and a dangerously weakened physique.

Nevertheless, Buddha was still optimistic. He was certain that it was possible for human beings to reach the final liberation of enlightenment. And at that very moment, when he seemed to have come to a dead end, the beginning of a new solution declared itself to him. He realized that instead of torturing our reluctant selves into the final release, we might be able to achieve it effortlessly and spontaneously, as Campbell says:
What you have to do,
you have to do with play. Opportunities
to find deeper powers
within ourselves
come when life
seems most challenging.
This was a momentous event in Buddha's journey towards herohood. Rather than relying upon external discourses or props, he awakened to the fact that he would have to delve into the infinite depths of his own inner being to come up with the Eternal Truth.

Having thus resolved, he accepted the bowl of milk-rice offered to him by Sujata, the milk-maiden.

After eating this nourishing dish, the texts tell us, he strode majestically towards the bodhi tree (tree of life), to make his last bid for liberation.

The tree of life is said to be standing at the axis of the cosmos, and is a common feature of salvation mythology. It is the place where the divine energies pour into the world, where humanity encounters the absolute, and becomes more fully itself. We need only recall the cross of Jesus, which according to Christian legend, stood on the same spot as the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil in the Garden of Eden. The hero as the incarnation of god is himself the navel or axis of the world, the umbilical point through which the energies of eternity break into time. More than a physical point, it is a psychological state which enables us to see the world and ourselves in perfect balance. Without this psychological stability and this correct orientation, enlightenment is not possible.

Hence, seated at the spiritual center of the world, Buddha dived into his own inner universe. As he sat in isolated meditation, the potential hero gave himself to the practice of mindfulness. This practice consists in observing, as a detached observer, all our activities: eating, drinking, chewing, tasting, defecating, walking, standing, sitting, sleeping, waking, speaking, and keeping silent.

He noticed the way ideas coursed through his mind and the constant stream of desires and irritations that could plague him in a brief half hour. He became 'mindful' of the way he responded to a sudden noise or a change in temperature, and saw how quickly even a tiny thing disturbed his peace of mind. This mindfulness was not cultivated in a spirit of neurotic inspection. Buddha had not put his humanity under the microscope in this way in order to castigate himself for his 'sins.' The purpose here is not to pounce on our failings, but becoming acquainted with the way human nature works in order to exploit its capacities. He had become convinced that the solution to the problem of suffering lay within himself and deliverance would come from the refinement of his own mundane nature, and so he needed to investigate it, and get to know it objectively. This could be achieved most effectively through extasis, a word that literally means 'to stand outside the self,' and which is the same as the practise of mindfulness.

As Buddha thus recorded his feelings, moment-by-moment, he became aware that the dukkha (suffering) of life was not confined to the major traumas of sickness, old age and death. It happened on a daily, even hourly basis, in all the minor disappointments, rejections, frustrations, and failures that befall us in the course of a single day. True, there was pleasure in life, but once he had subjected this to the merciless scrutiny of mindfulness, he noticed how often our satisfaction meant suffering for others. For example, the prosperity of one person usually depends upon the exclusion of somebody else, or when we get something that makes us happy, we immediately start to worry about losing it.

As Buddha observed the workings of his mind, he realized how one craving after another took possession of his heart. He noticed how human beings were ceaselessly yearning to become something else, go somewhere else, and acquire something they do not have. Blinded in our desires we almost never see things as they are in themselves, but our vision is colored by whether we want them or not, how we can get them, or how they can bring us profit. These petty cravings assail us hour-by-hour, minute-by-minute, so that we know no rest. We are constantly consumed and distracted by the compulsion to become something different than what we are at present.

'The world, whose very nature is to change, is constantly determined to become something else,' Buddha concluded. 'It is at the mercy of change, it is only happy when it is caught up in the process of change, but this love of change contains a measure of fear and insecurity, and this fear itself is dukkha.'

This constant changing whirlpool of dynamic flux characterizes our temporal existence and dominates it so thoroughly that we lose touch with the eternal essence of our lives, remaining subsumed only in the fleeting and passing moment of current time. Buddha realized that he just had to find that essential link in his inner being, which bound the transient to the eternal. Our existence is defined by our mortal self, and also an immortal divine spark underlying it. When we have found the bridge that links the two, we have attained salvation.

Brooding in this manner, Buddha finally was on the verge of enlightenment, when he was confronted by Mara, Buddha's shadow self, or the residual forces within him which still clung to the old ideals he was trying to transcend. Mara came out decked like a Chakravartin (World Ruler), seated on an elephant, and accompanied by a large army.

Mara's name means delusion. He symbolizes the ignorance which holds us back from enlightenment.

As a Chakravartin, he could only envisage a victory achieved by physical force. Mara thus was convinced that the spiritual throne, where Buddha was sitting, belonged rightfully to him. Accordingly he challenged Buddha to vacate the seat. But the Buddha only moved his hand to touch the ground with his fingertips, and thus bid the goddess Earth to bear witness to his right to be sitting where he was. She did so with a hundred thousand roars, so that the elephant of the antagonist fell upon its knees in obeisance to the rightful owner of the throne. The army was immediately dispersed and Mara vanquished.

The earth-witnessing posture, which shows Buddha touching the ground with his right hand is a favorite icon in Buddhist art .

It not only symbolizes his rejection of Mara's sterile machismo, but also emphasizes the profound point that it is the Buddha who is a true Chakravartin, since it is through the heart that a lasting empire is won, and not through the sword.

Attainment of Enlightenment

Having thus overcome Mara, Gautama crossed the final obstruction to his enlightenment, and won over to Buddhahood. He called this blissful state of immeasurable peace 'Nirvana.' Nirvana literally means blowing out or snuffing out (as a flame).

But Nirvana did not mean personal extinction: what had been snuffed out was not Gautama's personality, but the three fires of greed, hatred and delusion, which were once the basic impulses governing his behavior. Through his practice of mindfulness, Gautama had come to the conclusion that it was these three negative traits that were at the root of all suffering in the world.

The extinguishing of a flame is invariably followed by a certain coolness. It was this coolness that descended into Gautama's heart and permeated his each and every core. The permanent retention of this feeling is Nirvana, which is similar to the cooling experienced when recovering from a fever. Indeed in Buddha's time, the related adjective 'nirvuta,' was a term in daily use to describe a convalescent.

Return of the Hero

Having attained enlightenment, the hero-quest has been accomplished. The adventurer now has to decide what to do with his life-transmuting trophy. The full round or cycle of his adventure requires that he now start the process of bringing back to humanity the boon of illumination granted to him. This is the call which the mythical hero often refuses. The Buddha too doubted whether his message of realization could be communicated at all. It is in this context that he is given the title of Shakyamuni. Shakya derives from the fact that he was a descendent of the Shakya clan, and muni is aSanskrit word for silent. The message here is that Nirvana is something that could not be described in words.

The Buddha further thought that: 'If I taught the Dharma, people would not understand it and that would be exhausting and disappointing for me.'

But failing to heed the call to return is not fulfilling the complete requirements of the heroic cycle. It is a part of the hero's evolutionary destiny to knit together the world of higher spiritual bliss with the mundane world of everyday existence, as he had bridged together transient time and eternity.

At this crucial moment of uncertainty, the god Brahma intervened. Like Mara, he too was a projection of Buddha's subconscious mind, the only difference being that he was a positive projection.

Brahma requested Buddha to 'look down at the human race which is drowning in pain and to travel far and wide to save the world.' There was no way in which the compassionate Buddha could refuse this call. He understood that staying locked away in his personal Nirvana would be a negation of all that he had achieved, it would be like entering a new kind of pleasure palace, such as that of his father which he had left behind a long time back. The Buddha thus carefully listened to Brahma and gazed upon the world with his eyes full of compassion, realizing that the gates of Nirvana were wide open for all, and he was the destined instrument to lead humanity it.

The Buddha spent the next forty-five years of his life tramping tirelessly through the cities and towns of Northern India. Indeed there were no limits to his compassionate offensive.

Conclusion

The essential message of Buddha's life is that each of us (irrespective of sex or creed) is capable and deserving of Nirvana, having a potential Buddha hidden in us. Buddha was born an ordinary mortal. His path to fulfillment was not smooth and uneventful. Rather it was a journey full of exciting experiences and mistakes made. He learned from each of his mistakes, making it a springboard for all future, and finally the ultimate success. The day we realize and awaken the Buddha within, that would be our own Nirvana, which though personal, would bind us to all humanity like never before.

References and Further Reading

Armstrong, Karen. Buddha: London, 2000.

Bly, Robert, Hillman James, and Meade Michael. The Rag and Bone Shop of the Heart (Poems for Men): New York, 1992.

Cooper, J.C. An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Traditional Symbols: London, 1999.

Campbell, Joseph: The Hero with a Thousand Faces: London, 1993.

Menzies, Jackie. Buddha Radiant Awakening: Sydney, 2001.

Osbon, Diane K. A Joseph Campbell Companion (Reflections on the Art of Living): New York, 1991.

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If when my wife is sleeping and the baby and Kathleen are sleeping and the sun is a flame-white disc in silken mists above shining trees,- if I in my north room dance naked, grotesquely before my mirror waving my shirt round my head and singing softly to myself: "I am lonely, lonely.

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This website has an immense amount of interviews, talks, and teachings by Ram Dass, who has followed the Hindu path.

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Ram Dass has dedicated his life to reaching out & sharing teachings across the world. Offering a range of loving resources like podcasts, videos & blogs.

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This article explains the first Baha'i house of worship which was the "Mother Temple of Africa". This is essentially a meeting place for praying and meditation but also the social and educational needs of the people as well. It stands today as representation of the unity of Baha'i Faith.

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KAMPALA, Uganda - At a ceremony to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the Baha'i House of Worship here, Uganda's Chief Justice has praised the temple's continuing contribution to the unity of religion and social transformation.

"It is a reminder of what is to be put in place for a better future," the Honorable Mr. Benjamin J. Odoki told some 1000 visitors who gathered in Kampala last Saturday for festivities to mark the temple's golden jubilee.

"Celebrations such as this are a gracious reminder to us to count our blessings, to put God at the center of our lives, and to look at civilization as basically spiritual in nature," said Chief Justice Odoki, who was guest of honor at the event.

The first Baha'i House of Worship on the continent - known as the "Mother Temple of Africa" - was built between 1957 and 1960 on Kikaya Hill, three miles north of Kampala.

Chief Justice Odoki, who recalled that he was a student in the city when the temple opened, said that the House of Worship has had a "discernible impact on the lives of those who have been associated with it and those who have visited it."

"It has attracted, and brought in through its doors, the diversity of the kindred of the earth who have found spirituality inside it," he said.
A spiritual and social purpose
On 15 January, participants from some 18 countries - including a dozen African nations - gathered for a program of prayers and choral singing inside the House of Worship to mark the anniversary. Outside, visitors were given a taste of the various community building activities that the Baha'i community today offers.

"It is the combination of social welfare and acts of service that will regenerate the world," remarked Chief Justice Odoki, acknowledging the foundation of Baha'i schools "based on moral principles where children of different races and backgrounds have cultivated lasting relationships based on the principle of oneness of humanity."

The concept of the Baha'i House of Worship, as envisaged by Baha'u'llah, not only incorporates a central meeting place for prayer and meditation but, in time, a range of facilities to serve the social and educational needs of the surrounding population.

"Areas of education are very important," said the Chief Justice. "They are the foundation for development. This is a very important social obligation of the religious groups, to be able to uplift the people because of the abject poverty the communities face, including ignorance and disease."

The House of Worship provides a range of educational programs in its grounds including study circles for adults and youth, as well as several children's classes every Sunday.

"These are for everyone," remarked Aqsan Woldu, who lives close to the temple and often serves there. "One of the things the children learn in these classes is the presence of God. We have stories about the Messengers of God and what the attributes of God are and what we should develop. And beyond that we have songs, because music is food for the soul and everyone should sing and learn."

"In the future, I think the House of Worship will be the central point, the pivot," said Mr. Woldu, "and the surroundings will be these schools, a hospital, and so on. People will come up and say prayers at the House of Worship and then go back to their duties. This is a beautiful thing."
Religious unity
Robert Byenkya - another Ugandan attending the golden jubilee - noted how people of all ages benefit from the temple's programs. "They are welcome to enter and worship at their convenient time," he said. "Children, junior youth, the aged, people who are mature, they can come to be together."

When people of different faiths - Christians, Muslims and Baha'is among them - pray together at the House of Worship, there is a special atmosphere, added Mr. Woldu. "The temple plays a big role in that people who had some kind of prejudice towards other religions, when they come here, they see that we're all saying prayers from different Holy Scriptures. Once you are inside the House of Worship we are one in the name of God. And that just brings us together."

For the last fifty years, the temple's expansive gardens have also proven to be a popular place for visitors to rest and contemplate. "When its school time, you find a lot of students on the hill, reading," said Brenda Amonyin, who lives in Kampala. "Some people come and pray. They say their private prayers in the temple during the week days when the temple is open. Others come on Sundays."

Chief Justice Odoki particularly thanked the Baha'i community for maintaining the gardens. "They represent the spiritual purity to unite the world," he said.
"New heights of service"
In further comments, the Chief Justice expressed that he found it remarkable that the "Mother Temple of Africa" was built in Uganda.

"I am informed that the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith referred to Uganda as the spiritual heart of Africa," said Chief Justice Odoki. "This is very striking given that the heart is the vital organ that pumps blood to all other parts of the body."

"We should try to comprehend the significance of the institution of the temple and why it is a bounty to the African community in general," he said. "We should think about the world that is in turmoil and the role justice has to play in putting the affairs of the world in order and the importance of the role of the Baha'is in community building."

"It is my sincere expectation that you continue to exercise a positive influence on all those who come under this shadow," he told the gathering, "and guide humankind to new heights of service to the cause of unity and peace."

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Fifty years on, Uganda's Baha'i temple stands as a symbol of unity and progress | BWNS

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KAMPALA, Uganda - At a ceremony to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the Baha'i House of Worship here, Uganda's Chief Justice has praised the temple's continuing contribution to the unity of religion and social transformation. "It is a reminder of what is to be put in place for a better future," the Honorable Mr. Benjamin J.

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This article talks about several Baha'i artists who exhibit their work on Instagram, all of which is inspired by the Baha'i faith. I think this is really interesting because it brings this faith, which I had never heard about before this class, to mainstream media, allowing it to be accessible to many people to learn about.

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This details Christian festivals and tradition and a little bit of background on them. It also provides detail on how these holidays originated and why Christians celebrate them.

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A guide to Christian festivals and dates

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The Christian calendar is divided up by festivals and seasons. Some, like Christmas Day, happen on the same date every year, while others move around within...

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Onam is a 10 day long Hindu festival celebrated in Aug-Sep. This festival commemorates New Year's Day and is also a harvest festival. The legend of this festival comes from the story of King Mahabali’s devotion and selflessness. A young boy known as Vamana approached the King to ask for land, which would span three of his footsteps. This boy was actually Lord Vishnu disguised. His first two steps amassed the entire Earth and sky, and when he asked Mahabali where to place his third step, he offered his head. Recognizing Mahabali's selflessness, Lord Vishnu blessed him with passage to another world. This holiday leads up to the one day a year where Mahabali returns to his people on Earth.

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Onam is an annual Hindu festival, which usually falls between August - September, and is celebrated for ten days. In India's southern state of Kerala, Onam is considered the state festival. It commemorates New Year's Day and is also recognized as a harvest festival.

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This source is about the Week of Prayers for Christian Unity, which is one of the holy days/celebration in the religion. It is international and lasts for 8 days. Each year, a theme is chosen and it is adapted through different countries for the week of prayers.

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International Week of Prayer for Christian Unity

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The Week of Prayer for Christian Unity has a history of over 100 years , in which Christians around the world have taken part in an octave of prayer for visible...

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When worshiping and devoting yourself in Buddhism, the end goal is to essentially recollect and connect yourself to the Buddhas. Common devotional practices include, receiving a blessing, making merit, making offerings, making a resolution, etc. Even though not all acts of devotion are a path to enlightenment, they can be done considerably to prepare oneself to that path.

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Devotion, a central practice in Buddhism, refers to commitment to religious observances or to an object or person, and may be translated with Sanskrit or Pāli terms like saddhā, gārava or pūjā. Central to Buddhist devotion is the practice of Buddhānussati, the recollection of the inspiring qualities of the Buddha. Although buddhānussati was an important aspect of practice since Buddhism's early period, its importance was amplified with the arising of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Specifically, with Pure Land Buddhism, many forms of devotion were developed to recollect and connect with the celestial Buddhas, especially Amitābha.

Most Buddhists use ritual in pursuit of their spiritual aspirations. Common devotional practices are receiving a blessing, making merit, making a resolution, prostrating, making offerings, chanting traditional texts and pilgrimage. Moreover, many types of visualizations, recollections and mantras are used in Buddhist meditation in different traditions to devote oneself to a Buddha or a teacher. The often politically motivated practice of self-immolation is a less common aspect of devotion in some Buddhist communities.

Buddhist devotional practices can be performed at home or in a temple, in which images of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and enlightened disciples are located. Buddhist devotion is practiced more intensively on the observation days and on yearly festivals, which are different depending on region and tradition.

Head of a Buddha

The term devotion in the context of Buddhism is defined by Sri Lankan scholar Indumathie Karunaratna as "the fact or quality of being devoted to religious observances or a solemn dedication to an object or a person". It is covered in the Pali language by terms such as pema (affection), (faith or belief), pasāda (serene confidence), bhatti (faith) and gārava (respect). Pema is often used in the initial attraction a student feels for his spiritual teacher; saddhā is deeper, although still considered an initial step on the spiritual path. Saddhā and gārava might inspire a layperson to ordain as a monk, whereas saddhā and pema may help a devotee to attain a good afterlife destination. Bhatti in early Buddhism has the meaning of 'faithful adherence to the [Buddhist] religion', but in later texts, it develops the meaning of an advanced form of devotion.

Apart from these terms, the term pūjā is also used for expressions of "honor, worship and devotional attention". Pūjā is derived from the Vedic root pūj-, meaning 'to revere, to honor'. According to the Pāli Studies scholar M.M.J Marasinghe, in the Theravāda Pāli Canon, it did not have the meaning of ritual offering yet. It did include honoring through physical, verbal and mental ways. The term pūjā originated with Dravidian culture, in which it may have been used for a ritual or an element of ritual procedure, and these ritual connotations may have affected Buddhism at a later period. According to anthropologist William Tuladhar-Douglas, however, the root pūj- had a ritual meaning from the early Buddhist period.

Although in traditional texts devotional acts are sometimes not considered part of the path to enlightenment itself, they are considered a way to prepare oneself for the development of this path. Devotion is expressed through the three doors of action (body, speech and mind). It is regarded as a form of giving, which is done for both one's own benefit and that of the other. In many Buddhist societies, devotional practices are engaged in because of this-life benefits (healing, exorcism of malevolent spirits), because of karmic pursuits (accumulating good karma for the next lives to come) and because the devotee would like to attain Nirvana.

In early Buddhism, it was a common practice to recollect the qualities of the Buddha, known as buddhānussati. In the period of the arising of Mahāyāna Buddhism, there was a growing sense of loss in Buddhist communities with regard to the passing away of the Buddha, and a growing desire to be able to meet him again. These developments led to the arising of faith-based forms of Buddhism such as Pure Land Buddhism, in which the practice of buddhānussati involved celestial Buddhas such as the Amitābha Buddha. Devotional practices became commonplace, as new techniques were developed to recollect the qualities and magnificence of the celestial Buddhas, such as visualization and chants.

In Buddhist devotion the Triple Gem, that is the Buddha, his teaching (, ), and his community (, ) are mostly honored. However, this does not mean that deities have no role in Buddhist devotion: they do, but are usually put on a subordinate level with the Buddha at the top of the spiritual hierarchy. In some Buddhist societies, the devotional life has significantly been influenced by pre-Buddhist devotion to deities and spirits.

In modern times, Buddhist devotion has changed in many ways. Traditional days of observance can no longer be maintained in the same way due to the introduction of a seven-day workweek, and chants and other practices have been abridged or standardized to adapt to modern society. Goods offered in devotion have been commercialized. Nevertheless, devotional practices still continue to exist and evolve. Today, most Buddhists use ritual in pursuit of their spiritual aspirations.

Symbols for the Triple Gem have been used throughout Buddhist history, including the Wheel of the Dhamma.

Devotion to the Triple Gem is mostly expressed toward the Buddha image. However, other symbols have also been used throughout Buddhist history, including the lotus flower, the Wheel of the Dhamma, the Bodhi Tree and the stupa. Sometimes, devotees also pay honor to foot prints believed to have been left behind by Gautama Buddha or a previous Buddha.

Buddhism regards inner devotion as more important than outer ritual. However, devotion does have an important place in Buddhism. Devotion is developed through several practices, expressed through physical movement, speech, and mind. Buddhist devotion is not only direct to the Buddha, but also to the Buddha's teaching () and inanimate objects considered sacred such as (hemispherical structures containing relics) or Buddhist texts (). Sutras are Buddhist texts seen as the body of the Dharma or the body of the Buddha. An important idea in Buddhist devotional practice is that good qualities of mind can be developed by association with someone or something linked to high spiritual attainment. In Burmese Buddhism, devotion to the Buddha is seen to bear fruits, not because the Buddha is seen to respond to the devotion, but rather because of the spiritual power inherent in his words or relics, and because of the merit of the worship itself.

In Theravāda Buddhism, devotional ceremonies can be classified as ceremonies for making merit (doing good deeds, e.g. offerings to monks), ceremonies to ward off danger (e.g. chanting certain Buddhist texts) and ceremonies adapted from folk religion. Almost all lay practices are focused on making merit, and gaining a personal spiritual benefit is, therefore, an important part of Buddhist devotion.

In Mahāyāna Buddhism, it is common to combine several devotional practices in one three-fold or seven-fold ceremony. In the threefold ceremony, practitioners will confess their wrongdoings and rejoice in the goodness that others have done. Thirdly, either merits are dedicated to other living beings, or the Buddhas are requested to keep on teaching for the benefit of the world. In the seven-fold series, all four of these practices are also engaged in, plus an obeisance and an offering are given, and the Buddhas are requested to not yet leave the world to go to final Nirvana. These ceremonies, whether three- or sevenfold, often precede a meditation session. Several elevenfold series are also known, which also include going for refuge, upholding the five ethical precepts and reminding oneself of the aim of enlightenment for all living beings. The ceremonies are described in several Mahāyāna sūtras, among which the Avataṃsaka Sūtra and the Gandavyūha.

Replica of an image at the Sanchi gate at Chaitya Bhoomi, which shows a devotion scene involving a Buddhist stupa.

In Buddhism, ceremonies are meant to provide a blessing. A Buddhist practitioner may engage in devotional practices to ask for blessings from a Buddha or enlightened being. Monks and nuns are also believed to be able to convey spiritual power by giving a blessing (, ) through chanting, a blessed object or some other means. The spiritual power of monastics is considered to come from their ordination lineage and virtue. In expressing faith and devotion to a Buddha or other spiritually advanced being, devotees may also ask for repentance to help free themselves from the retribution of bad karma or as an exercise for self-improvement.

Sometimes a distinction is made between the direct, visible help a Buddha gave to a disciple, for example, by giving encouragement, and the hidden powers that a Buddha had and still has, which he also uses to help living beings. These hidden powers can refer to psychic powers, or it can also refer to the power gained when a practitioner invokes the Buddha's name.

Merit is an energy that can be accumulated through merit-making practices, often performed with people who are considered to have the spiritual power to give blessings, like monastics. This energy can also be directed at a goal chosen, through a resolve (, ) often made. Such a resolve may be focused on this-worldly goals such as health, intelligence, protection from harm, but also goals that are less mundane, such as rebirth in heaven, rebirth in a Pure Land, and enlightenment. Throughout history, these resolves have often been recorded on materials like stone.

It is also believed that merit can be transferred to other living beings to help them, or transferred to a deity, who is expected to help in return. Finally, it is believed merit can help to weaken the effects of bad karma.

Prostration is done as an expression of humility and an acknowledgement of the other's spiritual experience.

In Buddhism, prostration is performed in several situations. Buddhists may prostrate for images of Gotama Buddha, and in Mahāyāna Buddhism also to other Buddhas and bodhisattvas. Devotion towards bodhisattvas is focused on their compassion, their skill and extraordinary powers. Apart from that, lay devotees may prostrate for a stūpa or a Bodhi Tree (a tree of the same type that the Buddha became enlightened under), but also to a monastic, or sometimes a religious teacher of some kind. They may also prostrate to their parents or to their elders. Monastics will prostrate for a monk ordained earlier, but female monastics are expected to prostrate to all male monastics, regardless of date of ordination.

Prostration is done as an expression of humility and an acknowledgement of the other's spiritual experience. It is usually done three times, to pay respect to the Buddha, the Dharma and the Saṁgha. The prostration is done by holding the hands in front of the chest and bringing them to the different parts of the upper body, to indicate paying respect by the three gates of action, or to indicate the spiritual realization of the truth by a Buddha, realized through body, speech and mind. After that, one either bows with the elbows and head onto the ground, or by fully outstretching one's entire body. Apart from such threefold prostrations, prostrations may also be done continuously as a form of repentance, or as part of the ritual of circumambulating (walking around) a stūpa or other holy place . Finally, sometimes a pilgrimage is completely or partly done by prostrating oneself forward.

At a more basic level, respect may be shown by a gesture of clasped hands held against the chest () and raising the hands to one's head or chin, depending on the position and level of respect at which the other person is.

Buddhist offering incense to an image.

Another important practice is the giving of offerings ( pūjā) out of respect and humility to a Buddha image or other artifact. This is often combined with chanting. Buddhists may offer flowers as a symbol of growth, or incense to remind themselves of the "odor of sanctity" of the Buddha. Candles and lights may also be offered, symbolizing the dispelling of the darkness of ignorance. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, a set of seven offerings is often given, in which the first two offerings represent hospitality, and the other five the senses. Such an offering indicates respect through one's entire being, as represented by the five senses. When an offering is given in a temple, the devotees will normally take off their shoes, wash the object to be offered, approach the image or stūpa holding their hands in añjali and perform the actual offering, after which they prostrate.

The offering of flowers and other offerings and care that is given to a holy place are not only signs of respect, but they also are meant to change the environment of the devotee in a place where the Buddha would be at home.

Offerings given to the monastic community are also considered a form of devotion, and offerings of food are often given to the Buddha image first, after which offerings are given to the monks for their breakfast or mid-day meal.

Recitation of traditional texts is encouraged in many Buddhist traditions.

Recitation of traditional texts is encouraged in many Buddhist traditions. A very basic form that is very important is the recitation of Three Refuges, of which every phrase is repeated three times. This is called taking refuge, and it is done by a naming the Buddha, the Dharma and the Saṃgha as refuges. The or recollections can also be chanted, as well as a review of the five precepts. Protective chantings () are also widespread. Many forms of protective chanting exist in Buddhism, among which the well-known Karaṇīyamettā Sutta. Whereas some of these chants are used to ward of specific dangers, such as that during childbirth, or meant for specific occasions, such as weddings, others are considered to be beneficial in a more general sense. They are believed to affect only the life of the practitioner who recites them with a mind of faith. They are considered to bring benefits to mental health and well-being, and are a form of practicing loving-kindness in thought. Moreover, they are considered to speed up the fruits of good karma, please the devas (deities) and are expressions of the truth of the Buddha's teachings.

In Mahāyāna Buddhism mantras and are also used, which include the Heart Sutra and the mantra Om Maṇi Padme Hum. Dharanis are often summaries of teachings that function like mnemonic aids. Besides these, there are also chantings in homage to Amitābha in Pure Land Buddhism, chantings in homage to the Lotus Sutra in Nichiren Buddhism and chantings in homage of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara in East Asian and Tibetan Mahāyāna Buddhism. In Nichiren Buddhism, the Lotus Sūtra is honored through a seven-syllable mantra, the title of the sūtra, which is engraved on a plaque called the . This plaque is the central focus of Nichiren devotion, and chanting the mantra in honor of the sūtra is considered of great benefit to the practitioner. In Tibetan and other forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism, the name of Avalokiteśvara is called upon through the Om Maṇi Padme Hum mantra, which is done by using praying wheels, by printing the mantra on prayer flags and carving it on stones and other materials. But this mantra is not the only form of chanting which is preserved in ritual ways: other mantras and Buddhist verses are also kept in the form of tiny scrolls kept in ornaments, amulets and even tattoos.

Chanting of Buddhist texts is the most widespread mental cultivation practice for lay people. It is believed to help overcome hindrances and negative emotions in the mind and cultivate positive ones. Buddhist chants are reflections on the good spiritual qualities of the Three Refuges or an enlightened teacher, and aspirations of spiritual perfection. Furthermore, chanting texts is considered a way to manifest the healing power of the Buddhist teaching in the world, and to benefit and protect the nation and the world. In early Buddhism, recitation of texts was done mainly for its mnemonic purpose, in a time period when religious texts were not written down. Later on, even though writing became widespread, recitation was still continued out of devotion and to commit the teachings to memory out of respect. Some elements of chanting in Buddhism, such as the monotonous style, still indicate its original mnemonic nature.

Although much chanting is done in ancient ritual languages such as Sanskrit or Pali, chants in vernacular languages also exist. A common Pali chant starts with Namo tassa..., and is often chanted to introduce a ceremony. In many Buddhist traditions, prayer beads are used during the chanting. Apart from being a tool to count the number of recitations chanted, in some traditions, the beads are a symbol of the Buddhist faith. Moreover, in Pure Land Buddhism, the beads are a reminder of the Buddha Amitābha's greatness and one's own limited capacities compared to him.

Apart from chanting, in some traditions, offerings of music are given in honor of the Triple Gem, consisting of traditional music performed by specialists, or just the ritual music that accompanies the chanting. Recitation of texts need not always be in the form of ritual chanting: in Tibet, it is considered meritorious to invite monks to read from Buddhist texts, sometimes for days on end. Devotion can also be expressed in lofty forms of everyday speech, as in the verbs used when talking about a Buddha image in some Southeast Asian languages.

In many Buddhist traditions, faith is attributed an important role in the preparation process for meditation practice.[69]

In many Buddhist traditions, faith is attributed an important role in the preparation process for meditation practice. Faith is often mentioned hand-in-hand with moral discipline, which practitioners require to improve their mindfulness and energy. This mindfulness and energy will then help practitioners move forward in meditation practice, culminating in wisdom and understanding.

More specifically, in the Theravāda meditation manual called the Visuddhimagga, several personality types are distinguished, among them the faith type. Each personality type requires its own approach in meditation practice. People of the faith type have some similarities with the greedy personality type, but differ in that they cling to what is beneficial and wholesome. For this type, several are recommended, which means 'recollection of'. Examples are the recollection of the qualities of the Triple Gem, recollection of the benefits of moral discipline or giving, or reflection on the good qualities of devas. In texts such as the Visuddhimagga, devotion to the Triple Gem was developed into several forms of meditation: buddhānussati, dhammānusati and saṅghānusati, respectively. In these recollections, practitioners reflect on the attributes of the Triple Gem following the stock formulas found in many places in the Tipiṭaka, the early Pali scriptures. The recollection is believed to lead the practitioner to joy, inner peace and concentration. Sometimes practitioners internalize a Buddha image as a mental image used in meditation.

In Mahāyāna Buddhism, especially in Pure Land Buddhism, faith-based meditations can also be found: five recollections are used to remind oneself of the goodness of Amitābha Buddha. The first three represent body, speech and mind: practitioners honor Amitābha Buddha through physical action, e.g. by prostrating; through speech, by chanting in praise of him; and by resolving to be reborn with him in the Pure Land. The fourth recollection is a series of visualizations, similar to the faith-based meditations from the Visuddhimagga and descriptions in the Pāli Canon. In these visualizations, practitioners imagine Amitābha Buddha, the Pure Land, and after that, themselves being reborn there. The fifth "recollection" is the practice of skillful means to help others to achieve rebirth in the Pure Land as well. Apart from these visualizations, the chant in honor of Amitābha Buddha can also be recited in a meditative way, silently in one's mind or through the rhythm of one's breath. Pure Land meditations were also practiced in Tibetan Buddhism. Although there was less focus on Amitābha Buddha, some Nyingma masters did teach Amitābha visualizations. Furthermore, in Kagyu tradition a technique was taught which was believed to help cross over to a Pure Land at the time of death, called 'pho ba.

The Buddha Amitābha

There are also devotional visualization meditations in Tantric Buddhism, as can be found in Tibetan, Chinese, Korean and Japanese Buddhism. These practices differ from the Pure Land visualizations in that, apart from a Buddha, the teacher () is very important in the process, and a form of meditation directed towards the guru is also taught. Practitioners often take refuge in their spiritual teacher, who symbolizes the Triple Gem. Furthermore, they often take refuge in a (Tibetan), which Buddhist Studies scholar Peter Harvey translates as 'tutelary deity'. This can be a Buddha, a bodhisattva or a deity. By focusing on the exemplary aspects of one's teacher, who is also visualized in meditation, one develops faith in the practice. Furthermore, the practitioner needs to go through an initiation ritual, in which the guru transmits the knowledge on a particular yidam, and a mantra, visualization practice and sometimes ritual gestures that are appropriate for that deity. Unlike Pure Land visualizations, there are many deities to choose from. The mantra is regarded to express the nature of the yidam, and the gestures are considered to evoke the appropriate states of mind. Moreover, visualization techniques and mantra syllables are believed to actually evoke the deity recalled and incorporate the deity in one's being. Using these practices, the devotee is believed to be guided by the yidam to transform his faults, for example anger, to a "parallel kind of wisdom" (Harvey). When incorporating the yidam into one's being, the devotee is actively imitating the activities associated with that yidam, and this is believed to speed up the attainment of Buddhahood. There are several other tantric devotional meditation forms, including visualizing one's lineage of teachers and prostrating for them, and imagining one's teacher as a Buddha.

In Shingon Buddhism, a visualization meditation is often practiced called Ajikan. In this practice, done by both monastics and lay people, devotees invite the Mahāvairocana Buddha to attend the meditation, and visualize a letter A, as a mystical symbol of voidness and the origin of all existence.

Devotion can also be expressed through walking meditation, which is very clearly seen in the Pure Land tradition. Pure Land devotees may practice walking meditation continuously for ninety days on end. Devotees walk around an image of Amitābha Buddha, visualizing him and chanting his name: breaks are only taken for bodily functions. The practice was first proposed by the Chinese writer Shandao.

The Sanchi stūpa, a traditional pilgrimage place in India.

Pilgrimage has been described by scholars as the summit of all devotional practices in Buddhism. According to early texts, it is advocated by the Buddha himself. He suggests to pay respect to four places, that is, the place where he is born ( Lumbini), the place where he has first attained enlightenment ( Bodh Gaya), the place where he preached his first teaching ( Sarnath), and finally, the place where he attained his Final Nibbāna ( Kusinara). Indeed, to dispel any doubt about the usefulness of such pilgrimage, the Buddha states that he accepts in advance all gifts presented to memorial places such as or stūpas, and places of pilgrimage. Such offerings and pilgrimage are therefore considered just as fruitful after he has died, as when he was still alive. Pilgrimage to these four sites in India, especially to Bodh Gaya, has been popular in ancient times, and is now popular again, though on a much larger scale than before. Among the four sites, Bodh Gaya is considered by many to be the most important. The Buddha is believed to have realized the truth there that lies at the foundation of Buddhism.

According to early Buddhist scriptures, the Buddha himself recommends to go for pilgrimage to the place where he attained enlightenment, that is Bodh Gaya.

Other places were later added, particularly in other countries, where pilgrimage to the original sites would be daunting. In traditional Buddhist countries such as Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand, Bodhi trees, ancient relics and other holy places (like the cetiya) are also visited as part of pilgrimages. In 11th-century Japan, an institutional system was developed called Shugendō, in which various parts of Japan's geography came to be regarded as symbols of the Buddhist teaching, or to stand for certain bodhisattvas or important historical figures in Japanese Buddhism. Numerous pilgrimage routes were developed to honor these sites, as narratives about them were written down and monasteries and shrines were established on them. In Tibetan Buddhism, many pilgrimage guides have been written with practical instructions for the pilgrim, but also to describe the mystical vision which accompanies the pilgrimage. Buddhists might go on pilgrimage for several reasons: to gain merit, to remind themselves of the Buddha's life, to suffuse themselves with the spiritual power of the pilgrimage places and its artifacts, as a promise made to a bodhisatta in exchange for favors, to gain protection from devas that protect the pilgrimage places, or to bring harmony to their family. Furthermore, pilgrims might want to dedicate the good karma of the trip to their ill or deceased relatives. But often the pilgrimage is simply done to enjoy the nature or cultural settings, to escape city life, or out of nostalgia for the past. Just like pilgrimages in any other religion, the pilgrimage gives devotees the chance to remove themselves from their everyday social-economic position in society, and to become part of another kind of community, characterized by a new ambiguous status.

In some Buddhist countries, pilgrimages must be done on foot. Sometimes, pilgrims also perform ascetic or devotional practices such as having a cold bath as part of the visits, or prostrating along the path. Pilgrimages are sometimes done in certain periods, such as in Sri Lanka on days of observance or in certain seasons, and in Tibetan Buddhism as scheduled by a twelve-year cycle. Furthermore, in modern times, Buddhist pilgrimage has often been done as a political statement against certain regimes.

Examples of well-known pilgrimage sites are the Temple of the Tooth in Sri Lanka, the Shwe Dagon temple in Myanmar, Mount Wutai and Mount Tai in China, the Kumano Shrine in Japan, and the Bodnath Stūpa in Nepal.

Another form of devotional respect is to circumambulate three times around a Buddha image or holy place, keeping it to the right. Traditionally, it is recommended to do this clockwise, with the right shoulder facing the image or place, and if possible, bared. The holy place which is circumambulated can be a temple, a monastery, a mountain or a city. This custom is also symbolic for the sun moving around the central, cosmic mountain, and is practiced in groups at yearly festivals, as well as at funerals. It is usually performed on foot, but sometimes in a vehicle.

One practice that has been more controversial than most devotional practices in Buddhism, is the practice of self-immolation. In Buddhist teaching, the human body is regarded as without intrinsic value, but becomes valuable depending on how it is used. The practice of self-immolation is based on this idea, according to which "abandoning the body" in doing good deeds is regarded as a form of heroism. Although the practice seems to go against the Buddhist concept of the Middle Way, Buddhist teaching does emphasize dealing with the natural urges of the body.

Self-immolation of Thích Quảng Đức during the Buddhist crisis in Vietnam.

The practice became more common in China during the fourth until the tenth century CE, with Japan following suit, in the Kamakura Period. The practice was first described in the twenty-third chapter of the Lotus Sūtra, in which the bodhisattva Bhaiṣajyarāja set his own body on fire as a supreme offering to a Buddha. Apart from these Indian origins, the practice may have been preceded by indigenous practices to conjure up rain. Regarded by some as a highly developed form of doing good (), devotees burnt parts of their body, such as an arm or a finger, in honor of the sūtra, or hoping to be reborn in a Pure Land. Burning oneself fully as an act of devotion, also known as auto-cremation, was a highly respected practice in China at the time, and was often organized as a public event, attended by emperors and officials.

During the Vietnam War, Buddhist monks used self-immolation as a way to express political dissent. When the monk Thich Quang Duc performed self-immolation in 1963, this was widely featured in international press reports. This contributed to the US government eventually withdrawing from supporting President Diem, who suppressed Buddhism.

Self-immolation became more and more subject of criticism from the eight century CE onward, from Confucianists, state officials and also from Buddhist monks themselves. In the 21st century CE, the practice has become uncommon. Nevertheless, up until the 1990s and 2000s, Vietnamese monks were still reported to practice self-immolation, and Chinese and Korean monks still offered their fingers, burning them.

Sign adorning the grand entrance of the Buddha Tooth Relic Temple in Singapore.

Although almost all devotional practices can be done in one's own home, it is custom to meet in the local temple on festivals and days of observance. Buddhist temples often contain dormitories for monastics, who meditate and study there, and lead devotional practices at the temple. Theravāda, Chan and Zen Buddhist temples usually only have an image of Gautama Buddha in the main room, perhaps combined with images of his close disciples Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana. In Mahāyāna Buddhist temples, more diversity can be found, including different heavenly Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and sometimes a series of disciples (disciples that have achieved personal enlightenment). The Buddhist temple usually contains a room for meetings, meditations or preaching, and may contain a stūpa with relics or Buddhist texts, or a Bodhi tree. This type of room in a temple is called the buddhavasa, or the 'Buddha's dwelling place', whereas the dormitories for monastics are called sanghavasa, or the 'Sangha's dwelling place'. In Chinese, Japanese and Korean temples, the room with stūpas and relics is often a separate hall from the teaching hall, and there is usually a separate hall with Buddha images as well. In modern Mahāyāna temples in the West, however, the temple's structure is often simplified. Last of all, in Vajrayāna temples, iconic devotional paintings called can be found, as well as , which picture Vajrayāna cosmology.

It is common in Buddhist temples to take off one's shoes or change them.

Stūpas and Buddha images may be donated by a single supporter, or by a community of devotees, motivated by merit-making motives. In most Buddhist traditions, Buddha images are regarded as more than just representations, but as actually imbued with a spiritual power connected to the Three Refuges and the faith of the devotee, as reflected in consecration ceremonies and legendary accounts. Similarly, relics are also widely honored, because they are seen as an embodiment of the Buddha. Believed by some scholars to be a Buddhist invention, devotion to relics brings Buddhism from a distant age and place closer to home. Also, some Buddhists believe the relics have supernatural abilities, such as the ability to reproduce themselves. Temples with well-known relics such as the Temple of the Tooth in Sri Lanka are worshipped by thousands of people per day, and well-known relics often provide both the religion as the region with a cultural identity. The stūpas that contain the relics are not just honored for the relics, however; by some Buddhists they are also seen as symbolizing the state of enlightenment.

Buddhist temples may be built in a place deemed sacred following the principles of the country's sacred geography, geomancy or because of a pilgrimage route.

It is common in Buddhist temples to take off one's shoes or change them. In ancient times, shoes were a status symbol and taking them off was, therefore, an expression of humility. It might also have been done to keep the temple grounds clean. Another custom is to put the Buddha image on the highest spot in the room, and devotees will prevent raising their head higher than the image or point their feet at the image.

Vesak ceremony held in Borobudur, Indonesia.

All Buddhist traditions have festivals, during which devotion is practiced. Many of these are Buddhist in origin, others are a response to pre-Buddhist cultural traditions, the agricultural year cycle, certain national deities, or important events in the local history. In many Theravāda countries, the traditional New Year is celebrated mid-year, during which certain Buddhist customs are observed. This includes ceremonies for reflection on misdeeds and resolving to do good, and release of animals. Other important festivals are Vesak, Asalha Puja, the Pavāraṇa Day and Kaṭhina. Vesak is the day that celebrates the birth, enlightenment and final enlightenment (after death) of the Buddha Gautama. In some countries, however, these three events are celebrated as separate days.

In East Asian countries, many of these festivals are also celebrated, but other festivals with pre-Buddhist origins are held as well, combined with Buddhist elements. An example of this is the Ghost Festival, on which is recollected that Maudgalyāyana Sthavira dedicated good karma to his deceased mother, out of gratitude to her. This festival was a response to Confucian ideals of filial piety. Some Buddhist festivals honor a certain Dharma text. For example, the Thai festival of Thet Mahachat is dedicated to the recitation of the Vessantara Jātaka, a story about kingship and merit-making.

Apart from festivals, in Theravāda Buddhism, there are also observance days () following the ancient Indian lunar calendar. days are observed by the more strict devotees, who will go to their local temple to give food, take upon themselves the five or eight precepts, listen to teachings and meditate. In other traditions, there are also monthly or bimonthly, weekly or daily observances. Moreover, the monastic rains retreat ( vassa) is for many devotees a time to focus more on chanting and meditation.

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Devotion, a central practice in Buddhism, refers to commitment to religious observances or to an object or person, and may be translated with Sanskrit or Pāli terms like saddhā, gārava or pūjā. Central to Buddhist devotion is the practice of Buddhānussati , the recollection of the inspiring qualities of the Buddha.

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What does the Bible say about homosexuality? (Vevay S)

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What does the Bible say about homosexuality? (Vevay S)

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This article talks about what the Bible says about homosexuality, and the different interpretations people can take from the Bible.

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What Does the Bible Say About Homosexuality?

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The Bible says nothing about ‘homosexuality’ as an innate dimension of personality. Sexual orientation was not understood in biblical times.

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Ramadan is an important celebration that happens in the ninth month in the Islamic calendar. Observing the fast during Ramadan is considered one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Muslims will have an early morning meal before dawn, and later they break their fast after sunset for the evening meal. Ramadan is also a time when Muslims are encouraged to give to charity, strengthen their relationship with God and show kindness and patience.

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What is Eid and what is the difference between Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha?

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Millions of Muslims in the UK and around the world are preparing to celebrate Eid al-Adha.

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Jacqueline Claire lives a Baha'i life. She is an artist and she made the 19 days of Inspiration where she would email out a passage from the Writings and her own art piece with the story behind it each day of the Fast.

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Jacqueline Claire’s Soul-Nourishing Artworks | Baha’i Blog

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Every morning of the Fast I received an email from the talented and jubilant Jacqueline Claire (you may remember her as the author of “My 9 Tips for Creating Imaginative Spaces for Elevated Conversation” or “My 9 Practices for a Spiritually Restorative Nineteen Day Feast”). Each email was part of a…

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This article describes the devotional importance of storytelling to the Baha'i faith, and interestingly compares the value of these parables to Native American stories. It would be really cool to compare and contrast Baha'i parables to Native American ones, and talk about the importance to each religion/culture.

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Bahá’í Storytelling as Both Art & Worship — Baha’i Storytelling

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Bahá’í Storytelling as Both Art & Worship

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This article broadly covers Buddhist art, going over what it is, as well as the symbolism connected to each piece. The article is also split by the art in the region, including Buddhist art in China, Japan, India, and more.

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Most Buddhist art consists of depictions of Buddha, usually in statue from and to lesser extent in murals, frescoes and other paintings. The way in which Buddha is depicted often says more about the culture that created it than about Buddhism itself. There are lots of symbols and codes in Buddhist art.

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An inscription of a peacock with flowers in the back woven by Gentile Bellini for Sultan Ahmed 1.

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This article lists and goes into detail about several iconic Islamic artworks and architectures located around the world. It also explains how very little Islamic art forms use the depiction of people, and focus more intensely on geometric shapes, to define how people are less significant than the mathematical and geometrical rules of the universe.

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Pictured above: Mosaic tiles decorating the ceiling of the pavilion that stands over the tomb of the celebrated Persian poet, Hafez, located in Shiraz, Iran.

In a Washington Post article on the importance of teaching the history of art and architecture in the Islamic world, Professor Kishwar Rizvi observed: "We are not just surveying the form of buildings or noting their dates of construction; rather, we discuss their political circumstances and the rituals that gave life to them. Studying the architecture and culture of a society allows us to recognize the essential humanity in each other, even in those far removed by time and geography...while the Middle East today may be defined by war and strife, not long ago, it comprised great cities, home to poets, artists and craftsmen. And I want [my students] to know that these places are worth saving."

The following links connect educators to resources for teaching about Islamic art and architecture. These resources might be of particular interest to world history teachers eager to supplement historical narratives with visual content and to art history or AP art history teachers who are developing a unit on the the arts and culture of the Islamic world. Islamic art is rich in geometric designs, proportionality, and repeating patterns and thus teachers of math may find these materials useful in illustrating and reinforcing certain mathematical concepts.

Comprehensive Surveys and Overviews

Art of the Islamic World: A Resource for Educators - The Metropolitan Museum of Art's collection of Islamic art is one of the most important and comprehensive in the world. It comprises more than twelve thousand works of art created in a vast geographical area, stretching from Spain to India. This guide and the organization of the Museum's galleries emphasize the diversity of regional traditions and their cultural contexts, rather than presenting the art and culture of the Islamic world as a single monolithic entity dominated by religion. Learn about art and culture of the Islamic world and glean ideas for supporting studies of English language arts, math, science, social studies, world history, and visual arts. The Introduction and each of the seven units are available as downloadable PDFs.

Islamic Art and Culture: A Resource for Teachers - Produced by the National Gallery of Art, this booklet contains introductory material, slide descriptions, teaching suggestions, maps, a glossary, and resources.

Victoria and Albert Museum: Islamic Middle East Collection - A series of interlinked webpages showcasing the Victoria and Albert Museum's collection of Islamic artifiacts. Explore several subject hubs on Islamic Art & Design and Islamic Architecture as well as supplemental articles on calligraphy and textiles.

Islamic Art as an Educational Tool about the Teaching of Islam

Architecture

Archnet - A collaborative digital humanities project focused on Islamic architecture and the built environment of Muslim societies more generally. Conceptualized in 1998 and originally developed at the MIT School of Architecture and Planning in co-operation with the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, it has been maintained by the Aga Khan Documentation Center at MIT and the Aga Khan Trust for Culture since 2011. Educators will benefit from the Archnet Pedagogy Collection, which is designed to make well-crafted and practical resources publicly available for those teaching the subject of Islamic art and architecture.

Manuscripts and Calligraphy

How to Look at a Qur'an: Freer | Sackler Educator Resource - A short guide for educators to help them understand how artists, historians, and practicing Muslims understand the significance of a Qur'anic manuscript in different ways.

Lapis and Gold and Wondrous Words - Explore a Qur'anic manuscript by flipping through the pages and clicking on hotspots to learn more. The folios in "Lapis and Gold" contain the last fourteen chapters of the Qur'an. Completed in September 1517, this luxurious manuscript is a triumph of illumination and calligraphy that showcases the skill of artists at the Ottoman court. The folios in "Wondrous Words" are from a Qur'an commissioned by the Mongol ruler Uljaytu (reigned 1304-16) for his monumental tomb in Sultaniyya, which is in northwestern Iran.

Traces of the Calligrapher: Islamic Calligraphy in Practice 1600-1900 - This exhibition and its companion exhibition, Writing the Word of God: Calligraphy and the Qur'an, explore Islamic art's quintessential art form: calligraphy.

Art of Arabic Calligraphy

​Math and Islamic Art

Islamic Art and Geometric Design: Activities for Learning - The Metropolian Museum of Art has produced this activity booklet to help educators and students examine the principles of geometric design that are the basis for the beautiful and intricate patterns in the art of the Islamic world. This resource includes a brief overview of Islamic art, an introduction to related works in the Museum, and a series of pattern-making activities (including reproducible grids) for use in the classroom. Teachers can readily adapt these materials to create exciting lessons in art, culture, math, and geometry.

Common Core Math and Islamic Art - One of the skills highlighted in the Common Core State Standards for mathematics involves generating and analyzing patterns and pattern relationships. Islamic art made for a religious purpose or setting does not include images of people, and often focuses on intricate geometric designs. A close look at Islamic art provides an opportunity, not only for the reinforcement of these Common Core skills, but also for a glimpse inside this important culture.

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Pictured above: Mosaic tiles decorating the ceiling of the pavilion that stands over the tomb of the celebrated Persian poet, Hafez, located in Shiraz, Iran.

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This article discusses the experiences of Baha'is living in Iran. It focuses in on the opression and discrimination they face as "ethnic insiders and religious outsiders in their home country." It also talks about how the discrimination is to the extent of an attempted genocide, but the international community has done little to combat it.

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Introduction

Members of the Baha'í faith in Iran have been ongoing targets of systematic oppression, persecution, and extreme hate since the religion was founded in 1844. As a consequence of this persecution, there exists a significant diaspora community of Iranian Baha'ís outside of Iran. Despite this large diaspora, Baha'ís remain a thoroughly underexplored population in the field of hate studies, in addition to being neglected in many other fields as well.

Drawing on fifty in-depth interviews with Iranian Baha'í refugees in the United States, my research identifies and explores three ways that members of this religious community responded to their persecution: 1) passing as Muslim, 2) religious constancy in the face of danger, and 3) alternating passing with open displays.

Treatment of Baha'ís in Iran

One of the main teachings of the Baha'í faith is the oneness of mankind through unity in diversity. It also teaches the equality of women and men, the underlying unity of religions, and the need to eliminate prejudices of all types. This religion strongly promotes the need for universal peace and the importance of human rights (Cameron & Danesh, 2008). The Baha'í world community has been very involved with the United Nations as well as several NGOs around the world in order to promote human rights and peace globally (Baha'í World News Service, 2004; IHRDC, 2006).

Despite the Baha'ís peaceful teachings, the Islamic leaders of Iran see them as a threat to Islam and have systematically discriminated against them (Baha'í World News Service, 2004; Hassan, 2007; Rehman, 2019). The issue lies in the fact that the Baha'í faith was founded after Islam, thus clashing with the Shi'a interpretation of Islam that a 12 th Imám named the "seal" will return. The Baha'ís believe that this 12 th Imám has already returned and was not "a seal" but rather "a gate" to a new era-the start of the Baha'í religion (the Arabic word contains both definitions) (Buck, 2003; Handal, 2007; IHRDC, 2006). For this reason, the faith is rejected by the Muslim clergy and leadership in Iran and Baha'ís are considered heretics. Baha'ís are considered to have converted out of Islam, which is punishable by the death penalty in Iran (Schirrmacher, 2009).

Besides attacking members of this community, the Islamic leaders also destroyed many of the buildings and ancient sites that survived the previous attacks preceding the revolution. Many more houses were torn down and grave yards were dug up. These actions were a continued effort of destroying the physical history of the Baha'i faith without attracting too much international attention and criticism (Baha'i World News Service, 2004).

Between 1978 and 1998 over 200 Baha'ís have been killed in Iran (Baha'ís of the United States, 2009; Rehman, 2019). Most of these deaths were through execution. However, in the same time frame, thousands have been imprisoned or otherwise persecuted exclusively due to their membership in the Baha'í faith (Baha'ís of the United States, 2009). Accurate data for deaths since 1998 is not available. A special U.N. report from 2012 found that close to 500 Baha'ís have been arrested between 2004 and 2011 (Kaussler, 2012).

Rehman, the United Nations' Human Rights Council Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human rights in Iran, reported that since 2005 more than 1,168 Baha'ís had been arrested and charged with "vaguely worded offences," since 2013 there had been over 800 violations of economic rights, and that in 2019 "the court of appeal of Isfahan reportedly condemned, in separate judgments, nine Baha'i citizens to a total of 48 years of prison. They had been charged with 'membership of the illegal Baha'i community and propaganda against the regime by spreading the Baha'i faith in the society' (Rehman, 2019: 14).

International Responses to the Treatment of Baha'ís in Iran

For nearly 20 years, from 1982 to 2001, the United Nations Commission on Human Rights passed a resolution opposing the overall human rights situation in Iran, as well as the persecution of Baha'ís, specifically (Buck, 2003). However, little has been done to prevent injustices from happening. There have been many more recent human rights violations, including the arrests of the seven Baha'í leaders (and their sentencing), as well as the arrests of 50 youth who were volunteering with a non-profit organization to teach non-religious subjects such as math and English to underprivileged children in Shiraz (Affolter, 2005; BBC, 2008; Buck, 2003; HRW, 2006; USDS, 2008).

Several scholars have marked the situation of Baha'ís as fitting the U.N. definition for genocide and suggest that even if the numbers of those dead does not yet compare to those of other genocides, Iran clearly intends to eliminate this group and is currently conducting an ideological genocide (Affolter, 2005). Some have argued that the treatment of Baha'ís is a case of attempted genocide and questioned why the international community has not acted more forcefully to end their persecution in Iran. For example, while Harff and Gurr (1988) differentiate between genocides and politicides and classify the persecution of Baha'ís as a politicide-defined as "mass murders targeted at political parties" (p. 363), when evaluating their criteria, and recognizing Baha'ís more accurately as a religious rather than political group, the more appropriate classification would be xenophobic genocide-defined as 'mass murders of ethnically, religiously, or nationally distinct groups' (p. 363). Despite this clear evidence, Iran has not been charged with crimes against humanity.

In the absence of any kind of meaningful international response that results in the change of the treatment of Baha'ís in Iran, members of this community have been left to develop their own survival strategies in the oppressive, violent, and hateful environment they face. As described in the findings section, members of this religious community tended to use one of three strategies in response to their oppression and persecution-passing as Muslim (while internally holding on to their Baha'í faith), religious constancy or open displays, and wavering between the two dependent on the context.

Methods

The sample population for this research consists of a snowball sample of 50 first generation Iranian immigrants in the United States who are members of Baha'í families. This includes 29 women and 21 men, ranging from 18-83 years old. Thirty-eight percent of the sample lived in Washington, 38% in Colorado, 14% in the Bay Area and 10% in New Mexico at the time of the interview. Their time of arrival in the United States varied from as recently as six months prior to the interviews to before the 1979 revolution in Iran. Their persecution histories also varied greatly, but all have experienced at least some level of consistent oppression while living in Iran due to their religion. Due to the potential risk to family members remaining in Iran should the identities of interviewees be uncovered, I worked to de-identify the data as best as possible. In addition to the use of pseudonyms, I only present demographic information in aggregate form as part of the protective measures taken.

The data were collected from 2010-2014, using semi-structured in-depth interviews. The use of semi-structured interview protocols allowed for flexibility in adapting the questions to follow a more natural conversation flow rather than a strict and set path which is vital to building rapport with participants (Baca Zinn, 2001; Marshall and Rossman, 2006). This approach also allowed for additional unanticipated information to be shared by the interviewees making the collected data more comprehensive and reflective of their experience. The interview schedule included questions concerning the experience of discrimination in Iran, the challenges of emigration, the importance of religious observance, and the survivors' views on the significance of religious preservation and retaining the memory of trauma within the family.

When conducting qualitative research, it is important to be cautious about the possible impact of the researchers' personal biographies on the research (Lofland & Lofland, 1995). Interviewing survivors of religious persecution requires a great deal of sensitivity, and I worked to minimize the impact of my presence on the interview process as best as possible. Differences between the characteristics of the researcher and research participants can create difficulties in gathering rich data (Lofland & Lofland, 1995). Being an insider as a first generation immigrant and Iranian Baha'í was very beneficial for me as a researcher in this process (Baca Zinn, 2001).

I believe that, most importantly, my insider status facilitated trust building with the respondents. Living in Iran was associated with constant risk of exposure and persecution. Metaphors describing living in Iran as "living as sheep among wolves in sheep's clothing" was a common sentiment among the interviewees. Many Baha'ís in Iran were socially isolated and only socialized with other Baha'ís. Individuals and families became connected through informal social networks within the Baha'í communities. These social networks were considered to be safe and trustworthy. As soon as potential interviewees learned that I was also a Baha'í, they trusted that it was safe to speak with me. As with interviews in general, I often found that this trust grew throughout the interview process as the respondents became more and more comfortable sharing their stories and they realized that I fully believed them. My membership in their community, even if through distant networks, meant I was "safe" and did not have a hidden agenda. My intentions as a researcher and my commitment to keeping their involvement in the research confidential was trusted based on my being a Baha'í and therefore being someone who understands the risks involved.

My fluency in both English and Farsi allowed me to conduct the interviews in the language most comfortable to the participants, many of whom preferred to conduct the interviews in Farsi or a mix of Farsi and English. This option proved especially vital in interviewing these first generation immigrants, given the large variation in length of time since their arrival in the United States, as well as their English-speaking ability. Most of the interviews were conducted with a mix of English and Farsi, but 70% were conducted primarily in English and 30% primarily in Farsi. Further, 78% percent of the interviews were conducted face to face and 20% were completed with the assistance of a video chat. Only one interview was conducted over the phone because the interviewee did not have the computer skills to use a video chat.

At the time of the interview, participants were asked to sign an informed consent form and I stressed the voluntary nature of the interview and ensured that the participants understood that they could decline to answer any question or stop the interview all together at any point during the interview. All of the interviews were conducted in interviewee's homes, private work offices or in a private room at a public library. With permission of the participants, all of the interviews were tape-recorded. The interviews lasted between 45 minutes to 6 hours with an average length of two hours. Following data collection, the interviews were coded and analyzed.

Data analysis took place in several phases. First, the interviews were translated, if necessary, and transcribed verbatim. During the transcription process all names from interviews were replaced with pseudonyms. Upon transcription, the data were coded in multiple stages, including line-by-line coding of several interviews to create a general coding scheme, which was used on all transcripts-adding new concepts and themes when needed. The concepts were eventually analyzed into a theoretical framework to describe the relationship among the discovered categories (Charmaz, 2001; Lofland & Lofland, 1995).

Overall, this research was based on a modified grounded theory approach (Charmaz, 2001; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). I conducted some literature review during the design phase of this study but limited it to a general understanding of the gaps in the existing literature. Further, because of the dearth of research on Iranian Baha'ís, most of this research focused on the experiences of persecution and exile of other populations. After the design phase of the project, I refrained from further engagement with the existing literature until after the data analysis phase was concluded. Initially, I drew on my own experiences in the design stages of this study. My analysis, however, revealed findings that both confirmed my perceptions and also others that were completely different from my initial expectations.

One potential limitation of this research is that it does not capture the voices of those who permanently left the Baha'í faith in response to their suffering. Given the focus of the larger project for which this research was conducted, I did not locate individuals who no longer identify as Baha'í as part of my sample. However, this paper aims to center and explore the survival strategies of Baha'ís in Iran who continue to believe in their faith despite the persecution they experienced. Therefore, while important to note this limitation, it does not detract from our learning about this particular population of focus.

Findings

In this section I discuss the three major ways that members of the Iranian Baha'í community have responded to the persecution they have suffered. The first group consists of individuals who pass as Muslim either while maintaining their belief internally or sometimes permanently recanting their faith. The second group responded to their persecution through overt resistance, openly displaying their Baha'í identity. The last group, which was the largest, often utilized both strategies of passing and claiming their Baha'í identity dependent on the context.

During the interviews, the interviewees reported consistently that the revolution created a strong divide in the country between those who followed the more conservative and fundamentalist government after the revolution and those who (Muslim or not) do not support this government. The interviews contained some examples of Muslims who secretly helped Baha'ís in difficult situations. For example, a few respondents recalled a neighbor who allowed them to hide in their home when the revolutionary guard came to look for them in their residence. However, the interviewees reported that most Muslims did not demonstrate such public support for the Baha'ís because of the risk to their own lives and livelihood.

At a time where many neighbors were encouraged and rewarded for spying on each other, any support or sympathy from non-Baha'ís provided a welcome reprieve or refuge for the members of the Baha'í community. However, given the large absence of these forms of resistance by Muslim neighbors, most Baha'ís could only rely on themselves for safety and survival. In the analysis of the coded interviews, three distinct modes of response emerged.

Three Modes of Response

'by definition, of course, we believe the person with a stigma is not quite human. On this assumption we exercise varieties of discrimination, through which we effectively, and often unthinkingly, reduce his life chances. We construct a stigma-theory, an ideology to explain his inferiority and account for the danger he represents' (1963: 5).

'Some of them were concerned about their safety and things like that. But then some of them also had stories about how they were brave. And some of them were scared, so some of the people recanted the religion, but not a lot, just a few. But others got braver and became closer and steadfast. So a family that became closer to each other they would help each other, but the people who recant the faith got worse because they went in and the Muslims persecuted them worse because they said they may be spies.'

'They literally forced some of the Baha'ís to change their religion. And one of those people was my aunt. My dad's sister, her husband became Muslim. And he took all of the kids away from my aunt-all three of them, even the newborn-my aunt for one year didn't see her kids. She was going crazy. She couldn't handle it anymore. Yeah, she left the faith. If she would have never converted, she wouldn't have seen her kids for the past 26 years. I mean, these are the tough decisions that people have to make. Deep down, my aunt is not a Muslim. She would never be a Muslim in a billion years. But I feel she has been forced into it because her husband left her with no choice.'

'Honestly, I don't know. Hopelessness. That's when I started smoking. Then the war was raging. I had a few Muslim friends and they went to the war, then I decided that religion is not a good thing so I started my political activities and left the faith. I was afraid, afraid to be stabbed, to be raped. I've seen horrible things in Iran. Not happened to me, but it made no difference.'

'They said that you should say that you are Muslim. Then we let you go. And there were ... I guess twenty girls that we were in one cell and none of us said yes. They asked us many times. Eventually after three days, they made us sign that we are not attending any parties or anything... for two years my dad didn't let me go anywhere. For two years, he was really scared.'

'My neighbor said: I have heard something... I hope it's not true. I said... well, what did you hear? And he said he has heard I am not a Muslim... He said: You cannot be Baha'í. I said, why? And he said, are you a Baha'í? ... but you don't look like a Baha'í. And I said, what's the difference? He said you respect everybody. You are coming and going everything... are very organized... and I said, Yeah... maybe that's because I'm a Baha'í.'

'I don't tell them [my children] if there's danger don't say I'm Baha'í or whatever, no. No. Because we believe the Baha'í faith is a solution and cure for this sick world. And right now you can see the people that-the leaders-they don't know what to do, because economy is going to be worse. And the only solution Bahá'u'lláh (the prophet of their faith) brought and then nobody listen. And my husband gave his life and he said, I give my life...why should I be Muslim? They ask him to become Muslim we let you go. And he says why I be Muslim...why should I become Muslim? I'm Baha'í and I believe to Bahá'u'lláh as something that helps to rescue this sick world. Why should I be Muslim? And I'm thinking if I follow Baha'í faith, at least is one step helping to rescue this world... and healing this world.'

'I think the biggest worry was losing everything that you have. If someone were to come and take your life, your family, and not having a recourse. The fear of not being able to do anything about it. Here, bad things happen, unjust things happen to you. But you always have recourse, you can always take someone to court. You can always complain to somebody that this is not right, what is happening to me. The biggest fear in Iran is that your voice is not being heard, ever. You don't have a voice, you don't have justice. But our children's development, their understanding of the religion and even their education past high school are incredibly important. Otherwise, what will they have?'

'Having two different personalities and, you know, the one that you are doing it's wrong, but what can you do? You don't want them to come arrest your dad or put you in jail, because the age doesn't matter. They killed a thirteen year old girl, just because she was a Baha'í. So... and you know when you are that young, you are afraid of dying. Later on you might say... Oh, the other world is better. But when you are that young, you don't even know what would happen if you died. You don't understand anything, you just want to be alive, and so you don't say anything. So. I... I ... I guess most Baha'ís they have different personalities.'

'... but nowadays, I guess, Baha'ís they are trying to show their faith publicly... because for how long you can be silent? Now they started saying that, we are Baha'ís there is nothing to be ashamed of. That's a religion and I'm proud of having my religion. But now they are putting more and more in jail and... they thought that by arresting the seven friends of Iran [administrative leaders] they are going to just finish with the whole thing. That no one is going to say they are Baha'ís... because they thought oh these are the leaders, so they are telling them what to do what not to do. But they have been in prison for two years [at the time of the interview] and still Baha'ís they are calling themselves as Baha'í.'

Discussion and Conclusion

In this paper I have shown the difficult conditions under which members of the Iranian Baha'í community have had to cope with the impacts of the systematic oppression and persecution they face in their home country. As demonstrated, men and women responded to the persecution of Baha'ís in Iran using one of three strategies: 1) passing as Muslim, 2) religious constancy in the face of danger, and 3) alternating passing with open displays.

The decision of how to respond to or cope with the traumas and human rights violations Baha'ís face is tremendously difficult and painful. When resigning to passing, individuals often face the alienation from their previous community, as well as lacking acceptance as full or trustworthy members of the Muslim community-leaving them virtually alone and without emotional or spiritual support. Those who openly practice their faith, despite the dangers they face, seem to do so with a recognition that they can either be true to their faith and live authentically-being fully aware of the risks-or choose a life of secrecy and alienation. As a consequence, it is not surprising that the majority of interviewees described a constant balancing act between attempting to be as safe as possible, while not denying their faith when directly forced to speak about it-which would be a deep betrayal to their beliefs.

Much of the acts of resistance occur not in those moments of direct danger, but rather through more hidden practices. Throughout their lives, women, men, and children in the Baha'í community in Iran have engaged in a number of acts of resistance. They demonstrate resistance through continued engagement in their religious communities, teaching of their faith when able, and education of their children. Only rarely did members of the Baha'í faith report converting to Islam or choosing a life where they fully pass as Muslim by leaving the religion. More typically, individuals vacillated between passing as Muslims on the street, while living Baha'í lives behind closed doors-never fully being able to live or speak freely.

In an ideal world a large scale study, utilizing a probability sample, would explore how generalizable and common these three strategies are to the wider Baha'í community in Iran. Due to the political situation in Iran and the exploratory nature of the larger project from which this paper emerged, I was only able to access data from people who had fled Iran and not those currently living there. Further, another future direction would be to assess how religious identity and identification might change for this population over their life course.

As described by almost all of the participants in this study and often captured with the phrase "living as a Baha'í in Iran is truly like living as a sheep among wolves in sheep clothing." These human beings could never fully trust their neighbors or community members, constantly living with the underlying fear of someone exposing them or finding out their true identity. This type of stress has dramatic effects on a person's psychological and physical wellbeing and it is in this context that the members of the Baha'í community in Iran have to navigate their survival and religious practice. They are forced to choose the seemingly safer route of passing as Muslim or to live their true identity openly. It is understandable that so many struggled with the tension between these choices and found themselves wavering between the two dependent on the situation.

Notes

This number only includes those Baha'ís and their children who have officially declared as believers through the national Baha'í community. Individuals who regularly attend Baha'í events without this "declaration" are excluded from this count.

Although they did not necessarily renounce Judaism.

At the age of fifteen Baha'í youth are no longer considered Baha'í unless officially declare their faith in the religion.

For a detailed description of this underground university, see Karlberg's 2010 article "Constructive Resilience: The Baha'í Response to Oppression.

Competing Interests

The author has no competing interests to declare.

References

International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH). (2003). Discrimination against religious minorities in Iran. Paper presented at the 63rd session of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Members of the Baha'í faith in Iran have been ongoing targets of systematic oppression, persecution, and extreme hate since the religion was founded in 1844. As a consequence of this persecution, there exists a significant diaspora community of Iranian Baha'ís outside of Iran.

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The Vassa ceremony happens betweens July and October and monks must stay in one place to dwell for 3 months. They must find and declare their dwelling for the period and some buddhists choose to host them. At the end, monks gather and share each other's faults.

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All PTS editions
A. .... Anguttara Nikaya
D. .... Digha Nikaya
DA. .... Digha Nikaya Atthakatha
J. .... Jatakas
KhpA. .... Khuddakapatha Atthakatha
Mhv. .... Mahavamsa
PvA. .... Petavatthu Atthakatha
S. .... Samyutta Nikaya

The theme of this study, Buddhist ceremonies and rituals, may not appeal to the self-styled Buddhist purist who wishes to restrict the designation "Buddhism" exclusively to the teachings of the Buddhist scriptures, which he usually interprets in a narrowly intellectualist manner. The fact remains, however, that the practices and observances to be described here justly claim an integral place within the stream of living Buddhism as practiced by its adherents. Because these practices form an intimate part of the religious life for the vast majority of devout Buddhist followers, they cannot be lightly dismissed as mere secondary appendages of a "pristine" canonical Buddhism.

It has been an inevitable phenomenon in the history of religion that whenever a religion was newly introduced to a culture, its adherents assimilated it and adapted it in ways that harmonized with their own social and cultural needs. In the case of Buddhism this has happened in every country to which it spread, and Sri Lanka is no exception. The core doctrines of Buddhism, such as the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, dependent arising, etc., often proved too abstruse and elevated for the ordinary populace to apply to their own religious lives. To satisfy their devotional and emotional needs, they required a system of outward acts, communally shared, by which they could express their devotion to the ideals represented by the Dhamma and absorb these ideals into the texture of their daily experience. This was how the "great tradition" of canonical Buddhism came to be complemented by the "small tradition" of popular Buddhism consisting of the rituals and ceremonies discussed in this booklet.

The purpose of the present study is to highlight this often neglected face of popular Buddhism. Though the study focuses on Buddhism as practiced in Sri Lanka, the same basic round of rituals and ceremonies, with minor variations, can be found in the other countries following Theravada Buddhism, such as Burma and Thailand. I also hope that this survey will demonstrate that the expression of Buddhist piety in devotional forms is a necessity if Buddhism is to survive at the popular level as a vital and vibrant force in the daily life of its adherents. Thus the votaries of a "pristine pure Buddhism" posited on the basis of the canonical texts should not ignore or devalue this aspect of Buddhism as an alien encroachment on the Buddha's original doctrine. Rather, they should come to recognize the devotional manifestation of Buddhism as an essential feature of the tradition, needed to mediate between its exalted ideals and the everyday concerns of the vast majority of its followers.

A.G.S. Kariyawasam

Sri Lanka is generally regarded as the home of the pure Theravada form of Buddhism, which is based on the Pali canon. This school of Buddhism emphasizes the Four Noble Truths as the framework of Buddhist doctrine and the Noble Eightfold Path as the direct route to Nibbana, the final goal of the Teaching. However, side by side with this austere, intellectually sophisticated Buddhism of the texts, we find in Sri Lanka a warm current of devotional Buddhism practiced by the general Buddhist populace, who may have only a hazy idea of the Buddhist doctrine. Thus in practical life the gap between the "great tradition" of canonical Buddhism and the average person's world of everyday experience is bridged by a complex round of ceremonies, rituals, and devotional practices that are hardly visible within the canonical texts themselves.

While the specific forms of ritual and ceremony in Sri Lankan popular Buddhism doubtlessly evolved over the centuries, it seems likely that this devotional approach to the Dhamma has its roots in lay Buddhist practice even during the time of the Buddha himself. Devotion being the intimate inner side of religious worship, it must have had a place in early Buddhism. For Buddhism, devotion does not mean submitting oneself to the will of a God or taking refuge in an external Saviour, but an ardent feeling of love and affection (pema) directed towards the Teacher who shows the way to freedom from suffering. Such an attitude inspires the devotee to follow the Master's teaching faithfully and earnestly through all the hurdles that lie along the way to Nibbana.

Although the canonical texts do not indicate that this devotional sensibility had yet come to expression in fully formed rituals, it seems plausible that simple ritualistic observances giving vent to feelings of devotion had already begun to take shape even during the Buddha's lifetime. Certainly they would have done so shortly after the Parinibbana, as is amply demonstrated by the funeral rites themselves, according to the testimony of the Maha-parinibbana Sutta. The Buddha also encouraged a devotional attitude when he recommended pilgrimages to the four places that can inspire a faithful devotee: the places where he was born, attained Enlightenment, preached the first sermon, and attained Parinibbana (D.ii,140).

Thus ceremonies and rituals, as external acts which complement inward contemplative exercises, cannot be called alien to or incompatible with canonical Buddhism. To the contrary, they are an integral part of the living tradition of all schools of Buddhism, including the Theravada.

A ritual may be defined here as an outward act performed regularly and consistently in a context that confers upon it a religious significance not immediately evident in the act itself. A composite unity consisting of a number of subordinate ritualistic acts may be called a ceremony. Such observances have become inseparable from all organized religions. And owing to the fear, awe, and respect that characterize man's religious psychology, such acts assume a solemnity and a sanctity of their own.

Ritual acts undertaken and performed by the Buddhists of Sri Lanka may be broadly classified under three heads:

(i) Acts performed for the acquisition of merit (e.g., offerings made in the name of the Buddha) calculated to provide a basis for achieving Nibbana, release from the cycle of becoming (samsara); such acts of merit are, at the same time, expected to offer semi-temporal rewards of comfort and happiness here and in the heavenly worlds in future lives. These supplementary forms of religious activity have arisen out of a natural need to augment the more austere way followed by the world-renouncing disciples.

(ii) Acts directed towards securing worldly prosperity and averting calamities through disease and unseen forces of evil, e.g., pirit chanting, bodhi-puja, etc.

(iii) Those rituals that have been adopted from folk religion. Hence these are mainly semi-religious in character like the tovil ceremonies. They derive their power and authority primarily through the superhuman power of the Buddha and also through the hosts of spirits, who are, as it were, commanded by invoking the power of the Buddha or of the Three Refuges - the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha - as a whole.

For the ordinary householder, Nibbana is a goal to be achieved through a gradual process of evolution extending over many lives, and therefore until he achieves that sublime state at some future date he continues to perform these acts in order to lead a happy life. All merit-generating rituals are performed mainly with this end in view.

1. Initiation

Buddham saranam gacchami
I go to the Buddha as my refuge.
Dhammam saranam gacchami
I go to the Dhamma as my refuge.

Sangham saranam gacchami
I go to the Sangha as my refuge.

(1) Panatipata veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami. I undertake the precept to abstain from destroying life
(2) Adinnadana veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami. I undertake the precept to abstain from taking things not given.

(3) Kamesu micchacara veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami. I undertake the precept to abstain from sexual misconduct.

(4) Musavada veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami. I undertake the precept to abstain from false speech.

(5) Suramerayamajjapamadatthana veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami. I undertake the precept to abstain from taking distilled and fermented liquors that cause intoxication and heedlessness.

While this is the method of formal admission of a new entrant into Buddhism, there are also certain ritualistic practices observed when a child is born to Buddhist parents. The baby's first outing would be to a temple. When the baby is fit to be taken out of doors the parents would select an auspicious day or a full-moon day and take the child to the nearest temple.[1] They would first place the child on the floor of the shrine room or in front of a statue of the Buddha for the purpose of obtaining the blessings of the Triple Gem. This is a common sight at the Dalada Maligawa - the Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic - in Kandy. At the time of the daily religious ceremony (puja) of the temple, one can observe how mothers hand over their babies to an officiating layman (kapuva) inside the shrine room, who in turn keeps it for a few seconds on the floor near the Relic Chamber and hands it back to the mother. The mother accepts the child and gives a small fee to the kapuva for the service rendered. This practice too could be described as a ritual of initiation.

2. Personal Worship

For the adherent of Buddhism, the ritual of worship is essentially a respectful recognition of the greatness of the Buddha as a spiritual teacher. The ritual also implies an expression of gratitude to the Buddha for having discovered and revealed to humankind the path leading out of the mass of worldly suffering. Both these factors in combination make this ritual an expression of devotion as well.

The most common daily ritual of the Buddhist is that of personal worship, which many devout Buddhists perform daily in their homes. On the communal level the ritual is observed on the poya days at a temple or a monastery.[2]

A distinction may be made between simple respectful salutation (panama or panamana) and the ritualistic worship (vandana) accompanied by offerings of increasing complexity including food, drink, and clothing. The former type is only an expression of respect and reverence as when a person clasps his hands in the gesture of worship in front of a religious symbol (e.g., a Buddha-statue, a Bodhi-tree, a dagaba, etc.) and recites a simple phrase like the well-known Namo tassa formula (see below); nowadays the term sadhu has become quite popular with the Sinhala Buddhists for this purpose.[3]

The next step is paying homage to the Three Gems in three separate formulas, which recount nine virtues of the Buddha, six virtues of the Dhamma, and nine virtues of the Sangha. These formulas are extracted from the Pali Nikayas and have become the standard formulas with which the Three Gems are worshipped.[4]

As was mentioned earlier, an essential part of the ritual of offering flowers is the recital of the following Pali stanza, whereby the offering is made valid:

Vannagandhagunopetam
etam kusumasantatim
pujayami munindassa
siripadasaroruhe.
Pujemi Buddham kusumena 'nena
punnena 'metena ca hotu mokkham
Puppham milayati yatha idam me
kayo tatha yati vinasabahavam.

"This mass of flowers endowed with color, fragrance, and quality I offer at the lotus-like feet of the King of Sages. I worship the Buddha with these flowers: by the merit of this may I attain freedom. Even as these flowers do fade, so does my body come to destruction."

It is of interest to note that this stanza incorporates the Buddhist idea of the impermanence (anicca) of all phenomena. Merit-acquisition is also regarded as contributing towards the attainment of Nibbanic freedom.

Another popular offering of much importance is that of lighted lamps, usually of coconut oil (dipa-puja or pahan-puja). As the Buddha is regarded as the dispeller of the darkness of ignorance, when lighted lamps are offered in his name this metaphorical contrast between the light of knowledge and the darkness of ignorance is taken as the theoretical basis for the ritual. This kind of symbolism being too deep for the vast majority of ordinary people, their motive for this ritual is usually the desire to acquire merit or to avert the evil influence of a bad planetary conjunction. However, it is the former idea that is implied in the traditional stanza used by the Buddhists of Sri Lanka for this offering:

Ghanasarappadittena
dipena tamadamsina
tilokadipam sambuddham
pujayami tamonudam.
"With this lamp lit with camphor that dispels all darkness, I worship the Perfectly Enlightened One who is a lamp unto the three worlds and is the dispeller of darkness."

The epithets tilokadipa ("lamp unto the three worlds") and tamonuda ("dispeller of darkness") as applied to the Buddha are significant in this context. The stanza itself seems to testify to the popularity of the offering of camphor (ghanasara) in early times. But nowadays, even when coconut oil has replaced camphor, the stanza has survived without change.[5]

This important Buddhist ritual was practiced even in ancient Sri Lanka. King Dutugemunu (2nd century B.C.) is recorded to have lit one thousand lamps with ghee as the illuminant and with white wicks burning perpetually in twelve sacred places in Anuradhapura (Mhv. xxxii,37). King Vasabha (1st century A.C.) is also said to have lit one thousand oil lamps at Cetiyapabbata, Thuparama, Mahathupa (Ruvanweli-dagaba), and the Bodhi-tree (Mhv. xxxvi,80).

Today, this ritual has become so popular and elaborate that the annual Vesak festival commemorating the birth, Enlightenment, and Parinibbana of the Buddha has become more or less a festival of lights. Vesak lanterns of various kinds and shapes are lit in Buddhist homes on this day. Pandals well illuminated with multi-colored electric bulbs, depicting various scenes from the Master's life and from the Jataka stories, also constitute a type of light offering to the Buddha.

Yet another aspect of the ritual of light offering is the burning of camphor near the object of worship like dagabas, Buddha statues, etc. Camphor gives out a fragrant smell as it burns, and is also regarded as having a very pure flame, although its smoke has a strong blackening effect. Camphor-burners have been found in ancient temples, showing that this was an ancient practice.[6]

The offering of food and drink is still another aspect of the ritual of worship. When food is offered to the Buddha in a religious place it is usually done in front of a Buddha-image. If it is the morning meal that is offered, it would be something suitable for breakfast, usually milk-rice (kiribat). If it is lunch, it would be the usual rice-and-curry meal and is invariably offered before noon. At the Dalada Maligawa in Kandy and the Sri Mahabodhi in Anuradhapura, these rituals are performed regularly and with meticulous care and also somewhat elaborately, accompanied by other subsidiary rituals like the beating of drums. It is an important part of this ritual that whatever food is offered in this manner should be separately prepared with special care and should not be tasted before the offering. The stanza that is popularly used for the offering of food runs as follows:

Adhivasetu no bhante
bhojanam parikappitam
Anukampam upadaya
patiganhatumuttama.
"O Lord, accept with favor this food which has been ritualistically prepared. Receive it, O Noble One, out of compassion."

As regards the offering of drinks and beverages, it is customary to offer these prepared from fruit-juices. Unlike the solid foods, these may be offered in the afternoon, in keeping with the meal habits of the Buddhist monks. Offering of incense generally consists of joss sticks, these being the most easily available. Otherwise this offering is made by putting certain kinds of sweet-smelling powders or incense into glowing charcoal so that it smokes well. A kind of resin, known locally as sambrani, is the variety generally used.

The chew of betel (dahat-vita) is yet another item of offering. This is mostly for consumption after meals, and consists of betel leaves, arecanut, and certain other items like cloves, nutmeg, cardamons, etc. which give a pleasant smell and a pungent taste when chewed. For every kind of offering there are separate stanzas like the one quoted earlier for food. These stanzas are composed in Pali, which is supposed to be the language in which the Buddha preached his doctrine.

Vandami cetiyam sabbam
sabbathanesu patitthitam,
saririkadhatu mahabodhim
buddharupam sakalam sada.
"Forever do I worship all the dagabas situated all over, all the bodily relics, the Mahabodhi (tree), and Buddha-images."

The worship of the dagaba or stupa is an important merit-acquiring act of devotional Buddhism in Sri Lanka as also in other Buddhist lands. The first such dagaba to be constructed after the official introduction of Buddhism into the country by the arahant Mahinda was the Thuparama at Anuradhapura, which enshrines the collar-bone of the Buddha. It was constructed by the first Buddhist ruler of Sri Lanka, King Devanampiya Tissa, in the 3rd century B.C. Since then dagabas have become so popular among the local Buddhists that almost every village temple has a dagaba as an indispensable feature. A special ritual connected with the dagaba is the enshrining of relics, which is done with much ceremony at a specially selected astrologically auspicious moment called nakata (Skt. naksatra). A similar ritual is that of pinnacle-setting (kot-palandavima), which is the concluding stage in the construction of a dagaba.

3. Group Worship

Once the offerings are placed in the appropriate place, lamps lit, and incense burnt, stanzas are recited for each kind of offering made so that the offerings become valid. This is done by a bhikkhu who first administers the Refuges and Precepts (explained earlier) and then recites the relevant stanzas (in Pali) aloud, while the other participants, with their hands clasped in adoration, repeat them in chorus after the bhikkhu. Sometimes this kind of public Buddha-puja is accompanied by drumming and horns, called hevisi-puja or offering of music, which usually accompanies many Buddhist functions. As the final item of the programme, one of the participating bhikkhus delivers a short sermon explaining the significance of the occasion.

It may also be mentioned here that this kind of public puja is performed as a general act of merit-acquisition on religiously important days such as the full-moon days or in remembrance of important dead personages. In the latter case the ritual is held on the death anniversary of the person concerned. It is believed that the dead person can partake of the merits transferred to him (pattidana) from his new existence and thereby obtain relief from any unfortunate realm in which he might have been born. If the ritual is performed for such a purpose, the participating monk would specially mention this fact and transfer the merits earned.

Whatever be the purpose for which the ceremony is held, the concluding part is marked by certain features which are of further interest. One is the usual practice of the transference of merit to all beings, including gods and spirits, by reciting the appropriate stanzas. Another is the general aspiration (patthana) that the participants make to the effect that by the merits earned from the ritual they may not be born into the company of foolish and unworthy friends but into the company of wise and virtuous men until they attain Nibbana. They also do not fail to add the final attainment of Nibbana to this list (idam me punnam asavakkhayavaham hotu: "May this merit bring about the extinction of defilements in me").

Yet another popular aspiration which has a greater social significance is the following:

Devo vassatu kalena - sassasampatti hotu ca
phito bhavatu loko ca - raja bhavatu dhammiko.
"May the rains come in time
So that the harvests may be abundant:
May the world be prosperous,
May the rulers be righteous."

The ritual is concluded by asking for pardon for whatever lapses may have occurred inadvertently:

Kayena vaca cittena pamadena maya katam
accayam khama me bhante bhuripanna tathagata.
"O Lord, Tathagata of extensive wisdom, may you excuse me for whatever transgressions might have been done by me through body, speech, or mind due to negligence."

Sometimes a similar request is made to the Dhamma and the Sangha as well. However, as the idea of pardoning one's sins is foreign to Buddhism, this kind of request would be meaningful only if the devotee does so with full understanding as an expiatory act, as a means of self-reformation, for the Buddha, unlike the God of theistic religions, cannot forgive sins.

At important temples where offerings of food are made to the Buddha and the deities at meal times, drumming is performed to coincide with the offering and continues until the ritual of offering is over. This kind of regular service is known as tevava. The ritual may also be held on Poya days, especially the full-moon day, in temples as a special offering to the Buddha. An important point to be noted in this pujava is that while the other kinds of offering are made by the worshipper himself, in this case he hires professionals to make the offering on his behalf. But in big temples like the Dalada Maligawa at Kandy, payments in money are not usually made as the drummers have the hereditary right to the tenure of the temple lands in return for which these services are performed.

The veneration of the Bodhi-tree (pipal tree: ficus religiosa) has been a popular and a widespread ritual in Sri Lanka from the time a sapling of the original Bodhi-tree at Buddhagaya (under which the Buddha attained Enlightenment) was brought from India by the Theri Sanghamitta and planted at Anuradhapura during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa in the third century B.C. Since then a Bodhi-tree has become a necessary feature of every Buddhist temple in the island.

After the introduction of the Bodhi-tree, this cult took a new turn. While the old practice was not totally abandoned, pride of place was accorded to the worship of the pipal tree, which had become sacred to the Buddhists as the tree under which Gotama Buddha attained Enlightenment. Thus there is a difference between the worship of the Bodhi-tree and that of other trees. To the Buddhists, the Bodhi-tree became a sacred object belonging to the paribhogika group of the threefold division of sacred monuments,[7] while the ordinary veneration of trees, which also exists side-by-side with the former in Sri Lanka, is based on the belief already mentioned, i.e., that there are spirits inhabiting these trees and that they can help people in exchange for offerings. The Buddhists also have come to believe that powerful Buddhist deities inhabit even the Bodhi-trees that receive worship in the purely Buddhist sense. Hence it becomes clear that the reverence shown to a tree is not addressed to the tree itself. However, it also has to be noted that the Bodhi-tree received veneration in India even before it assumed this Buddhist significance;[8] this practice must have been based on the general principle of tree worship mentioned above.

Once the tree assumed Buddhist significance its sanctity became particularized, while the deities inhabiting it also became associated with Buddhism in some form. At the same time, the tree became a symbol representing the Buddha as well. This symbolism was confirmed by the Buddha himself when he recommended the planting of the Ananda Bodhi-tree at Jetavana for worship and offerings during his absence (see J.iv,228f.). Further, the place where the Buddha attained Enlightenment is mentioned by the Buddha as one of the four places of pilgrimage that should cause serene joy in the minds of the faithful (D.ii,140). As Ananda Coomaraswamy points out, every Buddhist temple and monastery in India once had its Bodhi-tree and flower altar as is now the case in Sri Lanka.[9]

King Devanampiya Tissa, the first Buddhist king of Sri Lanka, is said to have bestowed the whole country upon the Bodhi-tree and held a magnificent festival after planting it with great ceremony. The entire country was decorated for the occasion. The Mahavamsa refers to similar ceremonies held by his successors as well. It is said that the rulers of Sri Lanka performed ceremonies in the tree's honor in every twelfth year of their reign (Mhv. xxxviii,57).

King Dutugemunu (2nd century B.C.) performed such a ceremony at a cost of 100,000 pieces of money (Mhv. xxviii,1). King Bhatika Abhaya (1st century A.C.) held a ceremony of watering the sacred tree, which seems to have been one of many such special pujas. Other kings too, according to the Mahavamsa, expressed their devotion to the Bodhi-tree in various ways (see e.g., Mhv. xxxv,30; xxxvi, 25, 52, 126).

It is recorded that forty Bodhi-saplings that grew from the seeds of the original Bodhi-tree at Anuradhapura were planted at various places in the island during the time of Devanampiya Tissa himself. The local Buddhists saw to it that every monastery in the island had its own Bodhi-tree, and today the tree has become a familiar sight, all derived, most probably, from the original tree at Anuradhapura through seeds. However, it may be added here that the notion that all the Bodhi-trees in the island are derived from the original tree is only an assumption. The existence of the tree prior to its introduction by the Theri Sanghamitta cannot be proved or disproved.

The ceremony of worshipping this sacred tree, first begun by King Devanampiya Tissa and followed by his successors with unflagging interest, has continued up to the present day. The ceremony is still as popular and meaningful as at the beginning. It is natural that this should be so, for the veneration of the tree fulfills the emotional and devotional needs of the pious heart in the same way as does the veneration of the Buddha-image and, to a lesser extent, of the dagaba. Moreover, its association with deities dedicated to the cause of Buddhism, who can also aid pious worshippers in their mundane affairs, contributes to the popularity and vitality of Bodhi-worship.

The main center of devotion in Sri Lanka today is, of course, the ancient tree at Anuradhapura, which, in addition to its religious significance, has a historical importance as well. As the oldest historical tree in the world, it has survived for over 2,200 years, even when the city of Anuradhapura was devastated by foreign enemies. Today it is one of the most sacred and popular places of pilgrimage in the island. The tree itself is very well guarded, the most recent protection being a gold-plated railing around the base (ranvata). Ordinarily, pilgrims are not allowed to go near the foot of the tree in the upper terrace. They have to worship and make their offerings on altars provided on the lower terrace so that no damage is done to the tree by the multitude that throng there. The place is closely guarded by those entrusted with its upkeep and protection, while the daily rituals of cleaning the place, watering the tree, making offerings, etc., are performed by bhikkhus and laymen entrusted with the work. The performance of these rituals is regarded as of great merit and they are performed on a lesser scale at other important Bodhi-trees in the island as well.

Thus this tree today receives worship and respect as a symbol of the Buddha himself, a tradition which, as stated earlier, could be traced back to the Ananda Bodhi-tree at Jetavana of the Buddha's own time. The Vibhanga Commentary (p.349) says that the bhikkhu who enters the courtyard of the Bodhi-tree should venerate the tree, behaving with all humility as if he were in the presence of the Buddha. Thus one of the main items of the daily ritual at the Anuradhapura Bodhi-tree (and at many other places) is the offering of alms as if unto the Buddha himself. A special ritual held annually at the shrine of the Anuradhapura tree is the hanging of gold ornaments on the tree. Pious devotees offer valuables, money, and various other articles during the performance of this ritual.

Bathing the tree with scented water is also a necessary part of the ritual. So is the burning of incense, camphor, etc. Once all these offerings have been completed, the performers would circumambulate the tree once or thrice reciting an appropriate stanza. The commonest of such stanzas is as follows:

Yassa mule nisinno va
sabbari vijayam aka
patto sabbannutam Sattha
Vande tam bodhipadapam.
Ime ete mahabodhi
lokanathena pujita
ahampi te namassami
bodhi raja namatthu te.

"I worship this Bodhi-tree seated under which the Teacher attained omniscience by overcoming all enemical forces (both subjective and objective). I too worship this great Bodhi-tree which was honored by the Leader of the World. My homage to thee, O King Bodhi."

The ritual is concluded by the usual transference of merit to the deities that protect the Buddha's Dispensation.

In their religious observances the Sri Lankan Buddhists have adopted from Indian tradition the use of the lunar calendar. The four phases of the moon are the pre-new-moon day, when the moon is totally invisible, the half-moon of the waxing fortnight, the full moon, and the half-moon of the waning fortnight. Owing to the moon's fullness of size as well as its effulgence, the full-moon day is treated as the most auspicious of the four phases. Hence the most important religious observances are held on full-moon days and the lesser ones in conjunction with the other phases. In the Buddhist calendar, the full moon, as the acme of the waxing process, is regarded as the culmination of the month and accordingly the period between two full moons is one lunar month.[10]

A practicing Buddhist observes the poya day by visiting a temple for the rituals of worship and, often, by undertaking the Eight Precepts. The Eight Precepts include the Five Precepts (see above, pp.5-6), with the third changed to abstinence from unchastity, and the following three additional rules:

(6) to abstain from solid food after mid-day;
(7) to abstain from dancing, singing, music, and improper shows, and from ornamenting the body with garlands, scents, unguents, etc.;

(8) to abstain from the use of high and luxurious beds and seats.

If one decides to observe the Eight Precepts, one would wake up early, bathe and clad oneself in clean white garments, and go to the nearest temple. The incumbent monk administers the precepts to the entire group assembled for the purpose. Thereafter they would spend the day according to a set timetable which would include sermons, pujas, periods of meditation, and Dhamma discussions. At meditation centers there will be more periods of meditation and fewer sermons and pujas.

The observance of the Eight Precepts is a ritualistic practice of moral discipline quite popular among the Sinhala Buddhists. While the Five Precepts serve as the moral base for ordinary people, the Eight Precepts point to a higher level of training aimed at advancement along the path of liberation. The popular practice is to observe them on full-moon days, and, among a few devout lay Buddhists, on the other phases of the moon as well.

The poya observance, which is as old as Buddhism itself, has been followed by the Sinhala Buddhists up to the present day, even after the Christian calendar came to be used for secular matters. Owing to its significance in the religious life of the local Buddhists, all the full-moon days have been declared public holidays by the government. Another noteworthy fact about this day is that every full-moon poya has assumed some ritualistic significance in one way or other.

This rite of kap is a kind of vow that the Esala festival, consisting mainly of the perahera, will be held; it is also an invitation to the deities to be present during the festival, providing the necessary protection for its successful performance. In this sense it is this ritual that inaugurates the festival.

The annual Esala Perahera in Kandy, held in honor of the Sacred Tooth Relic of the Buddha, is the most colorful traditional procession in the country. It is the prototype of the other peraheras held elsewhere in the island in such places as Kataragama,[11] Aluthnuwara, Lankatilaka, Bellanwila, Devinuwara, etc. The Kandy Perahera is itself the latest expression of the annual festival in honor of the Tooth Relic that has been held with state patronage from the time the relic was brought to Sri Lanka from India in the 4th century A.C. Although periodically there have been intermittent breaks due to unsettled political conditions, the festival was never neglected intentionally. This had been so even during colonial times. Respected as the palladium of Sinhala royalty, the Relic had been accommodated in different parts of the country, depending on the change of the capital city. Ultimately it came to stay in Kandy, which was the last royal seat of the Sinhala people.

The Unduwap Poya that follows in December is of great moment to Sri Lanka as commemorating two memorable events connected with the visit of Theri Sanghamitta, sister of arahant Mahinda, from India in the third century B.C. (Mhv.iv,18-19). The first of these events was the arrival at Anuradhapura of a sapling of the sacred Bodhi-tree at Buddhagaya, brought to Sri Lanka by Sanghamitta. The planting of this tree is the origin of the Bodhi-puja in the country (see Chap. 4).

The other memorable event commemorated by this poya is the establishment of the Order of Nuns (bhikkhuni-sasana) in Sri Lanka by the Theri Sanghamitta when she ordained Queen Anula and her entourage of 500 women at Anuradhapura. Records indicate that the Bhikkhuni Sangha thus established flourished during the Anuradhapura period (third century B.C. to eleventh century A.C.), but disappeared after the decline of that kingdom. Historical records are silent as to the reasons for its extinction, but they do report how the Sinhala Bhikkhuni Sangha helped in the establishment of the Order of Nuns in China.[12] In the 5th century a group of Sinhala nuns headed by the Bhikkhuni Devasara went to China to confer higher ordination there and the Bhikkhuni Sangha thus established survives there to this day. The Sinhala Buddhists commemorate this poya day with peraheras, observance of the Eight Precepts, and meetings. The day is designated Sanghamitta Day. Nowadays the dasasil matas (ten-precept nuns) take an active part in initiating these commemorative functions.

The poya that follows, Navam Poya (February), celebrates the Buddha's appointment of the two arahants, Sariputta and Moggallana, as his two chief disciples. It also marks the Buddha's decision to attain Parinibbana in three months' time. The Medin Poya in March is hallowed by the Buddha's first visit to his parental home after his Enlightenment, during which he ordained the princes Rahula, Nanda, and many others as monks. The month that follows is called Bak (pronounced like "buck"), which corresponds to April. In this month it is not the full-moon day but the new-moon day that invites attention as signalizing the Buddha's second visit to Sri Lanka, when he visited Nagadipa[13] on the day preceding the new-moon day (amavaka: Mhv.i,47) in the fifth year after his Enlightenment.

The above brief account of the twelve poya days demonstrates how the poya day has become intimately connected with the life of the Buddha and consequently with the principal events of early Buddhist history. The Sri Lankan Buddhists, quite accustomed as they are to commemorate such events with rituals and ceremonies in full measure, have maintained these traditions up to the present.

Pirit (or paritta) is a collective term designating a set of protective chants or runes sanctioned by the Buddha for the use of both laymen and bhikkhus. Pirit-chanting is a very popular ceremony among the Buddhists of Sri Lanka. As the term itself implies it means a safety rune (paritta = protection), the ceremonial recital of which is regarded as capable of warding off all forms of evil and danger (vipatti), including disease, the evil influence of the planets, evil spirits, etc. These may be real dangers to the safety of persons and property as well as superstitiously believed-in calamities. In addition to this curative and positive aspect, pirit is also chanted for the attainment of general success (sampatti, siddhi). In the domestic and social life of the Sri Lankan Buddhist no important function can be considered complete without this ceremony. However, the ceremony may vary from the simple to the highly elaborate, depending on the occasion and the status of the sponsor.

The essence of the pirit ceremony consists in the ritualistic chanting of certain Pali texts selected from the canonical scriptures. These extracts are found collected and arranged in a particular order in the Book of Parittas, or Pirit-Pota,[14] known in Pali as Catubhanavara. It contains 27 extracts, including such suttas as the Ratana, Mangala, Metta, Atanatiya, etc.

The use of protective spells - variously known as paritta, rakkha, mantra, dharani, kavaca, etc.[15] - against various dangers has been a common practice among the Indians from very early times. The Buddha himself is said to have adopted the practice on several occasions. The public recitation of the Ratana Sutta at Vesali is the best known instance. The Khandha Paritta, Atanatiya Sutta, and the Metta Sutta are some parittas that have received the sanction of the Buddha himself. As the parittas generally embody statements of truth as taught in Buddhism their recitation is regarded as an "asseveration of truth" (saccakiriya) whereby evil can be averted. The Ratana Sutta is a good example of this kind of paritta. It draws its power by wishing the listeners safety after affirming the excellent qualities of the Three Gems of Buddhism - the Buddha, Dhamma, and the Sangha. The power of virtue (sila) contained in the Mangala Sutta and the power of loving kindness (metta) contained in the Metta Sutta are two other aspects that make pirit effective. The power of the sound waves resulting from the sonorous and rhythmic recitation and also from particular combinations of certain letters and syllables also play a part in exercising this beneficial influence. The vibrating sound waves produced by the sonorous and mellifluous chanting adds to the effect of the truths enunciated. The ceremonial recitation with various ritualistic observances (discussed below) and with the presence of the Triple Gem in the form of the relic casket representing the Buddha, the Pirit-Pota representing the Dhamma, and the reciting bhikkhus representing the Sangha, are additional factors that are regarded as increasing the efficacy of pirit chanting.

The monks sit around a table on which a clean white cloth is spread and flowers and puffed rice are strewn. A pot of filtered water is also placed in the center of the table and one end of a ball of three-stranded thread is twisted around it. The thread then passes through the hands of the reciting monks and is next held by the person or the persons on whose behalf the chanting is being done. These would be seated on a mat on the ground in front of the reciting monks. The water in the pot, designated pirit-water (pirit-pan), and the sacred thread (pirit-nula), become sanctified through the chanting and are used thereafter as a protection against evil. The thread is used by tying a piece around the arm or the wrist, and the water by drinking it or sprinkling it, according to requirements. In the simplest form, the ceremony is called varu-pirita or vel-pirita (varu or vel in Sinhala meaning half-day session) as the ceremony is confined only to a portion of the day and only the mahapirita is chanted.

Even when the ceremony is held in a private home, the temple is inevitably connected with every stage of the ritual. The temple authorities are responsible for assigning the required number of monks. On the evening of the day on which the chanting takes place, a few members from the particular household go to the temple in order to conduct the monks. The monks would come in a procession in single file in order of seniority, attended by drumming. At the head of the procession is carried the relic casket, borne on the head of a layman, under an umbrella or a canopy. The beating of drums continues throughout. As the monks enter the home, a layman washes their feet while another wipes them. They walk to the pavilion on a carpet of white cloth (pavada) and take their seats around the table. The relic casket, Pirit-Pota, and the bhikkhus thus come together, representing the Triple Gem, the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha, respectively.

Before the commencement of the ceremony proper, the usual time of which is around 9 p.m., the monks are welcomed and requested to perform the ceremony by being offered a tray in which betel leaves, arecanut, cardamons, nutmeg, etc., are nicely arranged, the ingredients being those taken for the chew of betel. This invitation is usually extended by the chief householder if it is in a private home. Otherwise some leading lay devotee would do it. One of the senior monks present would accept the invitation on behalf of the entire Sangha and, in order to make the invitation formally valid, he would get the lay devotee to repeat after him the following Pali stanza requesting the monks to begin the ceremony:

Vipattipatibahaya - sabbasampattisiddhiya
sabbadukkhavinasaya - parittam brutha uttamam
"Please recite the noble pirit for the avoidance of all misfortune, for the attainment of all success, and for the destruction of all suffering."

Next he would explain the significance of the occasion in a short address. This is followed by ceremonial drumming (magulbera vadana), as a ritualistic preamble to the ceremony, serving both as an invitation to the gods and an offering of sound (sadda-puja). The monks too commence the chanting by reciting a stanza that invites all the divine beings of the universe to the ceremony:

Samanta cakkavalesu Atragacchantu devata Saddhammam Munirajassa Sunantu saggamokkhadam
"May the divine beings of the entire universe come here to hear the good doctrine of the King of Sages that confers both heavenly happiness and the freedom of Nibbana."

From the commencement of the chanting until its conclusion the following morning, the pavilion is not vacated. The mahapirita (explained earlier), with which the chanting begins, is chanted in a rhythmic manner by all the monks, numbering about ten or twelve, seated in order of seniority. The rest of the discourses are chanted by two or four monks. The ceremony is concluded the following morning with the recital, once again, of the mahapirita at which ceremonial drumming takes place once more. This drumming is also performed at the recital of important discourses like the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta and the Atanatiya Sutta. Once the chanting is concluded, convenient lengths of the thread, sanctified by the chanting, are snapped off and tied around the wrists or the arms of those assembled. A little of the sanctified water is given to everyone for drinking.

An important ceremony connected with the seven-day (and longer) pirit ceremony is known as dorakada-asna, which seems to have entered the pirit ceremony during the Kandyan period (18th century).[16] The theme of this ritual is to invite all the deities residing in the vicinity and request them to partake of the merits derived from the pirit ceremony and to help dispel all evil and bring about prosperity to everybody.

Until the monks arrive for the pirit chanting, the devadutaya is kept confined and guarded. Once the monks arrive and take their seats inside the pavilion, a dialogue takes place between the devadutaya and a monk, the purpose of which is to reveal to the assembled gathering that the task of the messenger, which was to invite the gods to partake of the merits, has been done and that all the gods have arrived. The devadutaya makes this statement standing and guarded by the swordsmen, at the entrance (dorakada) to the chanting pavilion within which the monks have taken their seats. It is this statement of the devadutaya which thus comes to be called the dorakada-asna, meaning "the message read at the threshold." The gist of this statement, written in the same kind of stilted language as the vihara-asna referred to earlier, is that all the gods invited have arrived for the pirit ceremony so that they may dispel all misfortune and bring about prosperity to all.

After the dorakada-asna, another monk, standing within the pavilion, reads out a similar text called the anusasana-asna, wherein all the gods assembled are requested to rejoice in the merits of the entire ceremony. This monk holds in his hand a round-handled fan made of the talipot leaf, elaborately decorated, a symbol of authority and high ecclesiastical position. These three ritualistic texts mentioned in the foregoing account (i.e., vihara-asna, dorakada-asna, and the anusasana-asna) were all composed during the Kandyan period (18th century) when ceremonies and rituals, especially those connected with the gods, became more popular than during the earlier periods.[17]

It is also worth noting, that this ceremony of dorakada-asna has, in addition to its religious and ritualistic significance, considerable dramatic and theatrical value as well, for the whole event, from the preliminaries of the morning to the grand finale of the anusasana in the evening, contains much impersonation, mime, and dialogue. In this connection we may note that as early as the time of Buddhaghosa (5th century A.C.) there were Buddhist rituals with such theatrical features as is shown by the exorcist ritual of reading the Atanatiya Sutta described in the Digha Nikaya Commentary (iii, 969-70).[18]

The chanting of what is called set-pirit by a few bhikkhus at the inauguration of new ventures or at receptions and farewells to important public personages has also become quite common. The chanting usually consists of a sutta like the Mangala, Ratana, or Metta Sutta, and a few benedictory stanzas. Set-pirit is broadcast by the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation every morning as the first item of its programme.

1. The Almsgiving

The most important item among these offerings is what is traditionally known as "the eight monastic requisites" (ata-pirikara): the alms-bowl, three robes, belt, razor, water-strainer, and sewing needle. This offering is regarded as especially meritorious. As it is an expensive item and therefore difficult to offer to all the monks, generally one ata-pirikara is offered to the chief monk and other items such as books, towels, pillow-cases, umbrellas, etc., are presented to the other monks.

A related ritual that cannot be ignored as regards the ceremony of almsgiving is the custom of getting the neighbours and friends also to serve into the alms-bowl that is offered to the Buddha. On the morning of the day on which the almsgiving takes place a separate bowl is kept on a table for this purpose. This is called the Buddha-pattare, or the Buddha's alms-bowl. Alms served into it are regarded as offered to the Buddha himself. The neighbours would come with plates of rice prepared in their homes and serve into it. This rice is also taken when the bowl of food is prepared for offering to the Buddha, near the relic casket at the time of the dana proper, the purpose here being to get the neighbours and outsiders also to participate in this merit-making ceremony.

2. Funerals

Among Buddhists death is regarded as an occasion of major religious significance, both for the deceased and for the survivors. For the deceased it marks the moment when the transition begins to a new mode of existence within the round of rebirths. When death occurs all the kammic forces that the dead person accumulated during the course of his or her lifetime become activated and set about determining the next rebirth. For the living, death is a powerful reminder of the Buddha's teaching on impermanence; it also provides an opportunity to assist the deceased person as he or she fares on to the new existence.

Both aspects of death - the message of impermanence, and the opportunity to help the departed loved one - find expression in the Buddhist funeral rites of Sri Lanka. Naturally, the monastic Sangha plays a prominent role in the funeral proceedings. One of the most important parts of the funeral rites is the ritual called "offering of cloth on behalf of the dead" (mataka-vastra-puja). This is done prior to the cremation or the burial of the body. Monks are assembled in the home of the dead person or in the cemetery. The proceedings begin with the administration of the Five Precepts to the assembled crowd by one of the monks. This is followed by the recitation in chorus of the well-known stanza:

Anicca vata sankhara, uppadavayadhammino.
Uppajjitva nirujjhanti tesam vupasamo sukho.
Impermanent alas are formations, subject to rise and fall.
Having arisen, they cease; their subsiding is bliss.

Next follows this ritual, which consists of the offering of a length of new white cloth to the monks. The cloth, called a pamsukula - literally, a dust-heap cloth - is intended to be cut into pieces and then stitched into a robe.

After offering it, the close relatives of the deceased sit together on a mat, assume a reverential posture, and together they pour water from a vessel into a cup placed within a plate until the cup overflows. While the water is being poured, the monks intone in unison the following stanzas extracted from the Tirokuddha Sutta of the Khuddakapatha:

Unname udakam vattam yatha ninnam pavattati
evameva ito dinnam petanam upakappati.
Yatha varivaha pura paripurenti sagaram
evameva ito dinnam petanam upakappati.
Just as the water fallen on high ground flows to a lower level,
Even so what is given from here accrues to the departed.
Just as the full flowing rivers fill the ocean,
Even so what is given from here accrues to the departed.

The context shows that the pouring of water in this manner is a ritualistic act belonging to the field of sympathetic magic, symbolizing the beneficial inheritance of the merit transferred by the living to the dead, as a kind of dakkhina or offering. The entire ritual is hence an act of grace whereby merit is transferred to the departed so that they may find relief from any unhappy realm wherein they might have been born.

Another funeral rite is mataka-bana or "preaching for the benefit of the dead." The usual practice is to conduct a monk to the house of the dead person, generally on the third day (or occasionally on any day within a week) after the funeral and to request him to preach a sermon suited to the occasion. Accordingly he preaches a suitable sermon for about an hour's duration to the assembled audience, which inevitably consists of the deceased's relatives and the neighbours of the household. At the end of the sermon, the monk gets the relatives to recite the necessary stanzas to transfer to the deceased the merits acquired by organizing the event. Following this, a gift is offered to the monk, and the invitees are also served with refreshments.

These rites, it may be mentioned here, resemble the sraddha ceremonies of the Hindus in some ways. And it is also significant that, according to the Buddha himself, only the dead relatives who have been reborn as petas are capable of receiving this benefit (A.v, 269ff.).

1. Vassa and Kathina

At the close of the Vas season, the monks have to perform the pavarana ceremony. At this ceremony, held in place of the Patimokkha recitation, each monk invites his fellows to point out to him any faults he has committed during the Vas period. On any day following the day of pavarana in the period terminating with the next full-moon day, the kathina ceremony is held. Different monasteries will hold the kathina on different days within this month, though any given monastery may hold only one kathina ceremony. The main event in this ceremony is the offering of the special robe known as the kathina-civara to the Sangha, who in turn present it to one monk who has observed the retreat. The laity traditionally offer unsewn cloth to the monks. Before the offering takes place, the robe is generally taken, with drumming, etc., around the village in the early hours of the morning. Once the robe is given to the Sangha, certain monks are selected to do the cutting, sewing, and dying of the robe - all in a single day. Public contributions are very often solicited to buy the robe if it is not a personal offering.

This ceremony, which is performed with keen interest and devotion, has today become an important occasion of great social and religious significance for the Buddhist laity. This seems to have been so even in historical times when many Sinhala kings made this offering with much interest and devotion (e.g., Mhv. xliv,48, xci, etc).

2. Monastic Ordination

The full or higher ordination (upasampada) is more formal and difficult. The higher ordination ceremony should be conducted in a prescribed and duly consecrated "chapter house" (sima, or Sinh.: poya-ge), without which the ritual is not valid. If the candidate possesses the necessary qualifications like knowledge and intelligence and he is above twenty years of age, he may formally apply for admission and appear before a chapter of bhikkhus. Before admission he is made to put away the yellow robes and wear the clothes of a householder and face an interview at which he would be thoroughly examined as to his fitness for admission. If he successfully passes the test, he is led aside, reclothed in mendicant robes, and called back. Bearing his alms-bowl, he once again appears before the Sangha and goes through certain formalities after which, if all the monks agree, he is declared admitted.[19]

3. Uposatha Observance

This refers to the ritual of confession performed by the monks on the new-moon and the full-moon days, when the Disciplinary Code, the Patimokkha, is recited. This is a set of 227 rules, to be observed by the members of the Buddhist Order. When each of the seven sections of the rules is recited amidst the assembled Order, if any among those present has infringed any of those rules, he should confess and undergo any punishment prescribed. Silence implies absence of guilt.

1. Bali

Bali is the ceremony wherein the presiding deities of the planets (graha) are invoked and placated in order to ward off their evil influences. The belief in the good and evil influence of the planets according to the time and place of one's birth is quite widespread in Sri Lanka. The first thing done at the birth of a child is to cast the horoscope, which has to be consulted subsequently at all the important events of his or her life. When a calamity like a serious illness comes upon such a person, the horoscope would inevitably be consulted, and if the person is under a bad planetary influence, the astrologer would recommend some kind of propitiatory ritual. This could be a minor one like the lime-cutting ritual (dehi-kapima)[20] or a major one like a bali ceremony, depending on the seriousness of the case. If it is a bali ceremony, he might also recommend the specific kind of bali suitable for the occasion.

The bali artist is helped by a number of assistants working under him. The knowledge and art of performing the ritual are handed down in traditional families. The retentive power of these artists is remarkable, for they can continue to recite the appropriate formulas and verses from memory for days.

The bali ceremony is a mixture of Buddhism and folk religion. This cult of the planets and the allied deities has become an important element in the popular living Buddhism of the island. The origins of this type of bali ritual have to be traced to the Kotte Period of the 15th and 16th centuries, when it was introduced into the island from South India by some Hindu brahmans from that region. However, mainly owing to the efforts of the celebrated Buddhist monk of the period, Ven. Vidagama Maitreya Thera, this ritual was recast with a Buddhist significance, both in form and content, in that all the verses and formulas used in the ritual are those extolling the virtues of the Triple Gem - the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha - and of the Buddhist deities. It is these spiritual qualities that are invoked to bring redress. The entire ritual is thus made subservient to Buddhism.

The preparation for the bali ceremony takes a day or two. Plantain stems, tender coconut leaves, coconut and arecanut racemes, powdered resin, limes, betel, torches made by wrapping clean rags around dry reeds (vilakku and pandam),[21] coconut oil, flowers of different colors, and burnt offerings are among the main items needed. Plastic clay and reeds will be needed in large quantities to cast the bali figures. Life-size images of the planetary deities are moulded from these and painted beautifully in bright colors. Each planetary deity has its own dress, colors, diagram (mandala), support (vahana), weapon, etc. It is the nine planets (navagraha) that are generally propitiated: the sun (ravi), moon (candra), Mars (kuja), Mercury (budha), Jupiter (guru), Venus (sukra), Saturn (sani), and Rahu and Ketu, the ascending and the descending nodes of the moon respectively.

When everything is ready, with the bali figures propped up leaning against a wall and the patient seated by a side facing the figures, the chief bali artist starts the proceedings by taking the Five Precepts and reciting a few benedictory stanzas while the drummers start drumming. This takes place in the evening. After these preliminaries it is more or less customary for the chief artist to retire to the side, while one or two of his assistants would appear on the scene to perform the more vigorous part of the ritual, consisting mainly of dancing and reciting.

The ceremonies actually end early in the morning when the artists carry the clay images (bali figures) and the altars of offerings or pideni-tatu and leave them at the cross-roads that the evil spirits who give trouble are believed to frequent.

2. Tovil

Tovil or "devil-dancing" is another ritualistic healing ceremony that primarily belongs to folk religion. As in the case of the bali ceremony, here too many Buddhist elements have crept in and it has become a ceremony purporting to fulfill, at the popular level, the socio-religious needs of the simple rural Buddhists.

Tovil is essentially a demonic ritual mainly exorcistic in character, and hence a healing ceremony. In its exorcist form it is meant to curb and drive away any one or several of the innumerable hosts of malevolent spirits, known as yakkhas, who are capable of bringing about pathological states of body and mind. Petas or departed spirits of the malevolent type, referred to as mala-yakku (mala = dead) or mala-peta, are also brought under the exorcist power of tovil. While some of these could be subdued by the chanting of pirit (described earlier), there are some for whom methods of a more drastic type have to be adopted. The most popular of such methods is the tovil ceremony.[22]

As was pointed out earlier in relation to rituals in general, tovil is also an important aspect of folk religion that has been adopted by the Sinhala Buddhists. In the case of tovil too, religious sanction is conferred on folk-religious elements that have crept into normative Buddhism, supplementing, as it were, whatever is lacking in it to satisfy the religious needs of the masses. The Buddha is the chief of living beings, who include the yakkhas and other related non-human beings that figure in tovil. Although they have the power to make their victims ill in various ways - such as by possession, gaze, etc. - they have to leave them once propitiatory offerings of food, drink, etc., are made to them. Even the mere mention of the Buddha's virtues is enough to frighten them. Moreover, the chief of the yakkhas, Vessavana (Vesamuni), is one of the four regents of the universe (maharaja) and as such a devoted follower of the Buddha. The ordinary yakkhas that trouble human beings have to obey his commands. Thus, in all rituals connected with tovil, it is in the name of the Buddha and Vessavana that the yakkhas are commanded to obey the orders of the exorcist. And in the rich folklore that deals with tovil, there are many anecdotes that connect every ritual or character with some Buddha of the past or with some Buddhist deity.

3. The Atanatiya Ritual

It is of interest to find a purely Buddhist form of an exorcist ritual that has been practiced by the Buddhists of Sri Lanka from very early times. This is the recital of the Atanatiya Sutta (of the Digha Nikaya) in order to exorcise an evil spirit that has taken possession of a person. The commentary to the sutta (DA.iii, 969), dating at least as far back as the time of Buddhaghosa (c. 6th century A.C.) or even earlier, gives a detailed description of how and when to recite it. According to this description, first the Metta, Dhajagga, and Ratana Suttas should be recited. If the spirit does not leave by such recital, the Atanatiya Sutta is to be recited. The bhikkhu who performs the recital should not eat meat or preparations of flour. He should not live in a cemetery, lest the evil spirits get an opportunity to harass him. From the monastery to the patient's house, he should be conducted under an armed guard.[23] The recitation of the paritta should not be done in the open. Thoughts of love for the patient should be foremost in the reciter's mind. During the recital too he should be under armed guard. If the spirit still refuses to leave, the patient should be taken to the monastery and the recital performed in the courtyard of the dagaba.

Many preliminary rites are recommended before such a recital. These include getting the patient to offer a seat to the bhikkhu who is to recite the paritta, the offering of flowers and lamps to the dagaba, and the recitation by the bhikkhu of a set of benedictory stanzas, called (Maha)-mangala-gatha.[24] A full assembly of the deities should also be summoned. The person possessed should be questioned as to his name, by which is implied the identity of the spirit who has taken possession of him. Once the name is given, the spirit, but visibly the patient, should be addressed by that name. It should be told that the merits of offering incense, flowers, alms, etc. are all transferred to him and that the mangala-gatha just referred to have been recited in order to appease him (pannaharatthaya: as a gift) and that he should therefore leave the patient in deference to the Sangha (bhikkhusangha-garavena). If the spirit still refuses to leave, the deities should be informed of his obstinacy and the Atanatiya Paritta should be recited after declaring that as the spirit does not obey them, they are carrying out the order of the Buddha.

Nowadays in Sri Lanka, tovil has become the most popular form of cure adopted for spirit possession as well as other pathological conditions consequent on this. When a person is ill and medical treatment does not respond, the suspicion arises that it is due to some influence of an evil spirit. The person to be consulted in such a case is the exorcist known as kattadiya or yakadura or yaddessa[25] who would discover and identify the particular evil spirit causing the disease and perform the appropriate tovil. There are also certain forms of tovil performed as pregnancy rituals (e.g., rata-yakuma) and others as means of eradicating various forms of evil influences like the evil eye, evil mouth, etc. (e.g., gara-yakuma).

The collective effect of the ceremony is believed to cure the patient's illness. Thus this dancing in tovil is a therapeutic ritual. The impersonation of the demon by the dancer is regarded as tantamount to the actual presence of the demon who becomes placated through offerings, recitations, chanting, miming, etc. When the spirits are threatened and asked to leave the patient, they are asked to do so under the command and in the name of the Buddha.

The ceremony known as rata-yakuma is performed to make barren women conceive, or for the pre-natal care of pregnant women, and to ensure the safe delivery of children. One of the episodes mimetically performed by the exorcist in this ceremony shows how barren women, according to a Buddhist legend preserved among the Sinhala people, offer cloths to the past Buddha Dipankara, the fourth in the line of twenty-eight Buddhas accepted by Theravada Buddhists; they obtain children through the merits of the act.[26] Among the rituals specially connected with women may be mentioned those devil-dancing ceremonies that invoke the yakkha called Kalukumaraya in Sinhala. He is very often associated with another group of yakkhas called rata-yakku, whose leader is a female named Riddi-bisava. Another pregnancy ritual that deserves mention here is the one known as kalas-tabima (lit. setting apart a pot). When the first signs of pregnancy appear in a woman, a new clay pot is filled with certain ingredients and kept apart with the solemn promise that once the child is safely delivered a tovil will be performed. The ritual known as hat-adiya (seven steps) in the tovil ceremony called suniyam-kapima, signifies the seven steps the Bodhisatta Siddhattha is said to have taken just after he was born.

Two important facts that emerge from this brief description of tovil is the theatrical value present in these rituals and the way in which religious sanction has been obtained for their adoption by the Buddhists.

4. Goddess Pattini

The large number of rituals and ceremonies connected with the goddess Pattini also come under Buddhist practices. This goddess, believed to be of South Indian origin, has become the most popular female deity of the Sinhala Buddhists (see below, pp. 65-66). While Hindu goddesses like Lakshmi, Sarasvati, and Kali are also worshipped by the Buddhists, only Pattini has separate abodes among the Buddhists. The most important of the rituals connected with Pattini is the gam-maduwa, which is an all-purpose ceremony. As this ceremony is usually held after the harvest by offering the first portion of paddy harvested, this is also a ceremony of first-fruit offerings.[27] A gam-maduwa has many interludes dramatized mainly from rich legendary lore about the goddess Pattini.[28] Kohomba-kankariya, or the ritual of the god Kohomba, is a ceremony similar to the gam-maduwa but performed more as an expiatory ritual.

Two other ceremonies of this type are pan-madu and puna-madu. All these are different forms of the same type of ritual with slight differences. They are generally referred to as devol-madu or occasions for the propitiation of the gods.[29] The general purpose of such devol-madu is the attainment of immunity from disease and evil influences and the achievement of success, especially agricultural, for the entire village. A point that is sociologically important is that as they are big communal gatherings they also fulfill the social needs of the village folk. As they are performed in public places to bless the community as a whole and turn out to be social get-togethers, they bear a corporate character. When it is decided that such a ceremony should be held, all the village folk would forget their differences and work together to make it a success. Further, while it mainly serves as a ritual to propitiate the deities, it is a form of entertainment as well. Serving as it does the socio-religious needs of the masses, it becomes a big social event for the entire village.

5. Gara-demons

Gara-demons (gara-yakku (plural); -yaka (singular)) are a group of demons twelve in number whose female aspects are called the Giri goddesses. Their chief is called Dala-raja who is represented as having three hooded cobras over his head, ear-ornaments, two protruding tusks, and a torch in each hand. When referred to in the singular as gara-yaka it is he that is intended and when performing the ritual it is the mask pertaining to him that is generally used as representing the group. These demons are not inimical to humans but are regarded as removing various kinds of uncleanliness and evil influences. Accordingly it is customary among the Sinhala Buddhists to perform the ritual called gara-yak-natuma (dance of the gara-yakku) at the end of religious ceremonies like annual peraheras, tovil ceremonies, etc. This is to ward off what is called vas-dos in the terminology of the folk religion, the effects of evil-eye, evil mouth, evil thoughts, etc. The malicious influences of these evil forces have to be eliminated before the participants return to their normal activities. And for this it is these demons that have to be propitiated. Accordingly, they are invited to come and take away their prey, promising not to harm the participants thereafter. A dancer impersonates the gara-yaka by wearing the appropriate mask just referred to and in the dialogue that takes place between him and another dancer, he promises to comply with the request if certain things are given to him. These include drinks, food, sweets, and money. These items are given and he departs in peace. The ceremony is held annually at the Vishnu Devalaya in Kandy after the annual Esala Perahera. It goes on for one week from the last day of the Perahera and is referred to as vali-yak-natuma.

1. Deva Worship

In addition to their role as helpers in need, an additional duty ascribed to the devas is the safeguarding of the Buddha-sasana, i.e., the Buddhist religion. This also has its origin in the story of the Buddha himself when the four divine regents of the universe mounted guard over him and helped on various occasions of the Bodhisatta's life from his conception onwards. The benevolence of the deities is also extended to the protection of the faithful followers of the Buddha's teachings as exemplified by Sakka, the good Samaritan in many Buddhist stories.

In Sri Lanka there are four deities regarded as the guardians of the Buddha-sasana in the island: Vishnu, Saman, Kataragama, and Vibhishana. Although Vishnu is originally a Hindu god, the Buddhists have taken him over as a Buddhist deity, referring to him also by the localized designation Uppalavanna. And so are Siva, specially under the name Isvara, and Ganesha under the name Ganapati or the more popular appellation Gana-deviyo.

It is customary for many Sri Lankan Buddhists to visit a devalaya of one of the deities and make a vow that if the problem at hand (i.e., illness, enemies, etc.) is solved, they will make an offering to the deity concerned. Offerings are made even without such a special request. Whatever the case may be, this practice has become a ritual of propitiation through the kapuralas.

This form of ritualistic propitiation of deities is a clear adaptation of the Hindu system where the very same method is followed, though more elaborately.

2. The Gods

Kataragama. Devalayas dedicated to the different deities are scattered all over the island. God Kataragama (Skanda) in southern Sri Lanka is by far the most popular, as he is considered to be the most powerful deity capable of granting the requests of the worshipper. It is for this reason that he has acquired territorial rights throughout the island. Devalayas dedicated to him are found in many places in the island, some of which are maintained by the Hindus.

Ganesha. The elephant-shaped god Ganesha, regarded as the god of wisdom and the remover of obstacles, is also very popular among the Buddhists under the names Ganapati or Gana-deviyo. He is worshipped as the chief of obstacles (Vighnesvara) because it is believed that he is responsible for creating and removing obstracles. He does this through troops of inferior deities or demi-gods considered as attendants of Siva, present almost everywhere, who are under his command. It is in this sense that he is called Gana-pati (chief of hosts), which is the epithet popular among the Buddhists. The devalayas dedicated to him are mostly run by the Hindus. The Buddhists worship him either through his statues, found in many Buddhists temples, or by visiting the Hindu kovils dedicated to him. As the god of wisdom and of learning, he is propitiated at the time a child first reads the alphabet. As the chief of obstacles, as their creator as well as remover, the Hindus begin their devala-ritual by making the first offering to him.

Another popular aspect of his worship in some parts of Sri Lanka can be observed along the main roads, especially in the North-Central Province, where his statue is placed near trees and propitiated by travelers so that they may have a safe journey. The propitiation usually consists of breaking a coconut in his name, offering a coin (pandura), etc.

Natha. Natha is purely a Buddhist god, apparently the local counterpart of the all-compassionate Mahayana Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. He is referred to in Sri Lanka by the abbreviated form Natha. His cult, as that of Natha, had become quite popular during the Kotte period (14th and 15th centuries), while references to him are found as early as the 9th and 10th centuries as shown by archaelogical evidence. The center of the cult was Totagamuwa near Hikkaduwa in the Galle District. Two of the more ancient devalayas dedicated to this deity are found at Kandy and at Vagiriya. The premises of the Kandy devalaya, opposite the Temple of the Tooth, are considered especially lucky and sacred, for the important royal rites like choosing a name for the king, putting on the royal sword, etc., were held there. It was Natha's all-pervading compassion that seems to have been appealed to by the local devotees.[30]

Vishnu. The important Hindu god Vishnu has also assumed a special Buddhist significance in the island. He is identified with the god Uppalavanna of the Mahavamsa, to whom Sakka, the king of the gods, is said to have entrusted the guardianship of Sri Lanka at the request of the Buddha before his passing away. This god is said to have arrived in the island to fulfill this mission. The name Uppalavanna means "the color of the blue water-lily." As Vishnu is of the same color, Uppalavanna became identified with Vishnu, and in the wake of the Mahavamsa tradition, he became, as Vishnu, the protector of the Buddha-sasana in Sri Lanka. The calculated omission of the name Vishnu in the Mahavamsa in this connection may be viewed as an attempt at total localization of the divinity with a view to harmonize him with the cultural fabric of the island. His main shrine is at Devinuwara (Dondra), at the southern tip of the island, where an annual Esala (July-August) festival is held in his honor. If the identification is correct his cult can be traced to the earliest phase of the history of the island and has been popular up to the present day.

Pattini. Goddess Pattini, referred to above (see p.59), is prominent as the most popular female Buddhist divinity; she has her devalayas scattered throughout the country. Her cult goes back at least to the second century A.C. The then ruler, King Gajabahu, is said to have introduced the worship of this divinity into the island from South India.[31] The legend about her life is told in the Tamil poem Silappadikaram. According to the myths current in the island about her, she had seven incarnations, being born seven times from water, the tusk of an elephant, a flower, a rock, a fire (or peak), cloth, and a mango. Hence she is designated as sat-pattini, sat meaning seven.

Her favors are sought especially at times of pestilences like chicken pox, measles, etc. and also by women who desire children. It is customary for the Sri Lankan Buddhists to visit her devalaya and worship her with offerings after recovery from infectious diseases. The banishment of evil influences and the attainment of prosperity in general and good harvests are other purposes behind the ceremonies performed in her honor. She also plays an important part in the ceremonies connected with the offering of first fruits.[32]

Devalayas dedicated to her are found in many parts of the island, the one at Navagamuwa, about fifteen miles from Colombo on the old Avissavella Road, being the most important. The sanctity of this place seems to go back to the time of King Gajabahu.[33]

Sakka. Sakka, the king of the gods, has been an important figure in the Buddhist affairs of Sri Lanka. Tradition connects him with the Buddha himself in connection with the landing of Vijaya and his followers in the island in the 6th century B.C. On this occasion, at the Buddha's request, Sakka is said to have entrusted Vishnu with the guardianship of Buddhism in the island. It was Sakka too who sought arahant Mahinda and requested him to come over to the island when the time became opportune for its conversion (Mhv. xiii,15,16,17).

Saman. Another important deity in the island is Mahasumana, Sumana or Saman, the guardian or the presiding deity of Sri Pada mountain or Sumanakuta (Adam's Peak), which the Buddhists treat as sacred on account of its bearing the impression of the Buddha's left foot, which he left on his third visit to the island. (Mhv.i,77ff.).

Vibhishana. Another deity, somewhat similar to Saman, is Vibhishana, who is regarded as the brother of the pre-historic King Ravana of Sri Lanka. His main shrine is at Kelaniya, as a part of the famous Buddhist temple there.

Dadimunda. Another deity who likewise came into prominence during the Kandyan period (17th and 18th centuries) is Dadimunda (Devata Bandara) who, according to the prevalent tradition, landed at Dondra (Devinuvara) in South Sri Lanka from South India. He proceeded to Alutnuvara in the Kegalla District, taking up permanent residence there in a temple, which he himself got constructed. This is the chief shrine of this deity and here too an annual festival is held. He is regarded as a general of Vishnu and accordingly, at the main Vishnu shrines in the island, he also has his shrine on a side (e.g., Dondra, Kandy, etc.). Another interesting tradition says that he was the only deity who did not run away in fear at the time of Bodhisatta Siddhattha's struggle with Mara. While all the other deities took flight in fright, he alone remained fearless as the Bodhisatta's only guardian. He is portrayed in the attire of a Kandyan chief with his special attribute, a walking stick (soluva). His Kandyan dress symbolizes his suzerainty over the Kandyan area.

Huniyan Deviyo. The patron deity of the sorcerers in Sri Lanka is Huniyan or Suniyan, who has been promoted from the status of a demon to that of a deity. He is also regarded as the deity presiding over a village area bounded by its boundaries (gam-kotuwa), in which role he is designated as gambhara-deviyo (deity in charge of the village). In many of the composite devalayas he too has his shrine, the one at Lunava, about seven miles from Colombo close to the Galle Road, near the Lunava railway station, being his chief devalaya.

Besides these deities so far enumerated there are many other minor figures who are too numerous to be mentioned here. What is important is that in the case of all these deities, the method of propitiation and worship is the same as explained earlier and every such deity is in charge of a particular aspect of life. And all of them are faithful Buddhists, extending their respective powers not only to the Buddha-sasana but also to those who follow it faithfully.

As Buddhists, none of these is regarded as superior or even remotely equal to the Buddha. They all are followers of the Buddha, who has transcended the round of rebirth (samsara), while they are still within samsara, hoping to achieve release from it by following the Buddha's Teaching.

On the significance of the phases of the moon in Buddhism see Ch. 3.

The poya day routine will be described below, pp.24-31

This term has become a very common means of expressing religious devotion; usually it is repeated about three times and the clasping of hands in the gesture of worship inevitably accompanies it.

These formulas may be found in The Mirror of the Dhamma (BPS Wheel No. 54), pp.5-8.

Authoritative opinion holds that there is nothing irregular in its continuation now as its long usage has invested it with the necessary validity.

Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Mediaeval Sinhalese Art (New York: Pantheon Books, 1956), plate XLV.

See above, p.13.

E.W. Adikaram, Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon (Migoda, Sri Lanka, 1946), p.140.

Ibid.

It may be mentioned here that in astrology the month begins with the new moon and all calculations are done accordingly between two new moons as one month.

This perahera is held in honor of God Kataragama (see below, p.64).

On this problem see NIBWA: Newsletter on International Buddhist Women's Activities, Vol. 11, No. 1, Oct.-Dec. 1994, pp.3ff.

At present Nagadipa is taken to refer to a small island about twelve miles off the western coast of Jaffna, where a Buddhist temple is identified as the place the Buddha visited. However, in historical times, Nagadipa referred to the modern Jaffna peninsula and the northwest of Sri Lanka. (See Malalasekera, Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, II, p.42.)

The Pirit-Pota is also known by the more honorific designation Piruvana-Potvahanse. For an English translation of the most important texts from this work, see Piyadassi Thera, The Book of Protection (BPS, 1981).

The protective spells represented by each of these terms slightly differ from one another as regards their form.

Kotagama Vacissara Thera, Saranankara Sangharaja Samaya, pp.118-19.

Ibid.

For details of the Atanatiya recital see below, pp.55-57.

For details see Ordination in Theravada Buddhism (BPS Wheel No. 56).

This is a ritual lasting for about an hour in which the exorcist, using an arecanut cutter, cuts a certain number of charmed limes over the head of the patient. A tray is placed before the patient holding flowers of various colors, burnt offerings, betel, etc. Waving a mango-twig over the patient's head, the exorcist utters incantations and recites benedictory stanzas. The mango twig is regarded as having power to drive away evil spirits.

Vilakku are the small reeds, about a foot long and half an inch in diameter, while pandam signify the larger ones, about 18 inches long and 2 inches in diameter.

The choice between these two depends perhaps also to some extent on the socio-religious maturity of the patrons.

All these are precautionary measures meant to immunize the reciting bhikkhu against the influence of evil spirits, which phenomenon is referred to as tani-vima ("becoming alone") in a very general sense.

The reference most probably is to the set of benedictory stanzas beginning: "Maha karuniko natho," which is found at the end of the local edition of the Catubhanavara text. See too Mirror of the Dhamma, pp.30-34.

When this person is addressed directly the common term used is gurunnanse (the honorific suffix unnanse is added to the term guru - teacher).

E.R. Sarachchandra, The Folk Drama of Ceylon, 2nd ed. (Sri Lanka Government, Dept. of Cultural Affairs, 1966), p.40.

First-fruit offerings are annual rituals held at important Buddhist temples and devalayas. Almost every province of the island has an important temple where it is held. The ritual is generally known as alut-sahal-mangalyaya (the ritual of offering new rice), rice being the staple food of Sri Lanka.

E.R. Sarachchandra, The Folk Drama of Ceylon, pp. 25, 26, 47f.

Ibid., p.26.

See Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, II, pp.413-14.

C.W. Nicholas and S. Paranavitana, A Concise History of Ceylon (Ceylon University Press, Colombo, 1961), pp. 79-80.

E.R. Sarachchandra, The Folk Drama of Ceylon, p.47.

The Ceylon National Museum Mss. Series. Vol. IX - Ethnology-4, p.iii, para. 5.

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Buddhist Ceremonies and Rituals of Sri Lanka

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All PTS editions A. .... Anguttara Nikaya D. .... Digha Nikaya DA. .... Digha Nikaya Atthakatha J. .... Jatakas KhpA. .... Khuddakapatha Atthakatha Mhv. .... Mahavamsa PvA. .... Petavatthu Atthakatha S. ....

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This website is all about the history of the Hindu festival Holi, which is celebrated across India and is all about joy and color.

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Holi is an ancient festival of India and was originally known as 'Holika'. The festivals finds a detailed description in early religious works such as Jaimini's Purvamimamsa-Sutras and Kathaka-Grhya-Sutras. Historians also believe that Holi was celebrated by all Aryans but more so in the Eastern part of India.

It is said that Holi existed several centuries before Christ. However, the meaning of the festival is believed to have changed over the years. Earlier it was a special rite performed by married women for the happiness and well-being of their families and the full moon (Raka) was worshiped.

Calculating the Day of Holi

There are two ways of reckoning a lunar month- 'purnimanta' and 'amanta'. In the former, the first day starts after the full moon; and in the latter, after the new moon. Though the amanta reckoning is more common now, the purnimanta was very much in vogue in the earlier days.

According to this purnimanta reckoning, Phalguna purnima was the last day of the year and the new year heralding the Vasanta-ritu (with spring starting from next day). Thus the full moon festival of Holika gradually became a festival of merrymaking, announcing the commencement of the spring season. This perhaps explains the other names of this festival - Vasanta-Mahotsava and Kama-Mahotsava.

Reference in Ancient Texts and Inscriptions

Besides having a detailed description in the Vedas and Puranas such as Narad Purana and Bhavishya Purana, the festival of Holi finds a mention in Jaimini Mimansa. A stone incription belonging to 300 BC found at Ramgarh in the province of Vindhya has mention of Holikotsav on it. King Harsha, too has mentioned about holikotsav in his work Ratnavali that was written during the 7th century.

The famous Muslim tourist - Ulbaruni too has mentioned about holikotsav in his historical memories. Other Muslim writers of that period have mentioned, that holikotsav were not only celebrated by the Hindus but also by the Muslims.

Reference in Ancient Paintings and Murals

The festival of Holi also finds a reference in the sculptures on walls of old temples. A 16th century panel sculpted in a temple at Hampi, capital of Vijayanagar, shows a joyous scene of Holi. The painting depicts a Prince and his Princess standing amidst maids waiting with syringes or pichkaris to drench the Royal couple in coloured water.

A 16th century Ahmednagar painting is on the theme of Vasanta Ragini - spring song or music. It shows a royal couple sitting on a grand swing, while maidens are playing music and spraying colors with pichkaris.

There are a lot of other paintings and murals in the temples of medieval India which provide a pictoral description of Holi. For instance, a Mewar painting (circa 1755) shows the Maharana with his courtiers. While the ruler is bestowing gifts on some people, a merry dance is on, and in the center is a tank filled with colored water. Also, a Bundi miniature shows a king seated on a tusker and from a balcony above some damsels are showering gulal (colored powders) on him.

Legends and Mythology

In some parts of India, specially in Bengal and Orissa, Holi Purnima is also celebrated as the birthday of Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (A.D. 1486-1533). However, the literal meaning of the word 'Holi' is 'burning'. There are various legends to explain the meaning of this word, most prominent of all is the legend associated with demon king Hiranyakashyap.

Hiranyakashyap wanted everybody in his kingdom to worship only him but to his great disappointment, his son, Prahlad became an ardent devotee of Lord Naarayana. Hiaranyakashyap commanded his sister, Holika to enter a blazing fire with Prahlad in her lap. Holika had a boon whereby she could enter fire without any damage on herself. However, she was not aware that the boon worked only when she enters the fire alone. As a result she paid a price for her sinister desires, while Prahlad was saved by the grace of the god for his extreme devotion. The festival, therefore, celebrates the victory of good over evil and also the triumph of devotion.

Legend of Lord Krishna is also associated with play with colors as the Lord started the tradition of play with colours by applying colour on his beloved Radha and other gopis. Gradually, the play gained popularity with the people and became a tradition.

There are also a few other legends associated with the festival - like the legend of Shiva and Kaamadeva and those of Ogress Dhundhi and Pootana. All depict triumph of good over evil - lending a philosophy to the festival.

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History of Holi - The history of holi is much more intresting and necessiate to know all hindu's. Read more about history of holi, holi history and what is the history of holi.

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This article is extremely helpful in providing a summary, full of various information, about Hinduism. It focuses, namely, on the beliefs, symbols, holy books, origins, gods, ways of worship, and sects within the Hinduism religion. It also includes mentioning the places of worship and typical rituals practiced, which could be helpful if you were researching Hinduism's specific acts of worship.

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Hinduism - Origins, Facts & Beliefs | HISTORY

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Hinduism is a compilation of many traditions and philosophies and is considered by many scholars to be the world's oldest religion, dating back more than 4,000 years. Today it is the third-largest religion behind Christianity and Islam.

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This is a description of what it is like when people first realize how their thinking aligns with the Bahai Faith and how it impacted their life.

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NEW YORK - Dizzy Gillespie is remembered not only for his genius as a trumpeter who broke new ground in jazz but also for his long-standing dedication to the teachings of Baha'u'llah. Reflecting on the life and accomplishments of this iconic figure 100 years after his birth would be incomplete without reflecting on the Baha'i belief that seemed most to inspire and drive his work-that all human beings are part of one family.

"Dizzy represented an organic breakthrough in music," asserts jazz pianist Mike Longo about Dizzy Gillespie, his late collaborator and friend.

"His music is from such a deep place," Longo says, scanning the walls of his apartment on Riverside Drive on Manhattan's upper west side. Framed photographs capture the decades of a musical partnership that ranged from playing sold-out concerts in major venues to private practice sessions at Gillespie's home in Englewood on the other side of the Hudson River.

IN DEPTH: Listen to an interview with Mike Longo

Robert Weinberg is a journalist who recently sat down with Dizzy Gillespie's longtime friend and bandmate Mike Longo to talk about Gillespie's life as a pioneering jazz musician and a member of the Baha'i Faith. All music featured on the podcast comes from a concert Longo and Gillespie performed at in Osaka, Japan, in 1987 and was provided by Mike Longo.

Subscribe to the BWNS podcast for additional audio content.

But jazz was not the only uniting factor in Gillespie and Longo's enduring friendship. Both men were attracted to Baha'u'llah's message of oneness and unity-principles that would lead them to embrace the Baha'i Faith.

"The night I joined the band was the night he heard about the Baha'i Faith," says Longo.

When Gillespie encountered the Baha'i Faith for the first time, after a concert in Milwaukee, he discovered that it immediately resonated with his thinking-and his music.

"When I encountered the Baha'i Faith, it all went along with what I had always believed. I believed in the oneness of mankind. I believed we all come from the same source, that no race of people is inherently superior to any other."

-Dizzy Gillespie

"Jazz is based on the same principles as the Baha'i Faith," says Longo. "Interracial mixing was way back when jazz first started. Dizzy described jazz as a marriage between African rhythm and European harmony and so, if you look at that from a broader perspective, that's a marriage between the black race and the white race. And Dizzy's music specifically, when they say that the Prophet unleashes a new power in the universe, Dizzy's concept of bebop...is a reflection of that."

Gillespie's deep commitment to unity and justice expressed itself through the inclusive spirit that characterized his music and his interactions with people of all walks of life.
Bebop pioneer
Born John Birks Gillespie in Cheraw, South Carolina, on 21 October 1917, Dizzy Gillespie was at the cutting edge of the bebop jazz phenomenon in the 1940s, often considered the most radical and vital music of its time. Bebop is characterized by its high energy tempos and rapid key changes, complex chord progressions, and dazzling improvisations around a melody.

"They were doing very difficult things," explains British jazz and art critic Martin Gayford. "Gillespie's technique alarmed other trumpet players, particularly because he was playing so high."

"While Charlie Parker came up with the phrasing and the rhythmic approach, Gillespie's contribution was more the technical side of the harmony and great showmanship."

"The photographs that typify the bebop era are of Dizzy, with his beret and goatee beard," says Gayford.

That vibrant persona and sheer technical virtuosity-with Gillespie's trademark cheeks ballooning out bullfrog-like around the mouthpiece of his distinctive bent trumpet-make him a hard act for trumpeters to follow today.

"When, at the age of 8, I first heard a recording of his music, I was just astonished by what the trumpet could do," says James Morrison, the celebrated Australian musician who was at the helm of an anniversary tribute concert held at London's Royal Albert Hall on 4 August 2017, as part of the world-famous BBC Proms concert season.

"I have always been inspired by his way of playing the trumpet," says Morrison. "I'm very heavily influenced by him."

Morrison, who played with Gillespie on a number of occasions, believes his outgoing personality helped to make his innovative music a lot more accessible.

"He was there pushing boundaries, but he was so approachable as a person. There is a clichéd idea that an innovator has to be a dark, brooding person, off in his own world. But Dizzy was so garrulous and made such a great connection with the audience."

"This music doesn't come from thinking. You can't think and play at the same time. It comes from behind the mind, so there's a sort of a bliss place back there that's totally spiritual. That is the animating force to our music... The power that Baha'u'llah unleashed is the animating force in the arts."

-Mike Longo

Encountering the Baha'i Faith
It was just such an audience member who first introduced Gillespie to the Baha'i Faith. Beth McKenty, a Canadian who attended one of his shows in Milwaukee, had been inspired to reach out to him after reading about the tragic death of Charlie Parker, bebop's co-originator. Parker was a saxophonist, who had at one point claimed that Gillespie was the "other half of his heart." He died in 1955 at the age of 34, following a long period of drug addiction.

"Beth had called Dizzy and told him, 'Charlie Parker didn't have to die like he died' and could she talk to him," remembers Longo. "And so that night, she and her husband came and Dizzy was sitting with them at the table and she told him about the Baha'i Faith and gave him a lot of literature."

After a period of intense reading and studying, Gillespie formally accepted the Baha'i Faith on 5 April 1968, the night after the assassination of Civil Rights Leader Martin Luther King Jr. The musician was attracted by the emphasis given in Baha'u'llah's teachings to unity, particularly by their assertion of the harmony of science and religion, the equality of women and men, and the oneness of humanity.

"He and I were both very upset about the racial situation here with all the riots and everything," says Longo. "We were talking and I said, 'It don't have to be like that,' and I remember we were saying, 'There's got to be somebody that represents the way we feel,' and that's when he discovered the Faith."

Gillespie wrote in his autobiography, To Be or Not to Bop, "When I encountered the Baha'i Faith, it all went along with what I had always believed. I believed in the oneness of mankind. I believed we all come from the same source, that no race of people is inherently superior to any other."

"Dizzy was tuned into the vibe," says Longo.

Gillespie had long been interested in exploring the rhythms and harmonies of diverse cultures, and Longo believes his music evolved even further after he embraced the Baha'i teachings.

"It got deeper," he says. "If you listen to the chronology of his recordings, when he embraced the Afro-Cuban thing, the music went to a much deeper level... It went to a world level. And if you think about the Faith, that was a reflection of all the people coming together, it went on to a level as close as a human being can get to perfection."

Becoming a Baha'i influenced Gillespie's life in every way. He wrote that it gave him "a new concept of the relationship between God and man-between man and his fellow man-man and his family."

"I became more spiritually aware, and when you're spiritually aware, that will be reflected in what you do," wrote Gillespie.

And jazz musicians, Gillespie believed, were among "the people most 'in tune' with the Universe."

"What is more appropriate than a musician being in tune with nature and with our Creator?" he wrote. "The best example is the way that they perform; how do they come up with things that have never been played before? Where did they get it? They have to have some kind of divine inspiration."

Longo concurs. "This music doesn't come from thinking. You can't think and play at the same time. It comes from behind the mind, so there's a sort of a bliss place back there that's totally spiritual. That is the animating force to our music. In fact all of the arts, and sciences as well. The power that Baha'u'llah unleashed is the animating force in the arts."

"Dizzy said, 'What you hear is the divinity in the music.'"

"In the Baha'i religion we don't believe in cutting loose anything good. Cut loose your heritage? Baha'is believe that you bring it in and work with others. Bring it into the whole just like a master painting. Because I'm purple and there's another cat who's orange doesn't mean that we can't come into one big compatible complementary arrangement."

-Dizzy Gillespie

The United Nation Orchestra
"Gillespie was around for a very long time," reflects Martin Gayford, "from the 1940s right through to the 1990s. So he became something of an elder statesman of jazz, and a great encourager of young talent."

The most ambitious, and final, fusion of his music with his religious beliefs was Gillespie's formation of his United Nation Orchestra, with which he toured the world in the 1980s. The Baha'i principle of building unity that maintains and celebrates cultural diversity was Gillespie's key inspiration for the big band made up of younger musicians from the United States and outstanding players and singers from Brazil, Cuba, and Panama.

"That's what he believed in," says Longo, "and so that's what the principle of the United Nation Orchestra was."

"In the Baha'i religion we don't believe in cutting loose anything good," Gillespie wrote. "Cut loose your heritage? Baha'is believe that you bring it in and work with others. Bring it into the whole just like a master painting. Because I'm purple and there's another cat who's orange doesn't mean that we can't come into one big compatible complementary arrangement. Just contribute from your own uniqueness, but don't get over in their groove. Stay outta theirs!"
A lasting legacy
Since his death in 1993 at the age of 75, Dizzy Gillespie continues to be revered by enthusiasts the world over. His music has become the subject of academic study and symposia; his recordings are constantly being remastered, reissued, and rediscovered by younger generations. In the coming months, tribute concerts marking 100 years since his birth are taking place across the globe.

"When you pay a tribute to someone, there's that question - do you imitate them?" says James Morrison. "And I believe, sound-wise-no. There are recognizable 'Dizzyisms' in what happens, but a true tribute is to create the atmosphere. It's always like he was having a party, and he would take that onto the stage. I've always felt that's what I wanted to do too."

But Mike Longo believes Gillespie's music is still not fully understood. Speaking at the trumpeter's funeral in 1993, Longo told the congregation that, "a lot of people know what Dizzy played but they don't know how he played."

"At this point in time most of the educators and so forth are imitating it," he says. "They don't understand the concept, they understand the notes. So they imitate the notes and they try to imitate the feeling, but they're not coming up with the essence yet. So he's not fully appreciated yet."

"Might be another 100 years before that happens," Longo laughs.

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Hearing "the Divinity in the music": Dizzy Gillespie remembered at 100 | BWNS

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NEW YORK - Dizzy Gillespie is remembered not only for his genius as a trumpeter who broke new ground in jazz but also for his long-standing dedication to the teachings of Baha'u'llah.

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This interview explains the background of the Bahi faith which was founded in the 19th century. They go on to talk about how since then, 350,000 Baha'i Iranian people have been discriminated against and repressed.

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EXCLUSIVE Interview: Baha'i Iranian refugee

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This video discusses the views around the hijab from the perspective of people who choose to wear, or not wear them. I think that it is interesting to see their experiences being Muslim in general in America and how the hijab affects their relationship with their religion.

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Does Hijab Oppress These Muslim Women? | Middle Ground

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The Mahāyāna New Year celebration honors their gods, especially Buddha. Buddha's statues is bathed to show their respect, but Mahāyāna Buddhists will also offer religious songs to the deities. Buddhists are expected to visit a nearby temple on New Years Day. Once there, they light candles to bring happiness and good luck for the coming year.

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January 21 - 23, 2019 - Mahāyāna New Year

Mahāyāna, which means 'Great Vehicle' in English. Mahāyāna is also a term that refers to Buddhist philosophies and practices. The other main branch of Buddhism is Theravada. Mahāyāna and Theraveda Buddhism differ in a few ways.

Theraveda Buddhism is commonly practiced in Southeast Asia, in places such as Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Sri Lanka. In these areas, they follow the original Indian form of Buddhism very closely. Theraveda Buddhism places importance on the language of Pali in worship, the birth language of Buddha.

Mahāyāna Buddhism is more commonly practiced in Northeast Asia, in place such as Tibet, China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and Mongolia. As a result, Mahāyāna Buddhism, absorbed local customs from those areas, and includes some of these cultural customs as well. Mahāyāna Buddhism is therefore more commonly practiced in the United States among immigrants from the countries where it is practiced.

Mahāyāna Buddhists believe that enlightenment can be achieved during an individual's single or current lifetime. This enlightenment is not just reserved for monks; ordinary Buddhists also have the opportunity to achieve it. The goal for everyone is to become enlightened through service and helping others to achieve nirvana as well.

The Mahāyāna New Year is different for each country and tradition. Some Mahāyāna Buddhists celebrate it on December 31 or January 1 along with the rest of the world. Others wait for the first full moon which usually falls mid-January. The 2019 celebration will be held January 21 - 23. Mahāyāna Buddhists will celebrate by honoring and praying to their gods, particularly Buddha. Buddha's statues will also be bathed as a show of respect. Religious songs are also offered to the deities. Buddhists are expected to visit a nearby temple on New Years Day. Once there, they light candles to bring happiness and good luck for the coming year.

For Buddhists, the new year is a time for meditation and self reflection. The goal is to find ways to improve and learn from past mistakes. Buddhists also believe that buying new items, cleaning and redecorating the home and giving gifts can bring good luck. They also celebrate with feasts that are filled with sweets, and there are typically fireworks at midnight.

If there's a particular celebration you or someone you know participates in that we missed, let us know by leaving a comment on this post. Or, if you think we got something wrong, please also comment and let us know. We try to be as accurate as possible, but if there's a mistake, we want to correct it.

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The Origins and Practice of Holidays: Mahayana New Year

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January 21 - 23, 2019 - Mahāyāna New Year Mahāyāna, which means 'Great Vehicle' in English. Mahāyāna is also a term that refers to Buddhist...

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This article explore the artwork in Christianity and where to see them. Christians did not creat much 2D art, but there were traces of art in their sculptures and architecture. These included biblical paintings on walls and scuptures of Christian figures

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Christian Art - A History of Christian Artwork and Biblical Paintings

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The scriptures have for many centuries been a source of inspiration for Christian painters and sculptors. They have influenced great artists in many eras, leavi

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Wesak, also called Buddha day is the celebration for the Buddha's birthday. Many people go to visit their local temple and bring gifts for the monks in the temple. Wesak takes place on the full moon in May or June and is celebrated in many countries. There is also a tradition called bathing the Buddha where the people pour scented water on the Buddha statue. Also Buddha's make an effort to donate to charity or help out during this festival.

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Wesak celebrates the Buddha's birthday and, for some Buddhists, also marks his enlightenment and death. It is also called Buddha Day.

When is Wesak?

Wesak is the most important of the Buddhist festivals and is celebrated on the full moon in May.

In 2024 Wesak takes place on Thursday 23 May.

How is Wesak celebrated?

Wesak is a very colourful and happy celebration. Homes may be cleaned and decorated.

In many countries, Buddhists will visit their local temple for services and teaching. They will give offerings to the monks of food, candles and flowers. Chanting and praying are an important part of Wesak.

The 'Bathing the Buddha' ceremony is also often included. Water is poured over the shoulders of the Buddha as a reminder to purify their own minds from greed, hatred and ignorance.

Gifts are taken to an altar to be offered to the Buddha statues. This shows respect and gratitude to the Buddha for his life and teachings.

Giving to others is an important Buddhist tradition. Buddhists make a special effort to give to people in need at Wesak.

Celebrations vary from one country to another. In Thailand and Indonesia, for example, special Wesak lanterns are made of paper and wood. In China, dancing dragons are incorporated into the celebrations.

Another popular custom in some countries is to release caged birds. This represents letting go of troubles and wishing that all beings are well and happy.

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Find out more by working through a topic

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Learn all about the Buddhist festival of Wesak with fun interactive videos, activities, downloads quizzes and revision guides for KS2 school children.

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This short interview details the life of Muslims in Europe and how they are treated. It talks about how people of other backgrounds are quick to judge and don really know how to talk with Muslims about their faith.

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Interview with Lina, a young Muslim woman living in France

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This article goes into detail about a few of the most well known Hindu Festivals: Diwali, Holi and Ramnavmi, and how each of them celebrate different highlights of the religion's foundation through different mediums. For example, Diwali, translating to "rows of lamps" is celebrated using candles to signify the victory of light over darkness, in contrast to Holi, which is celebrated using colored powder to break down all discriminatory racial boundaries until everyone looks the same, and to prove the moral of good over evil.

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This article talks about the holiday, Nirvana Day, which is the celebration of Buddha's death when he reached total Nirvana. Nirvana is very significant in Buddhism and Buddha taught that it is something beyond human imagination.

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Parinirvana Day - or Nirvana Day - is observed primarily by Mahayana Buddhists, most commonly on February 15th. The day commemorates the death of the historical Buddha and his entry into final or complete Nirvana.

Nirvana Day is a time for contemplation of the Buddha's teachings. Some monasteries and temples hold meditation retreats. Others open their doors to laypeople, who bring gifts of money and household goods to support monks and nuns.

Note that in Theravada Buddhism, the Buddha's parinirvana, birth, and enlightenment are all observed together in an observance called Vesak. The time of Vesak is determined by lunar calendar; it usually falls in May.

The word Nirvana means "to extinguish," such as extinguishing the flame of a candle. It's important to understand that the people of ancient India considered fire to be a bit of atmosphere that had become trapped by fuel. This bit of atmosphere burns angrily and fitfully until it is released to become cool, peaceful air again.

Some schools of Buddhism explain Nirvana as a state of bliss or peace, and this state may be experienced in life, or it may be entered into at death. The Buddha taught that Nirvana was beyond human imagination, and so speculation about what Nirvana is like is foolish.

In many schools of Buddhism, it's believed realization of enlightenment causes living people to enter a kind of partial Nirvana, or "Nirvana With Remainders." The word parinirvana refers to a complete or final Nirvana realized at death.

The Buddha died at the age of 80 -- possibly of food poisoning -- in the company of his monks. As recorded in the Parinibbana Sutta of the Pali Sutta-Pitaka, the Buddha knew his life was at an end, and he assured his monks that he had withheld no spiritual teaching from them. He urged them to maintain the teachings so that they would continue to help people through the ages to come.

Finally, he said, "All conditioned things are subject to decay. Strive for your liberation with diligence." Those were his last words.

As might be expected, Nirvana Day observances tend to be solemn. This is a day for meditation or reading the Parinibanna Sutta. In particular, it is a time to reflect on death and impermanence.

Nirvana Day also is a traditional day for pilgrimage. The Buddha is believed to have died near a city named Kushinagar, located in the modern-day state of Uttar Pradesh in India. Kushinagar is a major pilgrimage destination on Nirvana Day.

Pilgrims may visit a number of stupas (shrines) and temples in Kushinagar, including:

The Nirvana Stupa and temple. The stupa marks the place where the Buddha's ashes were thought to have been buried. This structure also contains a popular reclining Buddha statue, depicting the dying Buddha.

The Wat Thai Temple. This is considered one of the most beautiful temples in Kushinagar. It is formally called the Wat Thai Kushinara Chalermaraj Temple, and it was built with donations from Thai Buddhists and opened to the public in 2001.

The Ramabhar Stupa marks the place where the Buddha was thought to have been cremated. This stupa is also called the Mukutbandhan-Chaitya.

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Parinirvana Day - or Nirvana Day - is observed primarily by Mahayana Buddhists, most commonly on February 15th. The day commemorates the death of the historical Buddha and his entry into final or complete Nirvana. Nirvana Day is a time for contemplation of the Buddha's teachings. Some monasteries and temples hold meditation retreats.

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Seán Rayshel speaks about his experience being both LGBTQ and a Baha'i. He explains that while the faith promotes tolerance and equality, LGBTQ relationships are frowned upon in many interpretations of the Baha'i law. Rayshel has gone on to become an activist for other LGBTQ Bahai's.

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Rayshel moved to Palm Springs to be with Tarpening but didn't get involved with the local Baha'i community there for a few years. When he did, the community discovered how learned he was and quickly suggested he hold a seat on the Palm Springs Spiritual Assembly.

Rayshel told the community that he was openly gay and had a partner. He asked if they would accept him for who he was. They did so warmly, Rayshel said.

Surprised at having been embraced by two assemblies, Rayshel thought, "Maybe the faith is slowly, locally changing," he said.

But Rayshel still had to be careful.

Having learned about the Baha'i faith from Rayshel, Tarpening was interested in becoming Baha'i. But whenever Tarpening brought up the topic, Rayshel danced away from it. Frustrated, Tarpening finally cornered Rayshel about it, and Rayshel shared the sad conclusion he'd come to.

"You know, honey, I love you, but I just don't see how we can be active together in this religion if I can't technically be in a relationship with you," Rayshel remembers telling Tarpening. "Once word gets out, I'll lose my administrative rights, you'll lose your administrative rights, and then where are we?"

Opposing Baha'i condemnation of homosexuality

In 2007, a few years into Rayshel's service, the Palm Springs Baha'i community phone line was ringing off the hook.

Multiple media outlets reported that there was Baha'i participation in a rally against homosexuality in Kampala, Uganda, which was held in response to recent calls from Ugandan LGBTQ community members for equal rights.

An interfaith group called the Interfaith Rainbow Coalition Against Homosexuality organized the rally. The nature of Baha'i participation is unclear.

Curiously, while Christian and Muslim community leaders were explicitly mentioned and pictured in media coverage of the rally, ReligionUnplugged.com couldn't find named mentions of Baha'is participating in the event. When ReligionUnplugged asked one of the coalition's leaders, Pastor Martin Ssempa, if there were any Baha'is affiliated with the coalition, he said, "Not any I can recall."

Nonetheless, the Universal House of Justice would later confirm in a letter to Rayshel that there was some Baha'i participation in the association. "The Baha'i representative to the interfaith association was unwittingly drawn into this controversy. Some reports have incorrectly characterized the Baha'i involvement in the matter. The National Spiritual Assembly of Uganda is taking steps to ensure that such issues are handled appropriately in the future," the Universal House of Justice wrote.

Jarrett Hobbs, the manager of the Office of Community Administration at the National Spiritual Assembly in the United States, said that there was a Baha'i spokesperson affiliated with a local community that participated in the interfaith organization - without knowledge of the association's involvement in politics, though, he isn't very familiar with the details of the situation.

In response to Baha'i participation in the anti-LGBTQ coalition, Rayshel signed a petition addressed to the Universal House of Justice. The petition said signers opposed Baha'i condemnation of homosexuality and Baha'i backing of anti-LGBTQ politics. His sister Erica also signed. His parents refrained.

"They just were like, 'I don't know Seán, this is kind of rocking the boat,'" he said.

Unafraid of some boat rocking, Rayshel emailed the petition to local Baha'is in and around Palm Springs, explaining that the issue needed to be confronted, and that "the House of Justice needs to know this is not acceptable," he said.

There were repercussions for Rayshel's dissidence, he said.

Rayshel heard rumors of uproar over his sharing of the petition bubbling east of Palm Springs in nearby Baha'i communities. This culminated when the topic of Rayshel's perceived insubordination dominated a cluster meeting of Baha'i communities in the region, which Rayshel heard about from a fellow Palm Springs Spiritual Assembly member in attendance. Attendees discussed that he and Erica could be branded "covenant breakers" for compelling the Universal House of Justice to change their position on LGBTQ issues, Rayshel was told

To be labeled a covenant breaker is the greatest punishment in the Baha'i faith, reserved for those trying to form a schism or otherwise organize dissent to the point of threatening the unity of the religion. Only the Universal House of Justice can label someone a covenant breaker.

Riled by the "backbiting," Rayshel reached out to his then auxiliary board member for protection, Sam Delchad - the Baha'i occupying the post changes over time. He asked Delchad to meet with him and his family in his home to discuss how the situation could be addressed.

What Rayshel expected to be a helpful meeting in his home turned into "a three-hour interrogation," Rayshel said. Delchad asked for the names of other LGBTQ Baha'is and sympathizers, the name of the person who created the petition and where they lived, and the status of the Rayshel family's loyalty to the Baha'i law and administration, Rayshel said.

Rayshel refused to give up the names of LGBTQ Baha'is, said he didn't know anything about the creator of the petition and affirmed his loyalty to the faith.

Delchad could not be reached for comment at the time of publication of this article. Rayshel provided emails to ReligionUnplugged.com indicating that Delchad and he met at his home.

Delchad told Rayshel that his name wasn't being discussed negatively in meetings, which contradicted what he had been hearing. Delchad did say, however, that the Universal House of Justice could elect to brand him a covenant breaker for signing the petition and encouraging fellow Baha'is to follow, and that Rayshel's signing and spreading of the petition had prompted an investigation into him at the Baha'i World Centre.

Delchad asked Rayshel and his family to sign a document recognizing that they were challenged by Baha'i laws on homosexuality and thus challenged by the prophethood of Bahá'u'lláh. In other words, "our belief in Bahá'u'lláh was being questioned," Rayshel said.

Rayshel wasn't having it.

"I stood up, and I said to my family, 'We are not signing that goddamn thing here, and how dare you ask us or question us about our belief in Bahá'u'lláh?'"

Then he told Delchad that he knew members of various religions who struggled with particular rules and aspects of their faith, and that to interrogate him and his family in this fashion was "bordering on cult-like behavior," Rayshel said.

After some tense back and forth, Delchad left, Rayshel said.

Fearing his actions may get him and his sister labeled covenant breakers, Rayshel contacted the Universal House of Justice to let them know he regretted signing the petition, ask whether there was an ongoing investigation into his actions, and ask for the Universal House of Justice's forgiveness.

The Universal House of Justice wrote back to Rayshel, assuring him "that no such investigation is being conducted" and of its good spiritual wishes for him.

The turning point: a wedding

In 2008, California made gay marriage legal. So Tarpening and Rayshel got married on Sept. 20 that year. They invited Baha'is to the wedding and posted photos of the ceremony to Facebook.

The wedding didn't seem to stir any trouble, Rayshel said. That was, until 2014, when he got a phone call.

It was from Jacqueline Left Hand Bull, then a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States. National spiritual assemblies are the highest Baha'i administrative bodies in each country. Left Hand Bull had been tasked by the Universal House of Justice with meeting Rayshel in person to discuss his wedding, she explained over the phone according to Rayshel.

Left Hand Bull, who wanted to be clear that she speaks only for herself and not for the Baha'i faith as a whole, told ReligionUnplugged.com she doesn't recall the contents of the conversation but does remember it happening. She also doesn't remember the Universal House of Justice tasking the National Spiritual Assembly to speak with Rayshel but said that this telling of events "makes sense," she added.

Hobbs, who serves in the Office of Community Administration at the Bahá'í National Center in the United States, said Left Hand Bull was tasked to counsel Rayshel solely by the National Spiritual Assembly, not the Universal House of Justice.

Rayshel provided emails exchanged with the National Spiritual Assembly indicating that the conversation took place.

Left Hand Bull explained that at least six Baha'is reported directly to the Universal House of Justice about Rayshel's marriage and the fact that there were members of the Riverside Spiritual Assembly in attendance immediately after the wedding.

Rayshel asked why the issue of his wedding was being addressed six years later. Left Hand Bull never really answered the question, he said. Rayshel thinks his recent questioning of the faith's stance on LGBTQ issues online may have spurred the sudden interest in his marriage, he said. He had launched the LGBTQ Baha'i Experience Twitter account in 2012, and many of his tweets were critical of the faith.

Left Hand Bull said she doesn't know what prompted her task to speak with Rayshel, but said the National Spiritual Assembly wouldn't be asked to counsel a Baha'i unless their violation of the law was causing disunity in a Baha'i community.

Hobbs said the National Spiritual Assembly was not aware of Rayshel's marriage until 2014, and it was likely brought to the assembly's attention by Baha'is in and around Rayshel's local community.

It's possible Rayshel's counseling was due solely to his marriage and not his dissidence, as he isn't the only openly gay Baha'i that managed to avoid sanction from higher ups until marriage. Daniel Orey, an openly gay and vocal Baha'i, only lost his administrative rights when he married his husband, he told ReligionUnplugged.com.

Rayshel told Left Hand Bull he was willing to speak on the phone but didn't want to meet in person. Then he asked her why the issue of his marriage had been reported directly to the Universal House of Justice rather than to local spiritual assemblies or an auxiliary board member. She didn't answer the question, he said.

Rayshel asked Left Hand Bull if she was asking him to divorce his husband. She said that wasn't exactly what she was saying and that he was putting words in her mouth. He said he wouldn't get a divorce.

She said the matter was between him and God, and that the Baha'i administration would get back with him after he'd prayed on it.

Again, he told her he wouldn't divorce his husband and asked what the consequences would be.

She said he would lose his administrative rights, either entirely or partially, depending on what would be deemed appropriate.

That would cut Rayshel off from the 19 Day Feast - a spiritual meeting that takes place every 19 days and is comparable to a church service. He also wouldn't be able to donate to the faith, go on pilgrimage to Haifa, Acre, and Bahjí in Israel or vote in Baha'i elections. The punishment is isolating and humiliating, Rayshel said.

As to whether Left Hand Bull recalls telling Rayshel his rights could be removed, she said, "It's possible. I don't remember saying it, but I think that it's possible that I did," Left Hand Bull told ReligionUnplugged.com. "If it came to the National Assembly for a decision, then we'd have to say, these are the laws, Seán."

Leaving the Baha'i faith or reclaiming it?

Between his coming humiliation and understanding that the Baha'i faith wasn't going to change its stance on homosexuality any time soon, Rayshel officially left the religion in 2015.

But he wasn't going to be quiet about it. Rayshel wanted to do something to better the lives of LGBTQ people in the Baha'i community and challenge the orthodoxy that had for years alienated and gnawed at him, he said.

Tarpening agreed that Rayshel should do something and, being a TV journalist, naturally suggested that Rayshel make a documentary. Rayshel agreed.

He wanted it to be as loving as possible, not bellicose. The name for the film, "No Matter How Fine a Love," was derived from a passage of a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, Baha'u'allah's great grandson, that reads, "No matter how devoted and fine the love may be between people of the same sex, to let it find expression in sexual acts is wrong." It was a phraseology Baha'is would be familiar with, Rayshel said.

Filming began in 2018. Rayshel and Tarpening traveled to Las Vegas; Sacramento, California; Chicago; Wilmette and Evanston, Illinois; and Israel to film and interview LGBTQ Baha'is and Baha'is affected by the treatment of LGBTQ people they're close with.

A couple of years into filming, COVID-19 struck, putting the brakes on the project. The pandemic made traveling harder, and several subjects who had agreed to be interviewed didn't want to risk in-person contact, Rayshel said.

During the lull, Rayshel contemplated ending the project. The work, while rewarding, brought him renewed grief. And this was on top of the stress he already felt supporting the many LGBTQ Baha'is emailing him each month asking for his consultation and support.

"It's a lot on my shoulders - sometimes I feel like it's all on my shoulders," Rayshel said. "I'm one of the only vocal LGBTQ Baha'is out there. It's a lot to take on."

Moreover, Rayshel was finding it hard to attract much interest in his work. His efforts to shop it around were fruitless.

"The LGBTQ media really had no interest in this story whatsoever," Rayshel said. "They were like, 'Too small a religion, not enough numbers in the U.S. It's too obscure a religion.'"

Mainstream outlets said the same thing.

Undeterred, Rayshel has decided to upload the documentary in pieces in a YouTube series, which has been well-received thus far, he said.

The goal of Rayshel's activism has changed over the years.

"At this time, my goal is just to educate people on the status of LGBTQ Baha'is and what they actually do go through, their lived experience," Rayshel said. "This is a topic that has been pretty much off limits, so anything is better than nothing.

"I don't think I can change the Universal House of Justice on this. I don't think they would ever give the appearance of being able to be swayed. They are very rigid and they don't make apologies about it."

Even so, Rayshel is hoping "to sway Baha'is around the world to start a dialogue, and also to get them to challenge, personally, their local authorities, or their national authorities or the Universal House of Justice."

The first episode of the documentary Rayshel released was a 27 minute interview of Dan Ware, a gay Baha'i from Walla Walla, Washington, and his daughter, Alexis Ware.

Dan Ware explained that what initially attracted him to the Baha'i faith was how diverse and welcoming it was in juxtaposition to a relatively homogenous Walla Walla. He officially became Baha'i in 1970 and became deeply involved with the faith in the next few years. He became employed at the Baha'i National Center in 1975 in a role that saw him give conferences and help develop media for the faith, he said.

In accordance with the religion, Ware married a woman and had two children. He had gay experiences before his marriage but did his best to suppress that part of him, he said.

But he couldn't keep it buried. He had an affair that would eventually lead to his divorce. A member of the National Spiritual Assembly met with Dan to inform him that his administrative rights had been removed.

"This was like the world had collapsed in front of my eyes because my family, my social and my work structure, every part of my being was connected with the Baha'i faith, and it was like it had all been just destroyed," Ware said.

Thinking of the future, Ware asked the National Spiritual Assembly member whether, if he made the decision to cohabitate with a man in the future, it would be assumed that he was violating Baha'i law - other gay Baha'is have found themselves in this predicament, Rayshel said.

The National Spiritual Assembly member told him that it would be viewed as a violation of Baha'i law if he cohabitated with a man, and he couldn't do it if he wanted to regain his administrative rights.

Ware saw this as a "death sentence," he said. He didn't comply.

He still draws on Baha'i teachings. He founded a travel company that takes gay people around the world, partially because of the Baha'i belief that all humans are global citizens.

But the exclusion of LGBTQ members from full participation in Baha'i life has made it impossible to still identify as a Baha'i.

"If the promise of the Baha'i faith to unite the world is to happen, it cannot happen if there is this one segment of humanity which is prohibited from full participation," Ware said. "No matter how it is dressed up in flowery language from the Universal House of Justice as being a false dichotomy or anything like that, it is plain and simple wrong to attribute to this one group of people a lesser status and an inability to participate fully."

As for the Baha'i administration's perspective on the implications of the law, an important principle is that "Baha'is willingly accept the law and strive to live by it," Hobbs said. "The Baha'is don't impose that on others, and the Baha'i administration doesn't impose that or judge others that aren't Baha'is by that standard. This one critical aspect of the Baha'is is that we don't judge what other people do, and even within the faith we shouldn't be judging each other, but certainly not those that are not committed to these laws."

In his interviews with ReligionUnplugged.com, Rayshel went back and forth from referring to himself as a Baha'i and a former Baha'i. Rayshel still holds that Baha'u'llah had a revelation from God, but his following of specific Baha'i laws and teachings has subsided in the years since he formally left the religion.

Nonetheless, Rayshel doesn't view his work as contradicting the core of the Baha'i religion. The jury is far from out for the likes of Rayshel and many LGBTQ Baha'is and Baha'i allies as to what exactly Baha'u'llah was referring to when he seemingly condemned same-sex relations.

As far as the Universal House of Justice is concerned, this isn't an issue it can simply legislate out of existence. The laws of Baha'u'llah are clear, the body has said, that homosexual relationships are not permitted.

On that view, if Baha'u'llah's revelation really is spiritual truth, what it says about homosexuality can't be disregarded.

For some Baha'is, like Tom Price, a well-known musician and speaker in the faith, there doesn't need to be readily comprehensible justification for the law. Fundamental to the Baha'i faith is the idea that prophets have wisdom others simply don't have access to.

"That is the fundamental principle of spiritual law," Price said during a series of talks he gave called the Science of Spirituality. "If one cannot accept this aspect of spiritual law, then nothing else really matters when we talk about spiritual law. We need to first accept this fundamental concept that there is a God, there is a manifestation that reveals this law, and it is plausible that from his vantage point on the twigs of the tree of eternity, that he can see things that we can't see."

But to Rayshel, what Baha'u'llah was condemning was pederasty, which was common practice in the time he lived. This reading is discussed in "I don't want to be Tāhirih." It is a contested idea among some Baha'is.

For the Baha'i administration, whatever ambiguity there is in Baha'u'llah's writings on homosexuality is done away with by the writing on behalf of Shoghi Effendi in the "No matter how fine a love" passage, Hobbs said.

The recognition of Shoghi Effendi as one of the "authorized interpreters is really fundamental to Baha'i belief," Hobbs said.

But Rayshel and other Baha'i LGBTQ activists argue that ambiguity remains in how homosexuality ought to be interpreted in Baha'i law, as Shoghi Effendi didn't write about homosexuality himself - only his secretary did, in a letter to an individual Baha'i.

"Although the secretaries of the Guardian convey his thoughts and instructions and these messages are authoritative, their words are in no sense the same as his, their style certainly not the same, and their authority less, for they use their own terms and not his exact words in conveying his messages," a secretary of Shoghi Effendi wrote in another letter.

The letter of the law aside, Rayshel sees what he's doing as abiding by the loving spirit of Baha'i law and embodying Baha'u'llah's vision of unity.

"I also want history to know that we existed, and that in this religion that claims to unite all of humanity and talks about unity and diversity, that they are not living up to their true selves," Rayshel said. "To me it's very hypocritical, and it's going against what Baha'u'llah stood for."
Iain Carlos is a reporter for the Minneapolis/St. Paul Business Journal and formerly participated in the Dow Jones News Fund for American business journalists. He graduated from St. Olaf College with a B.A. in religion.

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Meet A Baha'i Activist Pushing For LGBTQ Tolerance In His Faith

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As in many religions, gay relationships, sexual intimacy and marriage are frowned upon in mainstream interpretations of Baha'i law. Those found violating the law can face sanctions from the Baha'i administration, including being cut off from community gatherings and participating in Baha'i elections

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This is a 30 minute interview with Graham Priest, a philosophy professor, about the connections between Buddhism and science.

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Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh

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9  Buddhism & Science - Interview with Graham Priest

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The Victoria and Abdul Museum in London hosts a unique art form of Islam culture, calligraphy. This writing style allows for creativity behind how it is represented through different colors, size of the font, etc, and allows for an added uniqueness behind the written word

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Calligraphy - the art of writing - is a unique feature of Islamic art in that it has been used in astonishingly varied and imaginative ways. The written word appears not just in pen and paper but across all art forms and materials, often giving rise to works of great beauty.

The genius of Islamic calligraphy lies not only in the endless creativity and versatility, but also in the balance struck by calligraphers between transmitting a text and expressing its meaning through a formal aesthetic code.

Presenting the words of the Qur'an - the central religious text of Islam - with precision and clarity, is of great importance to Muslims, as it is believed to be the literal Word of God. For most of Islamic history, the Qur'an has been preserved in manuscript. By the 8th century a distinctive manuscript form had been established and this style continued until the 10th century, when a series of changes in materials, script and format made copies of the Qur'an more like other fine manuscripts.

From about the same time, more fluid styles of script were developed and by the 13th century these had replaced the older hands in the Qur'an production. A gradual process of refinement occurred and eventually gave rise to distinctive regional or dynastic styles. By the late 19th century reproduction of the text by mechanical printing techniques was permitted, but even then the text to be printed was written out by a scribe working in the traditional manner.

As well as being written with great elegance, there were many ways in which calligraphy could be enhanced by adding decoration. The words themselves could be written in gold, or in colours other than black. Letters and words could also be outlined or could lie against a background pattern. Calligraphers also combined different sizes, colours and styles of text for different phrases or sections of text (but always sticking to the rules of proportionality within each section). These Qu'ran folios show how calligraphers could make functional details of formatting and punctuation into beautifully designed elements.

Interpreted as the Word of God, it was important that decorated frames and background patterns of Qur'an manuscripts were carefully produced so they did not interfere with the clarity of the script, or distract from the content of the text.

While the Qur'an's holy status provides an explanation for calligraphy's importance, by no means is all Arabic calligraphy religious in content. In general, calligraphic inscriptions on works of art can also include poems, praise for rulers, and aphorisms (general truths or principles).

Despite calligraphic designs appearing in many different materials, they often imitate the technical effects of pen on paper.
Explore a selection of objects from our collection that carry calligraphic inscriptions in the slideshow below.

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Calligraphy - the art of writing - is a unique feature of Islamic art in that it has been used in astonishingly varied and imaginative ways. The written word appears not just in pen and paper but across all art forms and materials, often giving rise to works of great beauty.

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In art the 4 main goals are reflected: dharma, (righteous living), artha (wealth acquired), kama (human and sexual love), moksha (spiritual salvation). Even when a temple is dedicated to one god, there will often be depictions of another on the walls.

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The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

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Hinduism and Hindu Art | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

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Although a Hindu temple is dedicated to the glory of a deity and is aimed at helping the devotee toward moksha, its walls might justifiably contain sculptures that reflect the other three goals of life.

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This writing addresses misconceptions about Muslims due to little education on the topic. It touches on topics such as: terrorism, family views, treatment of women,beliefs, and sects. It also talks about how the news coverage lacks on this religion and forces certain specifics because it can fail to educate.

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1. Muslims live in the Middle East.
2. Muslims are Arabs.
3. Muslims don't believe in Jesus and aren't interested in him.
4. Muslims worship the moon and a Moon-God.
5. Muslims support violence and terrorism.
6. Muslims are engaged in Jihad (war) against us.
7. All Muslims are the same and all Muslims are either Sunni or Shi'a.
8. Islam oppresses women.
9. Muslims are ignorant and don't value education.
10. Muslims place little value on women, family life, and children.
11. Muslims are archaic with little value for culture and the arts.
12. Muhammad was the founder of Islam, and Muslims worship him.
13. Muslims are lying about Islam being peaceful.
14. We never hear Muslims speak against terrorism.
15. Islam is growing faster than any other religion.

1. Muslims live in the Middle East.

Most Muslims (one billion) live in Asia, predominately in south and southeast Asia. More than 300 million Muslims live in Sub-Saharan Africa as well.

The four largest Muslim populations are in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh, each home to more than 100 million Muslims.

The Middle East is a vague and often negative term which does not accurately reflect where Muslims live.

The majority of people who live in north Africa, the Arabian peninsula, and southwest Asia are Muslims, but they constitute only about 20% of all Muslims.
Map of Muslim Population Worldwide 2. Muslims are Arabs.
An Arab is a person who speaks Arabic as his or her native language, and only twenty percent of Muslims fall into this category. Millions of Arabs are Christians! There are about 300 million Arabic speakers in the world today. Arabic is the majority language of twenty-three nations. Turkish, Iranian, Indonesian, Pakistani and other Muslims may feel hurt if you assume they are Arab.
3. Muslims don't believe in Jesus and are not interested in him.
Muslims highly respect Jesus as a prophet of God and value his teachings. Muslims often name their sons after Jesus, who they call Isa, although they do not understand Jesus as the son of God or understand that he died on the cross for the sins of mankind. The Qur'an, however, mentions Jesus 93 times, teaching that he preformed miracles, was born of a virgin, and will return again as Messiah. Muslims may ask you, "Why don't Christians follow the teachings of Jesus?"
4. Muslims worship the moon and a Moon-God.
There are some Christian groups which teach that Allah is an idol for the moon god. Others mistake the Arabic word Allah as meaning a "moon god" because Islam uses the symbol of the crescent moon. This is a very offensive accusation to Muslims. Allah is the Arabic word for God and is very similar to the Hebrew word El and the Aramaic word Elah. The most fundamental belief in Islam is worshiping the one true God. Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also use the Arabic word Allah for God, as do all Arabic translations of the Bible. There is no other word in Arabic for God. Muslims do not worship the moon. The use of the crescent moon as a symbol of Islam comes from Muslim practice of following a lunar calendar.
5. Muslims support violence and terrorism.
The vast majority of Muslims are moderate, pious people who suffer more from terrorism and violence than non-Muslims. Ninety-three percent of Muslims do not support extremist views of terrorism.

Gallup, Inc. conducted a revealing poll about Moderate vs. Extremist Views in the Muslim World.
6. Muslims are engaged in Jihad (war) against us.
The meaning of the Arabic word jihad is struggle. It usually means a struggle of one's soul against the self and sinful desires. Muslims refer to this inner struggle as the greater jihad. Muslims also have social campaigns to end poverty and hunger which they also call jihad.
7. All Muslims are the same and all Muslims are either Sunni or Shi'a.
Like Christianity, there are many sects of Islam. The two major branches are Sunni and Shi'a, but there are thousands of sub-groups, each having different doctrines, their own theology, and different Islamic schools of thought and law.
8. Islam oppresses women.
Most of the oppression of women by Islam and Muslims that is highly publicized is usually due to local customs and traditions. Muslim women have been presidents and prime ministers. Violence towards women and forcing them against their will is not permitted by Islam. Care for widows, orphans, and the poor is one of Islam's strongest teachings. Unfortunately, many women are oppressed, However, this is a global issue and not just Islamic oppression. Prevalence of abuse of women is not higher among Muslims than among non-Muslims.
9. Muslims are ignorant and don't value education.
Muslims place a high value on education. Many Muslims are highly educated with Master's degrees and PhDs. Many Muslims speak multiple languages. Until the industrial age, Islamic universities were the world leaders in math, medicine, science, law, architecture, and many other fields of study. The scientific method has its basis in Muslim advancement of science. Muslims cite the Qur'an as their encouragement to seek knowledge of the world around them. Many Muslims come and study at our universities, yet today most Muslims are poor and lack educational opportunities.
10. Muslims place little value on women, family life, and children.
The Muslim community worldwide places a high value on family life. Generations of a family live together, often in the same household. Elderly family members are cared for in this environment; this is viewed as an honor, not a burden. It would be shameful to put them in assisted living or retirement homes. Children are included in all areas of life and usually the center of all family gatherings.
11. Muslims are archaic with little value for culture and the arts.
While Europe was still in the Dark Ages, Muslim societies were making advancements in medicine, mathematics, physics, astronomy, geography, architecture, art, and literature. In fact, the renaissance happened as a result of the ancient and new knowledge reacquired from Muslims universities.
12. Muhammad was the founder of Islam and Muslims worship him.
Muslims believe that Muhammad was God's last prophet and communicated God's final revelation. Muslims consider Adam the first Muslim. Muhammad is seen as the best example of how to be a good Muslim. He is held in great esteem, but he is not to be worshiped. Worship is reserved for God alone, and it is strictly forbidden to worship anyone or anything else. Muslims may celebrate Muhammad's birthday in the same way that we may celebrate Martin Luther King Day or Columbus Day.
13. Muslims are lying about Islam being peaceful.
Most Muslims are moderate, pious, nonviolent people who are trying to honor God in their lives. Muslim scholars who study the Qur'an explain Islam as a religion of peace, and most Muslims see Islam as a religion of peace as well, preferring to let others live as they wish. The media has sensationalized the views of a small percentage of violent extremists as the legitimate understanding of Islam as a community seeking global domination by force.
14. We never hear Muslims speak against terrorism.
This lie is repeated frequently in the media and unfortunately by Christian leaders as well. Leading Muslim groups and scholars constantly denounce the extreme views of violent Muslims, while teaching against and refuting radical teachings. Google "Muslims against terrorism" and you will see this.
15. Islam is growing faster than any other religion.
Not true. Christianity is!

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Common Misconceptions about Muslims | Encountering the World of Islam

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1. Muslims live in the Middle East. 2. Muslims are Arabs. 3. Muslims don't believe in Jesus and aren't interested in him. 4. Muslims worship the moon and a Moon-God. 5. Muslims support violence and terrorism. 6. Muslims are engaged in Jihad (war) against us. 7.

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Because India is so diverse, the celebration of Dussehra differs from the eastern/southern states and the western/northern states. In the eastern and southern states, Dussehra is celebrated as the victory of Goddess Durga over the evil demon Mahishasura. In the northern and western states, it is the celebration of Rama over Ravana, the ten-headed demon king, who abducted Sita, Rama's wife. This festival celebrates the victory of good over evil, and it begins on the first day of Navratri and continues for nine days.

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It's that time of the year where excitement is at its peak. Festivals are lined up one after the other and preparations are already in full swing. The month of October usually begins with the celebration of Navratri and is followed by Dussehra celebration.

Dussehra is one of the most important festivals in Hindu tradition. It is an auspicious occasion and it signifies the victory of good over evil.
Why is Dussehra Celebrated?
Since, India is a land of diverse cultures and traditions, the festival of Dussehra is celebrated in different ways. The eastern and southern states celebrate Dussehra as the victory of Goddess Durga over the evil demon Mahishasura. It begins on the first day of Navratri and continues for nine days.

On the other hand, most northern and western states of India celebrate Dussehra as Lord Rama's victory over Ravana. A long time ago, King Dasharatha wanted to crown Rama, his eldest son, as the King of Ayodhya. Everyone in the kingdom was happy about the decision and were eagerly awaiting the coronation ceremony.

However, Queen Kaikeyi wanted her son Bharata to be the King of Ayodhya. So, on the eve of the ceremony, she claims two boons that King Dashratha had granted her years back. She demands that Rama should be exiled in the forests for fourteen years and asks for Bharata to be crowned as the King of Ayodhya.
Image Source - Wikipedia
King Dashratha had no choice but to grant her these boons. So, Lord Rama was sent into exile along with his wife Sita and his brother Lakshmana. For thirteen years, they sacrificed all royal luxuries and wandered in the forests.

During their final year in exile, a Rakshasi by the name of Surpanakha tries to seduce the two brothers. She fails and then tries to kill Sita. However, Lakshmana stops her and cuts off her ears and nose. Wounded and humiliated, Surpanakha returns to her brother Ravana, the evil ruler of Lanka.

Ravana vows to avenge his sister's humiliation and decides to kidnap Sita. He abducts Sita and brings her to his kingdom, where he asks her to marry him. Sita refuses as she is devoted to Lord Rama. Ravana then holds her captive in the Ashoka grove.

As soon as Lord Rama and Lakshmana learn about this, they set out to save Sita. On the way, they meet Lord Hanuman who is an ardent devotee of Lord Rama. After Hanuman arrives in Lanka, he finds Sita and assures her that Lord Rama will soon come to rescue her.

Once Hanuman informs Lord Rama about Sita's safety, they all proceed towards Lanka. A huge battle ensues between the armies of Lord Rama and Ravana. He kills most of the Lankan army and confronts the ten-headed Ravana.

After a fierce battle between the two, Lord Rama eventually kills Ravana and is reunited with Sita. Once their exile is over, they all head back to Ayodhya, where Lord Rama is finally crowned as the King of Ayodhya.
How is Dussehra Celebrated?
The Dussehra celebration takes place on the tenth day of Navratri, and is also known is Durga Puja. The first day of Navratri is dedicated to the worship of Maa Shailaputri and is followed by the worship of Maa Chandraghanta, Maa Skandmata and the other avatars of Goddess Durga.

In the northern, western and central parts of India, Dussehra celebration takes place over a period of 10 days. People organise dance and drama skits that are based on the Ramayana. These skits and plays are popular all over the world and are known as RamLeela.

RamLeela depicts the entire story of how Ravana kidnaps Maa Sita and how Lord Rama valiantly fights against the evil king. On the tenth day i.e. on the day of Dussehra, huge effigies of Ravana are set on fire which signifies the victory of Lord Rama and his reunion with Maa Sita.

The eastern and southern states of India, however, celebrate the festival of Dussehra in a completely different manner. Popularly known as Durga Puja, it is also one of the most highly anticipated festivals in Hindu tradition.

While the nine days of Navratri are dedicated to different forms of Goddess Durga, the tenth day i.e. the day of Durga Puja or Dussehra is an emotional one for devotees. On this day, idols of Goddess Durga are immersed in rivers, oceans or other water bodies.

It is believed that after the immersion, Goddess Durga returns back to Mount Kailash and reunites with Lord Shiva. During the immersion, devotees sing various emotional hymns, offer prayers to Goddess Durga and ask for her blessings.
Importance of Dussehra
During the nine days preceding to Dussehra or Durga Puja, devotees in the eastern states worship the nine avatars of Goddess Durga. Each of these nine forms represent a different side of Goddess Durga. Maa Bramhacharini is seen as a symbol of peace and purity, while Maa Kushmanda is believed to be the source of all energy in the Universe.

People also prefer to buy new vehicles, properties or other new things on the day of Dussehra. It is an auspicious occasion and is believed to be the perfect day to start a new project or business.

Devotees distribute gifts and sweets among their relatives and friends and also believe in celebrating this festival with their close ones. People often pray for a new beginning in their lives and also ask for forgiveness for any wrongdoings.

Dussehra celebration is an important part of Indian culture. The vibrant colours, the huge idols and the relatable themes are a major attraction for foreign tourists. It holds a special place in the hearts of devotees and is usually followed by the festival of lights - Diwali.

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dusshera celebration in different states

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day wise importance of dussehra festival

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Significance of Dussehra Celebration in India

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Dussehra festival is celebrated across various states in India. Read this blog to know why is dussehra celebrated, it's importance & how do we celebrate and do dasara puja.

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This analyzes how COVID-19 affected people of Islamic faith, using both aspects of Islam in conjunction with data to answer the question.

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Journal of Religion and Health

Abstract

This paper concerns a problem, the global pandemic COVID-19, which has influenced religious practices with respect to health protection across the Muslim world. Rapid transmission of the virus between people has become a serious challenge and a threat to the health protection of many countries. The increase in the incidence of COVID-19 in the Muslim community took place during and after the pilgrimages to Iran's Qom and as a result of the Jamaat Tabligh movement meetings. However, restrictions on religious practices have become a platform for political discussions, especially among Muslim clergy. This paper is an analysis of the religious and political situation in Muslim countries, showing the use of Islam to achieve specific goals by the authorities, even at the price of the health and life of citizens.

Keywords: Middle East, Religion, Policy, Islam, COVID-19 pandemic, Health protection

Introduction

Health in the Islamic tradition is closely related to the Muslim image of God and man. Thus, it is inseparable from sin, disease and suffering. Properly practicing the principles of religion provides the Muslim believer with inner balance and harmony in life. The importance of health in the concept of religion was emphasized in the holy book of Islam-Qur'an-which contains the principles of health and disease, while indicating the appropriate dietary and hygienic habits that ensure the health of the body. These recommendations are treated by believers as constitutive elements of Muslim health education, closely connected with religious practices. The word Islam in Arabic means submission to God, and therefore, all believers are bound to obey God's commands and prohibitions. Every Muslim must practice religion according to the Five Pillars of Islam, which are: Shahada-Profession of Faith; Salah-Prayer; Zakat-Almsgiving; Sawm-Fasting and Hajj-Pilgrimage (Lunde, 2002). Prayer is a guarantee of the health of the soul, because it calms the hearts of believers, and a healthy human soul contributes to the health of the whole organism. Almsgiving helps to free a person from the lust to possess and selfishly accumulate goods, only for himself. Helping the needy brings comfort to the believer and is a form of inner purification. Pilgrimage aims to free Muslims from everyday worries and troubles, and at the same time to make them aware of equality and belonging to the entire community of believers (Klöcker, 2002).

Islam is a monotheistic religion, the second largest religion in the world after Christianity. It is assumed that today this religion is professed by over 1 billion 926 million people worldwide (Zurlo, 2021). This study presents the results of research on the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic, attitudes of Muslim communities toward the risk of a disease with a high contagious factor and religious leaders' responses to WHO's recommendations in the context of religious practices. An important element of the article is to show the perception of the epidemic threat by Muslim leaders and using it in political activity. It should be noted that the opinion of Islamic religious leaders is very important to Muslims. Often the opinion of imams has greater moral authority than the appeals of politicians and doctors.

Religious requirements that must be met by Muslims can be (apart from pilgrimage) realized individually in their own homes. However, the century-old tradition of Islam has developed in the followers of Islam the belief that practicing religion together strengthens ties not only with God, but also with people, brothers in faith. For this reason, joint meetings in prayer are a particularly important element of religious life. Islam is often called the religion of prayer. In Qur'an, the words "Establish prayer and give zakāh" were repeated many times (The Qur'an, 2008). The honest fulfillment of this divine command is an expression of human thanksgiving to Allah for his life, as well as an act of praise to God and an expression of limitless submission to His will.

The fulfillment of these duties, however, changes with the onset of communicable diseases in the Islamic community. Prophet Muhammad himself recommended that during the plague, Muslims should limit all mobility: traveling, visiting each other and avoiding the sick. Muhammad also encouraged quarantine to keep the plagues from spreading. Sunnah clearly emphasizes: "If you hear that there is a plague in a land, do not enter it; and if it (plague) visits a land while you are therein, do not go out of it" (Sahih al-Bukhari, 2005b).

Thus, it can be concluded that Prophet Muhammad has already introduced strategies that are implemented in modern times by public health organizations such as the center for disease control. The rules for dealing with infectious diseases and, therefore, above all, the maintenance of cleanliness and hygiene, promoted by the Islamic health science, were much ahead of the times of Prophet Muhammad. Anyway, Islam very clearly emphasizes the importance of hygiene in human life. This is evidenced by the need to perform ritual ablutions before each ritual prayer. It should be emphasized here that Muslims are obliged to pray five times a day.

The COVID-19 (Gorbalenya, 2020; Chen, 2020) disease, caused by the Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (Cohen & Normile, 2020), originally identified in November 2019 in Wuhan (Gao & Sai, 2021), China, and the latest research indicates it was already present in October 2019 in Hubei Province (Pekar et al., 2021), and started a global pandemic, changing the way of life of all people. Intensive transmission of the virus and numerous infections have forced the introduction of national and national restrictions aimed at limiting the mobility of the population, thus stopping the spread of the pandemic. There are suspicions that the virus originated in a laboratory, but there is no scientific evidence for it. WHO agreed to sponsor the first phase of an investigation into the pandemic's origins, which took place in China in early 2021 (Maxmen & Mallapaty, 2021). Dr Francis Boyle believes the virus is potentially lethal and an offensive biological warfare weapon or dual-use biowarfare weapon agent genetically modified with the gain of function properties (Skopec, 2021). This thesis requires in-depth research, but in the face of the unpredictability of the terrorist activities of jihadists of the Islamic State, it should be borne in mind (Bandeira et al., 2021). SARS virus stands for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 and is the third virus in the last 20 years to cause a worldwide epidemic. The typical symptoms of the disease are fever, dry cough, fatigue and shallow breathing. Less common are: sore throat, runny nose and sneezing. Most of those infected have mild symptoms and the disease itself is mild (Hui, 2020). However, these people can infect others. COVID-19 disease can be very severe, leading to pneumonia and multiple organ failure and death. Severe course of the disease requires mechanical respiratory ventilation. The elderly and chronically ill are particularly vulnerable to this course of disease. The incubation time of the disease ranges from 1 to 14 days, but most often the first symptoms appear 5-6 days after infection. The virus is spread by airborne droplets (Chen, 2020). The intensity of transmission of the virus outside China and numerous deaths caused the World Health Organization to recognize the infectious COVID-19 disease caused by the coronavirus as a pandemic on March 11, 2020. By the end of June 2021, 183 million people had become infected worldwide and almost 4 million people had died from COVID-19 (WHO, 2021a).

The pandemic has affected every area of life: social, economic, economic and religious (Androutsopoulos, 2021; Sułkowski & Ignatowski, 2020). In addition, almost all human life has been transferred to virtual space (Mishra et al., 2020). Numerous sanitary restrictions aimed at preventing the spread of the virus made it impossible to gather for community prayer in churches, synagogues, mosques and other places of prayer. Restrictions on gathering people to meet religious needs have been in place in many places around the world (Boguszewski et al., 2020; Begović, 2020; Al-Astewani, 2021; Osei-Tutu et al., 2021; Kostecki & Piwko, 2021; Kühle & Larsen, 2021). For this reason, almost all religious activities have been transferred to television and the Internet (Molteni et al., 2020). Religious rituals and practices were carried out in virtual reality. Thus, there was an intensive mediatization of religiosity (Tudor et al., 2021; Przywara et al., 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic also contributed to a deeper search for faith and spirituality (Bentzen, 2020). Compliance with sanitary recommendations in the religious sphere was implemented in various ways. Some believers followed the restrictions without questioning their validity. Others saw the restrictions as an act of evil force aimed at destroying religiosity (Wildman et al., 2020).

In the face of COVID-19 pandemics, the Islamic community was faced with the problem of reconciling the high religious requirements for God that believers should meet and ensuring the safety of their own health and ummah. During this difficult time, religious leaders can play a major role in saving lives and reducing illness related to COVID-19. They are a primary source of support, comfort, guidance and direct healthcare and social service, for the communities they serve. The message of the religious leaders was more acceptable than warnings from other sources (WHO, 2020a).

The main research goal of the article is to analyze the correlation between practicing the religion of Islam and health protection in the context of sanitary safety and health policy in Muslim countries during the COVID-19 pandemic. For this reason, the presented topic is interdisciplinary, as it combines issues typical of religious studies, Islamic studies and political science research on health protection. The main questions posed in the article are: Are religious practices a carrier of an epidemic threat? Can sacred rites be dangerous and lead to the death of their followers? Are religious and political leaders in the Muslim world acting to the detriment of citizens by spreading unconfirmed reports on the COVID-19 pandemic? Is the reaction of the Islamic clergy to the need to close mosques? An important question in the context of the current pandemic is also the question of the health of Muslim refugees staying in camps. While the issues related to the sanitary and humanitarian quality of refugee camps have been discussed many times in the literature, they have never been analyzed in the context of a global pandemic (Robinson, 2020).

Materials and Methods

Muslim humanitarian organization Islamic Relief, guided by the motto: Islamic law, like humanitarian work, is based on the broader principle of 'do no harm', provided guidelines on safe religious practice during the coronavirus pandemic. Atallah Fitzgibbon Faith Partnership Advisor at Islamic Relief Worldwide, he stressed that religious practices should be adjusted, including closing mosques for believers, in order to ensure health safety for the public. These principles are justified by Islamic law and medical knowledge about COVID-19 (Islamic Relief, 2020).

The article is a response to current events in the Islamic world related to the coronavirus pandemic. The COVID-19 pandemic has become an element of political activity, especially in countries with regimes. Iran is a clear example of using a pandemic for its own purposes (Blandenier, 2020). Also the leaders of the so-called Islamic State saw the possibility of extending their influence thanks to the pandemic, presenting it as God's punishment on the infidels (Daymon & Criezis, 2020).

The analysis covers the Iran, being the center of shiism, in which clerics play an important role in shaping public opinion. The choice of Iran is also important due to the country's political situation and the numerous international restrictions imposed on it (Dubowitz & Ghasseminejad, 2020). Religious groups were also analyzed: Jaamat from East Asia (Burhani, 2020; Bustamam-Ahmad, 2008) and ISIS (Krona & Pennington, 2019; Nacos, 2016). The decisive factor in the selection of countries and groups to be analyzed was their importance in the Muslim world and thus their impact on a significant number of people and political importance in the international arena.

Detailed data on the number of coronavirus infections were obtained from databases of the World Health Organization and official government communications of each country (WHO, 2021a). These data are constantly updated due to the dynamic development of COVID-19 pandemics. The collected material was ordered and systematized. The study used the comparative method of Max Weber (Weber, 1949), which consists in describing the phenomena related to the perception and commenting on the spread of COVID-19 pandemics in the analyzed Muslim societies. The comparative method also made it possible to explain the similarities and differences between the same social phenomena, which is COVID-19 pandemic, occurring in different Islamic societies at the same time. And the main research technique is qualitative content analysis. The fundamental element of the study was to define the perception of health in the context of religious requirements arising from Islam. Descriptive and analytical methods were used to present the results of the study, which showed how religious authority influences the community of believers.

The study used in-depth interviews with Muslims from Iran, Egypt and Turkey, as well as with representatives of the Shi'ite clergy. Fifteen people participated in the study: 8 men, including 3 Shi'ite clergymen and 7 women. In this group, 8 people were representatives of Shi'ite Islam, and 7 people professed Sunni Islam. Six people were from Iran, 6 from Turkey and 3 from Egypt. Due to the pandemic and the limited possibilities of field research, electronic means of communication and the Internet were used for the interviews. The interviews were conducted via the social network Facebook as well as via e-mail correspondence. The criteria for selecting people for the study were: country of residence, active religion of Shi'ite or Sunni Islam, at least secondary education, communicative knowledge of the English language. People known to the researcher who also knew the researcher participated in the study. The respondents knew what the purpose of the survey was for. Therefore, it cannot be concluded that the selection of the sample was accidental and the respondents constitute a representative research group. On the other hand, all people knew the situation in their country and experienced difficulties with religious practice, and some of the respondents participated in the pilgrimage to Qom. The study was conducted using a structured interview. The questions were developed in advance and were asked to respondents in the same order. The research was conducted in 2020. However, this issue is still relevant because the development of the pandemic is dynamic. More waves of infection are coming and they are affecting the religious life of all societies in the world.

Results

The Middle East is a sensitive region, not only because of the armed conflicts there and the conflicting business, trade and economic interests of many countries. The migration crisis in Europe, initiated in the Arab spring and then the outbreak of the civil war in Syria, which peaked in 2015, is described as one of the largest that Europe has faced since the end of World War II. Movement of the population was closely related to the transmission of various diseases: mild and typical for numerous human clusters, but also dangerous, including infectious ones, which were combated in Europe thanks to the operation of preventive programs. World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe in Report on the health of refugees and migrants in the WHO European Region (WHO, 2018). No public health without refugee and migrant health argued that refugees and migrants did not bring Europeans an increase in infectious diseases. Experts emphasized, however, that the Western lifestyle is dangerous to the health of newcomers from other regions of the world. While it is true that migrants bring disease with them, the risk of it spreading to the indigenous peoples of Europe is negligible. Research has shown that migrants, upon arrival in Europe, are less likely to suffer from non-communicable diseases, such as cancer, heart attack, stroke, diabetes and obesity. However, after some time in highly developed countries, usually after five years, they begin to suffer from civilization diseases: obesity, hypertension and heart disease, as often as European communities (WHO, 2018).

The sociopolitical instability of the Middle East in the face of the coronavirus pandemic is currently a particular threat to the sanitary safety of not only the population of the region, but also other parts of the world. The ongoing conflicts in Yemen and Syria make it almost impossible to detect the infected and monitor the spread of the virus. An additional obstacle in counteracting the epidemic is the ineffective healthcare system and inadequate securing of national borders. In four countries: Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Turkey, 12 million people are internally displaced people who pose a particular epidemiological threat. Inappropriate living conditions, especially in overcrowded refugee camps, where there is limited access to sanitary facilities with running and hot water, as well as the lack of basic hygiene measures, as well as the lack of proper medical care, increase the risk of contracting COVID-19.

For this reason, the COVID-19 pandemic is particularly dangerous for people in refugee camps, especially those heavily overcrowded in Iran, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Greece. On the Greek island of Lesvos, there is the largest refugee camp in Europe, called Moria, which was prepared for three thousand people. Currently, there are 26,000 people there. The administration introduced a ban on leaving the camp from 7 pm to 7 am. This restriction was introduced to minimize the risk of coronavirus infection. In 2020, the Dutch Government donated medical equipment to Mavrovouni's medical hub in Moria Refugee Camp. To prevent and mitigate the spread of the pandemic, asylum seekers have undergone rapid COVID-19 testing. People with a positive result are referred to isolation cells. There are currently no active COVID-19 cases in Moria (UNHCR, 2021a).

A similar situation occurs in the Zaatari Refugee Camp in Jordan, where 80,000 Syrian displaced persons are held. Improper sanitary standards are the biggest problem in the camp, and these include: unsystematic garbage collection, non-working air conditioning, difficulties with access to bathrooms and lack of running water. These problems were present in the pre-COVID-19 pandemic camp and resulted in diseases such as scabies and lice. In order to reduce the number of coronavirus infections, information campaigns are conducted in the camp to promote a hygienic lifestyle. Access to clean water has been increased from 35 L per person to 60 L per person per day (UNHCR, 2021b).

A threat to sanitary safety is also posed by the armed conflicts in the Middle East countries. Both Syria and Yemen are in deep chaos. The Syrian civil war collapsed the country's healthcare system and sanitary infrastructure. In addition, the country is still politically correct, in which the government claims that there are no coronavirus infections, and medical personnel are prohibited from reporting cases of infections. However, the WHO data show that over 24,000 people have been infected (WHO, 2021b). However, it should be emphasized that the country is not able to control the health of its citizens due to the practically nonexistent infrastructure. The International Rescue Committee has issued a warning that the outbreak of the pandemic in northern Syria could be one of the worst in the world (UN, 2020). At the same time, it should be emphasized that as a result of the hostilities in the Idlib Province, nearly a million people had to leave their homes and headed toward Turkey. At the same time, Turkey opened its border with Greece for refugees. Such activities contribute not only to the further transmission of infections, but most of all they pose a significant threat to the health and life of the refugees themselves.

In Yemen, an armed conflict with Saudi Arabia has been ongoing since 2015. The Yemeni rebels of the Houthi tribe are supported by Iran, which is currently the epicenter of coronavirus infections in the Middle East. For this reason, the UN Envoy for Yemen, Martin Griffiths, and the UN Secretary General, Antonio Guterres, called for an end to military activities in the region in view of the pandemic. The World Health Organization, on March 26, 2020, announced that there is no confirmed case of coronavirus infection in Yemen to date (WHO, 2020b). However, now in a country covered by a civil war, almost 7000 cases of the disease have been confirmed. The lack of sufficient medical care and the limited possibilities of counteracting the pandemic cause tragic consequences. Millions of people do not have access to clean water and hygiene products.

Restrictions on Muslim Religious Practices

In connection with the COVID-19 pandemic, state authorities have implemented numerous restrictions on civil liberties aimed at stopping the spread of the infection. Sanitary restrictions have also been applied in religious practices.

Coronavirus affects not only the physical part of people, causing serious illness and even death. The high transmission of the virus between people forced spiritual leaders to change the organization of religious practices. Every follower of Islam, always before praying, must perform ablution, consisting in ritual washing of the body. Cleaning should be done with water, but in the absence of water, it is acceptable to use a clean felt-tip pen or gravel, e.g., when traveling. That is why there are bathhouses in mosques and houses of prayer, in which ritual washing should be performed. Despite such an obligation, mosques have introduced a ban on gathering for common prayer. A Shi'ite man from Iran: "I know that you can get infected with the virus, but I want to pray in a mosque, listen to Jumaa Khutbah, and we were forbidden to do so, I do not understand this decision." Turkish, sunni woman: "according to Islam, prayer contributes to the health of the soul, and since the soul is healthy, the body will also be. Prayer in a mosque should not be forbidden. Obviously, it is necessary to maintain hygiene and social distance." Additionally, it was forbidden to bring your own prayer rug to the mosque. Man from Egypt: "The world has turned upside down. Everyone is afraid of disease and they have forgotten God. Even your own sajjada rug is forbidden in the mosque because it is supposed to be infected." Fearing an intense increase in infections, Saudi Arabia closed Mecca to pilgrims, the holiest city in Islam, where the only Muslim temple is located. Every believer should at least once in his life make a ritual pilgrimage to Mecca, at the time prescribed by religion. In 2020, the time of the most important religious event was from July 29 to August 3 (Lunde, 2002).

On the other hand, at any time, a believer can make a little pilgrimage called the umrah. This possibility is used by many millions of Muslims every year. In Mecca and in Medina, Islam's second holy city, where the tomb of Muhammad is located, Muslims flock throughout the year. Therefore, on February 27, 2020, the Saudi authorities decided to close the country's borders to all those traveling to the country for religious purposes. The restrictions introduced by the Saudi Arabian authorities aroused concern among the followers of Islam, because from April 24 to May 23, 2020, the month of Ramadan fell on the Muslim calendar, in which Muslims lived the holy time of fasting and often traveled to Mecca and Medina as part of in-depth prayer. Egyptian man: "I am disappointed with the decision of the Saudi Arabian authorities not to make a pilgrimage to Mecca in 2020. I really wanted to make a pilgrimage because it is an important year in my life. I turned 50, my grandson was born, I wanted to fulfill my duty." Similar solutions regarding the limitation or complete closure of pilgrimage sites were made by the Iraqi authorities, suspending pilgrimages to shrines in Najaf and Karbala, which are holy places for the Shi'ite community. In Morocco, too, the annual moussems celebrated in honor of saints or marabou have been canceled. The local, often rural tradition is deeply rooted in the mentality of the Moroccans, and therefore, it is an essential part of the community life of the Muslim community. The COVID-19 pandemic has forced believers to change religious practices (Hoang, 2020; Atique & Itumalla, 2020). Imam from Turkey: "We have to apply a sanitary regime, so the mosque is closed. Anyone can pray at home. I am also always ready to help those in need, you can always talk to me in person and by phone. I do not want to undermine the decisions of state authorities."

In 2021, Saudi Arabia eased restrictions related to COVID-19 pandemics during the month of Ramadan and Eid al-Fitr holidays. However, precautionary measures are still recommended, such as social distancing and hand disinfection. Other Muslim countries, such as Egypt, Tunisia and Iraq, have restricted their shops during Eid al-Fitr holidays to avoid crowds in shopping malls (Al-Jazeera, 2021). A young woman from Egypt: "They talk constantly on TV, not to gather for prayer in the mosque, but you can go to the shopping center and the bazaar. So you can spend money, there is no virus threat, but not to meet friends on Eid."

COVID-19 Pandemic in Iran

The epicenter of the COVID-19 pandemic in Iran is the city of Qom with over a million inhabitants, the holy Shi'ite city and their pilgrimage destination (Seyfi, 2018). It is estimated that more than 20 million believers come to the city annually to pray at the Fatima Masumeh mosque, the sister of the eighth imam in the Imamite tradition, and thus the mainstream Shi'ite. In addition, roads leading to 17 provinces of Iran intersect in Qom (Al-Rousan & Al-Najjar, 2020). The significant movement of people, coupled with a high concentration of religious practitioners, contributed to the spread of the infection in Iran rapidly. The first infection in Iran probably occurred on February 19, 2020. The virus was carried by a Chinese merchant from Wuhan who traded with Qom. The Shycikh clerical regime downplayed the threat, claiming that the isolation and quarantine of entire cities are an outdated and ineffective action. The head of the sanctuary in Qom, Mohammad Saeedi, called on pilgrims to make pilgrimages, claiming that the holy sanctuary was a place of healing and that coming to it would cure not only spiritual but also physical diseases (Fouladiyan, 2021). A Shi'ite woman from Iran: "I don't watch TV, but they scare people with diseases. There were always diseases. Qur'an is our health, you have to believe. This is what our imam says, and I believe him."

Carelessness contributed to the escalation of the disease. The pilgrims infected in Qom are not only Iranians, but also people from Kuwait, Iraq, Lebanon, Bahrain and Afghanistan. Also, public health authorities in Qatar, Jordan, Egypt, Oman, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates reported that the virus was mainly infected in people returning from Iran (Wright, 2020). Iranian woman: "my cousin was on a pilgrimage to Qom, he came back healthy, he did not infect anyone. It seems to me that these are false accusations that the people of Qom got infected and carried the plague to other countries."

Another aspect could have contributed to the large-scale transmission of the coronavirus in Iran. In many Asian countries, missionary activities are carried out by Iranian religious organizations whose goal is to convert Sunni communities to Shi'ite Islam. The Shi'ite faith is most often from Qom. Their mission is to encourage candidates to come to Iran, and the motivational element is often a high scholarship. China is a special place of vigorous missionary activity, only because of the persecution that Muslims have to deal within the country of the center. At the same time, this religious activity partially explains the reasons for the spread of the virus in Iran so rapidly (Maçães, 2020).

The intense increase in coronavirus infections in Iran is also the result of the policy pursued by the local regime. China is an important economic and strategic partner for Iran. Relevant agreements concluded between states on cooperation in the field of civil nuclear energy, reviving the new Silk Road as an element of trade, as well as close cooperation in the fight against terrorism and extremism in Iraq, Syria, Afghanistan and Yemen, are an element of mutual interest of states (Shariatinia, 2011). Probably for this reason, the authorities were reluctant to inform about the intensification of infections with a virus originating in China. Undoubtedly, this attitude of the state administration is influenced by the economic isolation of Iran and sanctions imposed on the country, for example by the USA. Therefore, the government seems to be worried about Iran's weakened economy more than it is worried about the deteriorating health of its citizens (Rabbani, 2021). The improper actions of the government in Tehran made Iran the next, after China, large center of the virus epidemic from which it spread in the region. The above actions of the authorities exposed citizens to the risk of losing their health and even life.

The Iranian authorities have tried to use the pandemic to have the USA lift the economic sanctions imposed on the country that make it difficult to fight the epidemic. The actions of the Americans were defined as medical terrorism because they prevented the purchase of hygiene products, medicines and food. Iranian demands were supported by the UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres, as well as China. However, the Washington administration remained firm, further increasing the scope of trade restrictions (Macias, 2020). Iranian Man: "This whole pandemic is against Iran. The Americans want my country to surrender."

Thoughtful political actions were also attempts to portray the coronavirus pandemic as aggression by the USA against poor or economically weakened countries, including Iran. The Supreme Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran, clergyman and politician Ali Chamanei, stated that the USA invented a special version of the COVID-19 disease virus in order to destroy his country. The clergyman believed that this was supposed to be a retaliation for Iran's nuclear plans. Ali Chamanei thus upheld the claims made by Chinese politicians. These statements clearly show the growing political tensions between the USA and Iran, and between the USA and China. Sunni woman from Egypt: "You are a Christian, and you don't know that Jesus healed? You have to believe and pray. Illness cannot distance man from God."

Religious Meetings of the Jamaat Tabligh Movement

The Indian-based Jamaat Tabligh Muslim social movement is a non-political association spreading the faith of the First Umma, encouraging Muslims to practice the religion of Muhammad during the lifetime of Muhammad. It focuses primarily on matters related to religious rituals, clothing and personal behavior (Timol, 2019). The movement is especially popular in South Asia, but it is also present in other parts of the world. Jamaat Tabligh is described as the most influential religious movement in Islam in the twentieth century. The movement restricts its activities to Muslims and does not confront other religious communities, nor did it show any political ambitions. It proclaims that politics is global, and thus distracts man from faith and love for God (Ahmad, 2021; Lone, 2018).

The movement held a massive meeting at the Sri Prtaling mosque near Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia's capital city, from February 27 to March 1, 2020, which proved to be the source of a significant number of coronavirus infections. The meeting was attended by 16,000 people, including over 1500 foreigners from several countries in the region: Indonesia, Philippines, Singapore, Brunei, Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam, who transferred the infection to their countries. More than a dozen days after the meeting, Malaysian authorities said more than 600 infections out of 1000 cases of the virus had their source in the Jamaat Tabligh meeting. Despite all efforts, not all participants of the meeting were found and examined (Sarkar, 2020).

A similar four-day meeting of the movement was scheduled on the island of Celebes in Indonesia, the largest Muslim state in the world. However, the country's authorities suspended a mass gathering, and 9000 pilgrims who attended the meeting were quarantined to prevent transmission of the virus. The organizer of the event, Sentot Abu Thoriq, was disappointed with the government's decision to liquidate the event, which had been planned over a year earlier. He stated that health, sickness and death are God's destiny, and members of the movement believe that God will bless and protect the godly. Another organizing committee member said he feared God more than the virus. Egyptian woman: "Politicians only issue new bans, no one wondered why the plague came." The words of the organizers fit in with the narrative adopted by some Muslim radical religious leaders. Earlier, one of the Iranian imams spoke similarly about the coronavirus pandemic (Gomez, 2020).

ISIS Recommendations on COVID-19 Pandemic

Leaders of the so-called Islamic State, at the beginning of the pandemic, informed their supporters in the Al-Naba newsletter that the coronavirus is a punishment for communist China for the persecution of the Muslim Uighur minority (Rayila, 2011). Subsequently, the Chinese government was widely criticized for concealing the true number of those who died and who died from the disease. With the spread of the global COVID-19 pandemic, anxiety grew among the so-called Islamic State. In the early stages of the pandemic, ISIS leaders feared an infection spread by Chinese Uighurs recruited into the ranks of the organization. Probably for this reason, appropriate recommendations were issued for soldiers, known as Sharia directives, which were published in the ISIS bulletin "Al-Naba." The foundation is the duty to trust God and seek refuge in Him, also from all diseases (Sunnah an-Nasa'i, 2009). However, further recommendations addressed to agents of the so-called Islamic State, concern bypassing Europe, called the land of epidemics in the manual. The comment in the ISIS bulletin on the plague, from the hadith collection, states that it is a God-sent torment, because diseases do not strike by themselves, but under the command of the Creator himself. Allah will make it an instrument of mercy for believers, patiently overcoming the scourge must have confidence in God. Man will meet what the Creator has prepared for him, it can also be a martyr's reward (Sahih al-Bukhari, 2005a).

The travel safety rules put in place by ISIS leaders are interesting as, until the COVID-19 pandemic outbreaks, militants were encouraged to plan attacks in Europe and travel to European countries to recruit new combat-ready troops. The rules for preventing transmission of the virus recommend that people who may have contact with the infected should not leave the region in which they are located. Administration of the so-called Islamic State is concerned about the spread of disease in its territory and among its soldiers. The directives also cover healthy people who should not enter pandemic areas (Azman, 2021). Members of a terrorist organization are also bound by strict rules of personal hygiene. The instruction requires you to cover your mouth when sneezing and yawning, and to wash your hands frequently. The obligation to maintain hygiene was supported by an appropriate hadith referring to germs and all contamination, in which the followers of Islam are instructed to cover the vessels and tie water bags, because it is night in the year when the plagues descend, they pass through the vessels that are not covered and some this blight may remain in the vessel or water bag (Sahih Muslim, 2009). On this basis, ISIS leaders have urged people to wash their hands regularly, especially before dipping them in any utensils (Johnson, 2020).

In addition to the instructions on the rules of sanitary safety, applicable to all members and supporters of the so-called Islamic State, an extensive article was published in the official Al-Naba newsletter, discussing the pandemic in the world. The authors point out that the COVID-19 pandemic, which mainly affected idolatrous nations, is an example of God's action, sending torments to the unbelievers and ensuring the safety of believers (Al-Naba, 2020b).

In the article, Christian communities, mainly European, were called crusaders. The actions of the leaders of countries affected by the pandemic in counteracting economic effects, including price instability, were also analyzed. The topic of internal security and the activation of the army in individual countries struggling with the pandemic were also discussed. An important element of the article was to emphasize the weaknesses of European countries as a result of the pandemic, while pointing to the concerns of European Union countries related to the imminent danger of terrorist attacks, similar to those that took place in Paris, London and Brussels. The article was also a form of empowerment and support for all militants, clearly indicating that despite the epidemic, they cannot abandon their path, which is jihad. Jihadist soldiers have been called to continue working to free Muslim prisoners from camps where they experience not only enslavement but also disease and harm from infidels. In addition, the weaknesses of European countries which, as a result of the spreading pandemic, had to close state institutions, as well as to cease economic activity on a large scale, were also indicated. All these activities made the authors of the article extremely happy, pointing to a kind of God's punishment for the harm done to Muslims (Jawad Al-Tamimi, 2020). Man from Turkey: "Of course I'm scared of getting sick, it's terrifying what they show on TV, but I'm much more afraid that ISIS will send out its fighters to infect other people."

The so-called Islamic State has suffered a series of defeats in recent months, losing significant territory previously occupied. However, it is still active in parts of Iraq and Syria. The COVID-19 pandemic has also affected Middle East countries. ISIS also has its cells in Africa. However, so far a small number of infected have been recorded on the continent. However, this does not mean that the virus will bypass Africa. There is a justified risk of spreading the virus in an uncontrolled manner, associated with insufficient medical care and poor quality of its services, as well as low health awareness of the population, especially in rural communities and distant from large urban centers. Therefore, the Sharia directives also apply to centers of fighters, the so-called Islamic State in West and Central Africa. Due to the ongoing conflicts in Syria and Yemen, it is difficult to know at what rate and in what area the coronavirus is spreading. Thus, it is extremely difficult to assess the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic in these areas. The concerns about the sanitary safety of ISIS fighters are therefore justified. Lack of regular control over internal migrations of people in conflict-affected areas may, to a large extent, result in unrestricted transmission of the virus (Al-Naba, 2020a).

Discussion

The conducted research made it possible to answer the above questions. First of all, religious practices carried out in large groups of people, without maintaining an appropriate social distance and proper personal hygiene, may contribute to the intensification of the transmission of pathogenic viruses, especially those transmitted by airborne droplets. Examples of such transmission of COVID-19 were the pilgrimage to Iran's Qom and the religious meetings of the Jamaat Tabligh movement. However, it cannot be unequivocally stated that community religious practices are becoming a special plane contributing to the spread of diseases. Restricting community religious practices should be primarily aimed at educating on the prevention of the transmission of infectious diseases, and not completely closing access to the place of worship. It has been shown above that carrying out sacred religious rites during a global pandemic, such as pilgrimage in Islam, may contribute to an increase in the number of deaths among participants of these rites. However, the direct cause of the pilgrims' deaths was an infectious disease, and not the mere fact of participating in the pilgrimage and religious ceremonies. Failure to maintain an appropriate social distance and proper hand hygiene contributes to the uncontrolled transmission of the virus. The conducted research also showed a significant influence of the opinion of the Muslim clergy on the society. Opinions expressed by Shi'ite clergy that there was no possibility of contracting the COVID-19 disease during the prayer was not only inconsistent with the state of scientific knowledge, but above all extremely harmful to the population. It misled the population and thus could contribute to an increase in the number of cases. Finally, the decision to close mosques to the public was particularly hard to accept, not only for the clergy but also for the believers. All religious communities around the world had to face this problem. Restricting the use of places of worship has made believers of all religions feel abandoned by their religious leaders and alone in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic. These limitations showed people how important religion is in life, especially when health and life are at risk (Al-Astewani, 2021).

Conclusions

The COVID-19 pandemic came as a surprise to the whole world. Although the population has got used to the threat to security, it is understood as a threat to peace, caused by terrorist attacks or armed conflicts.

The problem of threats to public health will continue to grow. Until a few years ago, such an intense escalation of a virus, causing an infectious disease, against which modern and modern medicine is almost helpless, was not imagined. There were concerns about refugees and forced migrants from regions with low sanitary status and inefficient medical systems. Meanwhile, the usual mobility of modern society has contributed to the extremely rapid transmission of COVID-19 disease around the world. The problem of the threat to health safety spreading in societies will increase in the future, due to significant disparities in health protection in different parts of the world; moreover, the mobility of the population is greater than ever before, and it is obvious that this will continue to increase.

Based on the study, it should be stated that the approach of the Muslim community to COVID-19 pandemics depends on three factors. The first is the religious commitment of the respondents. The study showed that the greater the religiosity and strong adherence to the religious practices of Islam, the lower the acceptance of pandemic restrictions. The second important factor is the distrust toward the decisions of politicians who interfered too intensively in religious life. People taking part in the survey indicated that the clergy was too docile to politicians. The imams tried not to question the validity of the restrictions introduced. Shi'ite clerics viewed the COVID-19 pandemic somewhat differently. Some of them questioned government and medical decisions in public, official statements. The third factor is the subjective assessment of world events.

The intense transmission of the virus, taking its death toll among humans, was simply unimaginable. It is the scale of the infection's range and the lack of experience in combating the disease pandemic in the modern world, on the one hand, contributed to the carelessness of people and often to disregard for the threat. It also contributed to the feeling of being lost and helpless in the face of the destructive force of nature. It is probably for this reason that some spiritual leaders of the Muslim world have tried with all their might to emphasize the importance and power of prayer during the COVID-19 pandemics. Of course, trust in God is an extremely important element to help us survive the difficult times, but it was a great mistake to oppose sanitary rules. Iranian imams did not make a timely decision to sanitary close down places of worship for pilgrims, especially in Qom. This decision significantly contributed to the intensification of the virus transmission not only in Iran but also in other countries. A similar disregard was demonstrated by the organizers of the meetings of the Jamaat Tabligh religious movement in Malaysia. The arguments raised by Muslim spiritual leaders regarding total trust in God during the epidemic were skewed and applied politically. This message had one purpose: to show the world beyond the Muslims that a terrible plague has struck the unbelievers. Unfortunately, the delayed implementation of sanitary safety rules in Muslim countries had a different effect. Iran has become the second largest coronavirus transmission epicenter after China. However, it is not known how many people were infected in their countries by people returning from Iran.

The range of infections with an infectious disease, unprecedented in recent decades, has shown deficiencies and insufficient procedures in the preparation of individual countries to counteract epidemics. The spreading coronavirus has also highlighted various health safety concerns. Among these is the question of refugee camps. The COVID-19 pandemic has also strengthened the position of individual European Union countries on the increased migration of people, mainly from the Middle East and North Africa to Europe. Closing borders for fear of transmission of the virus makes it much more difficult to apply for asylum. An additional obstacle is the non-functioning offices in many European Union countries, as well as the suspended implementation of aid programs for refugees.

The leaders of the Muslim world have tried to use the prevailing COVID-19 pandemic to fortify their own political and religious positions, often disregarding global sanitary standards, thus exposing citizens to the risk of contracting coronavirus that is difficult to treat. The pandemic also revealed the weakness of the sanitary and epidemiological facilities of many countries. In the case of Iran, a problem in properly managing the COVID-19 pandemic has been the economic constraints caused by the political sanctions Iran is facing. Improper access to drugs and medical equipment had a significant impact on the increase in the number of infected and dead people. There is no doubt, however, that ending the pandemic will require the implementation of new systems for preventing and combating infectious diseases.

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The author declare that I have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

The article complies with current ethical standards.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Islam and the COVID-19 Pandemic: Between Religious Practice and Health Protection

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This paper concerns a problem, the global pandemic COVID-19, which has influenced religious practices with respect to health protection across the Muslim world. Rapid transmission of the virus between people has become ...

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This article discusses Aarti, which is a ceremony of lights performed at the end of prayers or auspicious rituals. It is performed by sadhus and pujaris in order to ask forgiveness for any mistakes made during the ritual. Aarti involves waving an odd number of candles in front of the Deity they've chosen to worship.

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Aarti is the ceremony of lights. The "Aarti" is one of the most important Hindu religious rituals of worship. It is a prayerful ceremony performed to please the Divine Lord after finishing the prayers or auspicious rituals. The aarti ceremony is said to have descended from the ancient Vedic period which means "Aart- Nivaran" means the removal of sorrows or "Aa + rati" meaning complete love towards God. It is sung and performed with a deep sense of gratitude and love.

The holy river Ganga (giver of life, purity, bliss and liberation in Her waters) is truly a Divine Mother for millions of Indian and the Ganga Aarti /divine light ceremony which is filled with bhajans. prayers at Varanasi is a divine ritual. Participating in the 1000 years old Ganga aarati at Varanasi, Haridwar, and Rishikesh is a splendid experience. Every evening thousands of Hindu devotees gathers on the bank of this holy river to participate in the aarti ceremony and to take blessings of Goddess Ganga.

Practice: In general, Aarti is performed at the end of the prayers or auspicious rituals. It is performed to rectify any mistakes made during the whole process, to please the Celestial God, and to take divine blessings from God. It is a hymn or a song in praise to God as well as to illuminate our mind from worldly thoughts.

The 'ceremony of light' or the aarti is mostly performed by sadhus (Hindu monks) and pujaris (attendants to the Deities) in the temple and by the devotees at their homes. It involves waving 3/5/7 odd numbers of ghee-soaked lighted wicks from the head to toe of the Deity's while chanting Vedic mantras or singing a prayer or a hymn. Some devotees use camphor instead of wicks or a lamp.

Important factors to follow while doing the Aarti:

* Wear clean washed clothes.
* Offerings of fruits, leaves, and flowers.
* Blowing the conch.
* Lighting the lamp and rotating with deep faith.
* Aarti should be waved in clockwise manner around the deity.
* The performer needs to sung the prayer with the emotion (bhava) that God Himself is standing in front and he/she calling out to Him faithfully.
* Bow down with reverence (total surrender).

After the Aarti is completed, the lighted wicks are passed around the congregation to move their hand over the lamp and then over their head and face to receive the blessings infused within the flames. It is believed that the flames of the aarti purifies the gross and subtle bodies and energises for a faster spiritual evolution.

Almost all temples or Hindu shrines in India perform aarti with a joyful meditative song or a prayer with an accompaniment of musical instruments, like dhol (drums), bells, veena, table, and a conch-shell, etc. The priest also rings a small hand-bell with his left hand while chanting the prayer and waving the wicks with his right hand.

Significance: Waving of lighted lamps before an idol with Bhajana (Prayer) is called Aarti. The custom of aarti acts as a total surrender to God to overcome any worldly desire or misery. Since ages, according to the guidelines of "Sanatan Dharma", mortals have been following many rituals like "Home", "Yajna", "pooja" in search of peace and wellbeing. This is true that praising God with your deepest faith will make you have your wishes fulfilled. So, the aarti is connected to all Hindu rituals, and it has profound spiritual sentiments underlying it.

* Aarti serves as a reminder to stay vigilant so that the worldly thoughts, achievements, and desires cannot overcome the mind. Just as the small lighted lamp chases away the darkness of that place.
* It reminds the selfless love towards God and to every living being by chanting the mantras and praising God, the creator of the world.
* Hand movements over the flame generate a faith that the blessing of God is always with us.
* The ghee soaked lighted wicks / camphor burns itself out completely but emits a fragrance on the place of aarti. It reminds us the idea of "offering sacrifices" for the good of others.
* The 'Aarti' gives opportunity to every individual to show their gratitude towards the almighty God, who is the creator and operator of this beautiful cosmos.

Hindu shrines are usually performing aarti five times a day, assuming that each aarti is related to a specific part of the Deities' routine. The five most common aartis are:

Mangal Aarti : Before sunrise - When God wakes up, the priest/monk opens up the "Garva Gruha" for the first look of the God and for an auspicious beginning.

Shangar Aarti : Early Morning - After dressing up God and for the darshan of the visitors.

Rajbhog Aarti : Midday - After offering the midday meal which is the main meal of the day.

Sandhya Arati : At Sunset - After Special Prayer in the evening with the devotees. It is the most popular among all aartis.

Shayan Aarti : Late evening - Final aarti at the end of the day to praise The God for giving a wonderful day and upcoming peaceful night.

Sanatan Dharma explains, 33 crores of God and Goddess come for the darshan (to see) "The Celestial God" and to participate during the aarti. And thus, aarti as a divine form of worship. There are different songs for different Gods and Goddess to celebrate the ritual of aarti. Aarti can be simple to extravagant depends on the devotees and to their tradition, but always includes flame or light. Hindu devotees sing "Om Jai Jagdish Hare", one of the oldest and widely sung Bhajan (prayer) during aarti is devoted to all or any gods and goddesses.

Most commonly, the Aarti is performed by waving lighted wicks (soaked in ghee) or by lighted camphor/diya/lamp before the idol (murti of God) accompanied by various musical instruments, mantra, expressive songs that praises The God. Most Hindu shrines, big and famous temple performs aarti five times a day and almost all Hindu devotees perform aarti two times a day at their homes, in the morning and the evening.

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Aarti is the ceremony of lights in Hindu tradition, Aarti is performed at the end of the prayers or auspicious rituals. Arti is performed to rectify any mistakes made during the whole process, to please the celestial god, and to take divine blessings from God.

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Nirvana Day
Nirvana Day is on February 15 or the 8th. It commemorates  the death of the Buddha after  he reached Nirvana at 80 years old. Nirvana is the end of the cycle of death and rebirth and is achieved when the Four Noble Truths are understood. Another name for this celebration is Parinirvana Day. This article has some great overviews of some basic Buddhist concepts and how the holiday is celebrated in addition to a couple of videos.

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Learn all about the Buddhist festival of Nirvana Day with fun interactive videos, activities, downloads, quizzes and revision guides for KS2 school children.

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The Festival of Ridván is a 12 day long festival in the Baháʼí Faith. During this time the prophet founder lived in paradise (Ridván), and declared he was the messenger of God for that time.

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April 21, 2019 - The First Day of Ridván

The First Day of Ridván is an important Baha'i holiday. Riḍván is a twelve-day festival that celebrates the beginnings of the Bahá'í Faith in 1863. It does this by commemorating Bahá'u'lláh's declaration that he was a Manifestation of God. Ridván means paradise, and is named for the Garden of Ridván outside Baghdad, where Bahá'u'lláh stayed for twelve days, and made this declaration. Bahá'u'lláh made three other especially important declarations on the first day in the garden: he condemned religious war, which was permitted under certain conditions in Islam and the Bábí faith; he said there would not be another Manifestation of God for another 1,000 years; and he said that all the names of God were fully manifested in all things.

Ridván is observed according to the Bahá'í calendar, and the first day begins at sunset on the thirty-second day of the Bahá'í year, which falls on either April 20 or 21. This year it is April 21, 2019. Celebrations begin two hours before sunset as it symbolizes the time that Bahá'u'lláh entered the garden. Given that the First Day of Ridván is also one of the Bahá'í Holy Days, work and school is prohibited. Baha'i's traditionally observe this holiday by gathering together in prayer and celebration.

Learn more with the books below.
Studies in Bábí and Baháʹí History

If there's a particular celebration you or someone you know participates in that we missed, let us know by leaving a comment on this post. Or, if you think we got something wrong, please also comment and let us know. We try to be as accurate as possible, but if there's a mistake, we want to correct it.

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The Origins and Practices of Holidays: First Day of Ridván

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The First Day of Ridván is an important Baha'i holiday. Riḍván is a twelve-day festival that celebrates the beginnings of the Bahá'í Faith in 1863. It does this by commemorating Bahá'u'lláh's declaration that he was a Manifestation of God.

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Hindus have 4 forms of worship. Puja worships Braham during the puja ceremony and people typically worship a few specific deities that they are related to. Aarti worship is when an aarti lamp is passed around and Hindus waft their hands over the flame over their heads. Darshan is to be seen by God, where they recite mantras and sing hymms. Havan is a fire sacrfice to the god Agni which used to sacrifice animals.

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In Hinduism, there are many different types of , which are all performed for different purposes. However, the main theme of worship is to show , which means loving devotion to God. There are four main types of worship that can be done in the home and temple. These are , and .

worship involves giving respect to , and this is done through the puja ceremony. Hindus can show respect for Brahman by worshipping any of the thousands of different in Hinduism. However, a Hindu will most likely worship one or two specific deities that are important to them and their family.

worship is one of the main ceremonies. During the worship, an aarti lamp is passed around in front of worshippers. Hindus then waft their hands over the flame and then over their heads to gain blessings from God.

means to be seen by God , and in this ceremony Hindus touch the feet of their preferred deity to show honour and respect. Worshippers hope that they will be blessed by the god. During this form of worship, special sayings called are chanted using prayer beads, also called malas. Mantras are special words that are repeated over and over again. They show the importance of the chosen deity to the worshipper. Worshippers also sing hymns, which Hindus called .

is a traditional fire sacrifice that used to be made to the god Agni. Ritual animal sacrifice used to take place. However, this no longer happens. Havan symbolises offerings made to the deities and the idea of giving something up for Brahman. Havan is used during Hindu weddings today, where couples walk seven steps around a fire.

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Different forms of worship - Practices in Hinduism - GCSE Religious Studies Revision - AQA - BBC Bitesize

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In Hinduism, there are many different types of , which are all performed for different purposes. However, the main theme of worship is to show , which means loving devotion to God. There are four main types of worship that can be done in the home and temple.

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This article outlines the fundamentalism of the Festival of the Twin Birthdays. It discusses the details of what takes place during the festival, as well as its importance to the Bahai Faith.

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This article explains what Puja is and how it is important to Hindu life. It also gives examples of what Puja is.

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More than a religion, Hinduism is a way of life. Hindu pujas and rituals are endowed with a very deep significance and meaning. The purpose of every act of puja in Hinduism is to experience the otherwise incomprehensible divinity in a concrete form. Pujas are performed mainly to establish a contact with the macrocosm through microcosm. There are several kinds of Hindu pujas. The regular daily worship at homes and temples are called Nitya Puja or regular worship. During festivals and special occasions, there are also some special pujas like the Navratri Durga puja, Ganesh Chaturti and Krishnashtami. While each of them has its own format and flavor,here are the main rituals of a typical Hindu puja and their meaning.

Invocation is the first step of a puja. The place of Puja is cleaned and the altar is set up. Usually there is an object of puja in which the deity is invoked. This could be a picture, an idol, an image made of clay or turmeric or a sacred pot. The performer chants some verses to meditate on and address the deity to which the puja is intended. The purpose, setting, time and performer of the puja are stated and the deity is prayed to be present in the central object of worship to accept the puja and answer the prayers.

Puja in several ways is similar to inviting someone to the home or a particular premises and extending a set of hospitality acts to them. The main part of Hindu puja consists of sixteen types of offerings to the divine. Some of the important ones of them include offering a seat, offering water to wash feet and hands, offering water to drink, a holy bath with different sacred and fragrant materials, offering of clothes, floral garlands and ornaments, offering sandal paste, turmeric paste and vermilion, offering turmeric smeared rice, adoring the Lord with different names accompanied by puja with flowers, offering Nivedan or cooked and uncooked eatables and fruits, offering incense sticks, waving camphor flame and some other acts of honoring the deity possible for the individual, saying the prayers.

Every typical Hindu pujas and rituals end with thanking the deity for accepting the puja and blessing the devotee with the boons and then sending the deity back to its original place (Yathasthanam). After this step, the offerings blessed by the deity are distributed among the participants of the puja to be consumed or worn.

Hindu pujas and rituals are essentially the avenues to get in touch with the supreme self in the way and mode desired by the individual. Hindu pujas make an elaborate use of puja materials and accessories that provide a means of livelihood for the different sellers. Pujas are family and social gatherings wherein people come together and refresh their relationships. During pujas gifts are given away and charity is done to the poor and needy. Pujas help in the spiritual evolution of people and are also occasions to celebrate the different art forms like dance, music, crafts and others. Therefore they provide a holistic approach to living.

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The essence of various rituals in hindu puja | - Times of India

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Rituals & Puja News: The essence of various rituals in hindu puja - The regular daily worship at homes and temples are called Nitya Puja or regular worship.

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This interview with Robert Wright uncovers the truth about dissatisfaction being the motivation for suffering. He explains how the evolution of psychology supports the Buddhist philosophy of "not-self". He also goes into detail about how it is hard to attain peace in onesself if the mind is not open to impermanence.

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An Interview with Robert Wright

The Buddha said that the origin of all suffering is craving - we either don't get what we want or we get what we don't want. But what is the origin of our craving? In his recent New York Times best-selling book, Why Buddhism is True: The Science and Philosophy of Meditation and Enlightenment, Robert Wright argues that the process of natural selection designed the human mind to crave - and therefore suffer - because never-ending dissatisfaction helped our ancestors get their genes into the next generation. Though the Buddha predates Darwin by more than 2,000 years, Wright contends that Buddhism's diagnosis of the human condition is fundamentally correct and that its prescription - primarily mindfulness meditation - can help us override our hard-wired tendency to crave.

Wright is currently the visiting professor of science and religion at Union Theological Seminary in Manhattan and the author of four books, including The Moral Animal and The Evolution of God. We spoke with him recently about the relationship between natural selection and suffering, how evolutionary psychology supports the Buddhist idea of not-self, and how meditation can lead to everything from stress reduction to an understanding of Buddhism's most radical philosophical concepts.
Why Buddhism is True is a bold title. Let's start by clarifying what you mean by both "Buddhism" and "True." What Buddhist tradition are you writing about?
If you had to really boil down the Buddhist claim that I'm defending, it's that the reason we suffer-and the reason we make other people suffer-is that we don't see the world clearly. We have illusions about ourselves, other people, and the world. Buddhism posits that we tend to misperceive fundamental aspects of our existence.
Is that what you mean when you say that Buddhism is true-that certain Buddhist ideas are corroborated by modern psychology? And, since it gets special emphasis in the book, it might be helpful if you can explain what evolutionary psychology is.
Of course, there are a lot of different Buddhist traditions, but I've tried to focus on elements that are found across the great bulk of Buddhist traditions-for example, not-self and emptiness. Not-self is the idea that the self, in some sense, doesn't really exist and emptiness is the idea that things don't possess the essences that we usually attribute to them. With both of these ideas, I think modern psychology-and, in particular, evolutionary psychology-is on my side in defending at least some version of them.

Evolutionary psychology is the study of how the human mind came to be the way it is as a result of natural selection. In writing my book about evolutionary psychology, The Moral Animal, I became convinced of two things: that the mind was not designed to see the world clearly and that we weren't designed to be happy. Yes, in some cases, the mind does a good job of perceiving the everyday world, but that was not the bottom-line criterion of natural selection. The bottom-line criterion in natural selection is to favor traits that do a good job of getting genes into the next generation. And if having illusions about yourself or other people will help get genes into the next generation, then natural selection will favor a tendency toward illusion. This has an obvious connection to Buddhism, since Buddhism holds that we indeed tend to suffer from illusion unless we work to dispel it.

The other takeaway from evolutionary psychology, that we weren't designed to be happy, also has a clear connection to Buddhism. We were designed to have recurring dissatisfaction with the state of things and to suffer in specific ways because emotions like fear, sadness, and anxiety can help us get our genes into the next generation. For example, being anxious about our social standing seems to have been favored by natural selection because being held in high esteem was correlated, during evolution, with getting genes into the next generation.
How so?
Finally, I would say that not only does evolutionary psychology corroborate the Buddhist ideas that we suffer and that we tend to not see the world clearly; I think it also supports the Buddhist idea that there's a connection between these two things.

Well, for instance, there's the Buddhist idea that one reason we suffer is that we don't really see and live in accordance with the reality of impermanence. For example, we don't recognize that gratification is impermanent. The happiness we get upon attaining some goal-eating some food, having sex, or whatever-tends to evaporate fairly quickly. Evolutionary psychology, I think, gives us a pretty plausible explanation of why this happens: if it didn't, then animals wouldn't keep pursuing their goals of eating and having more sex. And, of course, those are things that are part of getting genes into the next generation.

In other words, suffering is conducive to genetic proliferation and so suffering is built into us. From this perspective, it makes sense that we would be engineered to focus more on the gratification that reaching a given goal is going to bring rather than on the fact that the gratification is going to evaporate and leave us restless and unhappy afterwards.
Would you say that all dukkha or suffering can be attributed to natural selection?
This kind of suffering is very subtly and deeply built into us.

I would say all suffering is the result of natural selection only if you include things that are the result of natural selection in a very indirect way. A certain amount of the suffering we experience was not "intended" by natural selection. (Whenever I personify natural selection by saying it designs things or intends things, I, of course, have to use quotes because it's not a conscious process.) In the modern environment, we encounter situations that were not part of the environment in which humans evolved. So things like public speaking induce anxiety in a lot of people-and even to a clearly counterproductive extent, like when you can't sleep the night before a presentation-but, of course, there weren't big public talks in our natural environment. We're just not designed to deal with that kind of situation at all.
Can you give an example of dukkha or suffering when it's functioning as natural selection "intended"?
In the public speaking example, there's a form of suffering that would be natural in hunter-gather societies-anxiety-but it is evoked in a novel way that was not "intended" by natural selection. So, while it's connected to natural selection, you wouldn't say that this suffering is some kind of direct product of natural selection.

Yes. Say you're hiking and you know that there are poisonous snakes around. Every time you hear a rustling in the underbrush you will feel a surge of fear and you become more alert. That fear is suffering, but it's suffering that's functioning as "designed." Of course, there might not even be a snake there so your fear can be the result of an illusion. That's a case where natural selection favors a false positive, so to speak, on the grounds that you're better safe than sorry.
You mentioned that one of the Buddhist ideas you defend in the book is not-self-the claim that, in some sense, the self doesn't really exist. Can you say more about not-self?
So I would distinguish between times we suffer when we are operating as "designed," so to speak, and times we suffer when what we're experiencing is a natural form of suffering misfiring because of the environment we're in.

Not-self is both a metaphysical and a moral claim. As for the metaphysical dimension of the claim-or, if you prefer, the psychological dimension-there is a lot of evidence in psychology that our intuitions about the self are just wrong. We tend to think of the self as a kind of conscious CEO, thinking thoughts and making decisions, yet there's a lot of evidence to suggest that human consciousness is more like an observer of the thoughts and decisions that are unconsciously generated. But we are under the impression that consciousness is the generator. It's like a passenger of a plane thinking that he or she is flying the plane.
How can Buddhist practice help us see through some of our basic misconceptions about ourselves and the world?
There's actual experimental evidence showing that people make up stories about why they did certain things and then they believe the stories. So they're making up stories on an unconscious level. We also tend to think we're very good people, better than average. It can't really be the case that most people are better than average morally, and yet study after study shows that most people think they are. We have these kinds of basic misconceptions about ourselves. We believe there's more in the way of a "CEO self" than there is, and we're inclined to think that this "self" is an exemplary citizen.
While you are only interested in what you describe as the "naturalistic parts" of Buddhism, you engage with Buddhist meditation in a way that goes beyond those who see it mostly as a palliative technique or productivity tool. Meditation for you is a way to pursue enlightenment or, at least, a way to become more enlightened.
I think that by quieting the mind sufficiently you actually start liberating yourself from some of the mechanisms of distortion that natural selection built in. When I say that, I'm thinking particularly of feelings. Beginning with just aversion and grasping-the basic dichotomy between avoidance and approach-and building all the way up to the complex emotions, I think all of these things are natural selection's way of controlling our perceptions and our thoughts. So, for example, feelings of dislike for a rival color our moral evaluation of them, leading us to judge them more harshly than we otherwise would. So it stands to reason that if you have a meditative practice that lets you start seeing things without such pervasive influence from feelings and emotions, you would start seeing things more clearly, because you're escaping the fundamental mechanism of delusion.

Yes, that's right. Although, I also wanted to draw a connection between those two things. In other words, I wanted to convince people that, even if their practice is basically therapeutic-they're just using meditation for stress reduction or something-they may be on the path to a deeper exploration that can be enlightening. I think, for example, if you change the way you relate to your anxiety in such a way that you're no longer identifying with it, then I think you could see that as an incremental realization of not-self.

In fact, this view is consistent with the spirit of what the Buddha said in his Discourse on Not-Self. He goes through the different parts of the mind and basically says: "Does it really make sense to view this part of the mind as part of yourself? You can't control it. It leads to affliction. Do yourself a favor and don't think of it as yourself." And yet, by the end of the Discourse, he says: "And if you do this with everything you had previously considered yourself, you will have achieved complete liberation."
How has having a meditation practice changed your own life?
I think some people may be fortunate enough to have spontaneous awakenings of various kinds and just suddenly have the experience of not-self; I envy them. But, I think, for most people, it's going to be more incremental than that. I think there can be a direct connection between the kind of practice that's sometimes dismissed as merely therapeutic and the kind that's deeply spiritual and philosophical.

Well, on the one hand, it has helped me deal with anxiety and also with stress. At the end of the day, if I'm feeling stressed out, I'll sit down and meditate for a while. But, at the same time, I have seen how doing that can lead to something deeper, especially when on retreat.

While on retreat, I've occasionally had the experience that the bounds of myself had dissolved. As I described one experience in Why Buddhism is True, I felt that a bird singing outside the meditation hall was no less a part of me than a tingling in my foot. If you look at what paved the way for that experience, I think a big part of it is viewing various things that I normally think of as part of myself with less attachment. The interior of my mind was feeling more diffuse than usual, was feeling less aggregated than usual, precisely because I was not closely identifying with it. And I think that's one reason there seemed to be more continuity between what I normally think of as the interior of me and what I normally think of as the exterior. This made it harder to say where my "self" ended and the world out there began.
You suggest that this is one of Buddhism's most remarkable claims: that seeing the truth of things will also make you a good person.
I think this is morally significant, by the way. To the extent that you don't see a big boundary between you and the world out there, you're probably going to see less of a moral distinction between your welfare and the welfare of beings out there. And, of course, this is part of Buddhist teaching: there can be a connection between the experiential apprehension of not-self and becoming more selfless in the moral sense of the term.
In the book, you make both intellectual arguments and experiential arguments to support your case. The intellectual arguments rest primarily on the findings of modern psychology and the experiential arguments come from your personal experience meditating. Can you talk about the relationship between these different kinds of evidence?
Yes, I think this claim is underappreciated. Wouldn't it be amazing if the truth about reality naturally converges with your happiness and moral truth? When you think about it, that's the Buddhist claim. As you see things more clearly, you'll suffer less, and you'll also be less of a jerk. That's an incredible claim about the very structure of reality.

Well, I didn't want to rely too much on my own reports of my own experiences. I use them to supplement, and hopefully enrich, the argument I make in the book. But I hope that the basic argument could be appraised by someone who's never meditated. It doesn't depend on your having had some particular set of experiences.

It is a really interesting feature of Buddhist history that, on the one hand, Buddhist philosophers argue their propositions the way Western philosophers do and, on the other hand, they also believe that the truths can be directly, experientially apprehended. Because to just buy the intellectual arguments is definitely not the same thing as, in a sense, feeling the truth of these things. I mean, of course I can't personally say that I've had the depth of apprehension of certain ideas that more adept meditators have had, but I've had enough brushes with some insights, especially while on retreat, to get a sense for what it's like. And I think I can safely say that accepting the intellectual arguments is not the same thing as experiencing the truth.

My hope is that the arguments in Why Buddhism is True -and in particular the explanations for why natural selection built the mind to be the way it is-will make people more inclined to explore these things meditatively. Perhaps people who have never meditated might be tempted. But I hope also that people who already meditate and get some therapeutic benefit out of it, but haven't really taken the enlightening aspects of meditation all that seriously, might now be inclined to pursue the practice more intensively.
Join us in New York City on March 22, 2018, for a conversation on "The Science and Philosophy of Meditation and Enlightenment" with Wright and the Garrison Institute's president, Andrew Zolli. Photo by Jed Adan on Unsplash
Sam Mowe is the editor of Lineages. Robert Wright is the author of many books, including, most recently, the New York Times bestseller Why Buddhism is True: The Science and Philosophy of Meditation and Enlightenment.

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The Buddha said that the origin of all suffering is craving - we either don't get what we want or we get what we don't want. But what is the origin of our craving?

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This is a really interesting interview with Krishna Das, a hindi musician that chants kirtan, which are religious chants that repeat themselves like mantras.

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Krishna Das  Interview & Discussion with Spirit Matters Talk

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This interview by 60 Minutes is with the previous Latter Day Saints president, Gordon B. Hinckley. Discusses the foundations of mormonism and controversy within the Church.

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60 Minutes Interview With LDS Church Pres. Gordon B. Hinckley

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Parinirvana day is celebrated during February in order to remember the Buddha's passing into parinirvana. The focus of the holiday is to recognize the impermanence of the world around us and reflect on future death.

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Parinirvana, the death of the Buddha Shakyamuni, is commemorated by a ceremony in mid-February in most Buddhist communities throughout the world. The Buddha gave several important teachings right before his death, and there is teaching contained in the very manner and fact of his passing. In this episode I describe the Parinirvana (Nehan) ceremony in my lineage and discuss what we can learn from it.

Quicklinks to Article Content:
The Annual Buddhist Parinirvana Ceremony
An Excerpt from the Parinirvana Sutta
Our Parinirvana (Nehan) Ceremony
A Word on Ceremony in Buddhism
The Dharma of the Buddha's Parinirvana (and Ceremony)
The Parinivana Message Summarized

The Annual Buddhist Parinirvana Ceremony

ceremony takes place on February 15th and it commemorates the Buddha's passing and his final teachings. (See " Commemorating the Buddha's Death ")

I'm going to share what the ceremony is like in my lineage and say a few things about the practice of ceremony in Soto Zen in general. Much of what I say will also apply to many other forms of Buddhism, most of which include some kind of ceremony. Then I'll talk about the teaching contained in the Buddha 's dying and death, both in the teachings that he gave as he was dying, and in the very fact and manner of his passing.

I'm not sure about all other Buddhist traditions, but I believe most celebrate Nirvana Day. As I said, in Soto Zen we do this on February 15th. And the Sotoshu website (which is the website of the official Soto School in Japan) says that in this ceremony, a scroll is hung depicting the Buddha's passing. This is an image that you can search online for Parinirvana images and you will see many renditions of this. This is the Buddha. He's lying down between two trees that he's surrounded by disciples and laypeople and even gods and other kinds of beings and animals. And many of them are grieving because he's dying. And there's flower blossoms falling from the skies and all kinds of stuff like that.

The Sotoshu website also mentions that on his deathbed, and they talk about that. And some temples in Japan, also commemorate this day by making dumplings. I call them flower dumplings, which are offered to Buddha gave his last teaching ( Yuikyogyo) the Buddha and then given out to the people who attend. The dumplings are thought to protect you from disaster and illness over the coming year.

Generally speaking, lay people will watch from the sides, kneeling on either side of the ceremony area or in front. Many temples have an open area you can walk into. If you're strolling by the temple and you hear something going on, you can just walk in the front door and see what's going on, watch a ceremony for a while. There's usually a big altar. There's offerings of food and incense and candles. There's chanting and bows and processing around. And usually afterwards there's also a community meal.

In the West, over the last 70 years or so, Soto Zen temples have sprung up and grown all over the place. And the differentiation between monk and lay has decreased significantly. Lay people want to practice. They're not just interested in donating money to a temple that allows monks to practice, and many of them practice as intensely and diligently as monks. We also expect less formal training and particular lifestyles from our priests and monks. The end result of this is the laity participate in and often even take lead or pivotal roles in the ceremonies.

An Excerpt from the Parinirvana Sutta

In many respects, the Parinirvana/Nehan ceremony in my lineage resembles the traditional Soto Zen one. We put a Parinirvana statue on the altar. That's the Buddha lying on his side, on his right side with one leg on top of the other and his head supported by his right hand.

At my particular Zen center, before we get into the main part of the ceremony, a a translation from the Access to Insight website by Thanissaro Sangha member reads from the Pali Canon Maha-Parinibbana Sutta. This is a very long sutta and our reading is very abbreviated, but it's still about a page and a half. I hope you don't mind if I read it to you... it helps set the stage for the ceremony and the teachings contained in it. (Traditionally, people participating in or watching the ceremony would know this story, perhaps from childhood) Note: In this sutra, the Buddha is sometimes referred to as "the Blessed One." This is Bhikkhu.

In his old age, the Buddha had... recovered from [a serious] illness. He came out from his dwelling place and sat down in the shade. Ananda approached, saying: "Fortunate it is for me, O Lord, to see the Blessed One recovered! When I saw the Blessed One's sickness it was as though my own body became weak as a creeper, everything around became dim to me, and my senses failed me. Yet, I still had some little comfort in the thought that the Blessed One would not come to his final passing away until he had given some last instructions respecting the community."

The Buddha answered him, saying: "What more does the community expect from me, Ananda? I have already set forth the complete Dhamma - the teaching - without making any of it hidden. I have no such idea that it is " who should lead the community, or that the community depends upon "." What final instructions would I have to give?"

"Now I am frail, Ananda, old, aged, far gone in years. This is my eightieth year, and my life is spent. Even as an old cart, Ananda, is held together with much difficulty, so the body of the Buddha is kept going only with supports."

"Therefore, Ananda, be islands unto yourselves, refuges unto yourselves, seeking no external refuge; with the Dhamma as your island, the Dhamma as your refuge, seeking no other refuge."

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Then, knowing his time of death was approaching, the Buddha went to the sal-grove near Kushinara with a large community of monks. He said to Ananda, "Please prepare a bed for me between the twin sal-trees, with its head to the north. I am tired, and will lie down." Ananda did so. Then the Buddha lay down on his right side in the lion's sleeping posture, with one foot on top of the other, mindful & alert.

At that time the twin sal-trees were in full bloom, even though it was not the time for flowering. They showered, strewed, & sprinkled petals on the Buddha's body in homage to him. Heavenly coral-tree blossoms fell from the sky, showering, strewing, & sprinkling the Buddha's body in homage to him... Heavenly songs were sung in the sky, in homage to the Buddha.

The Buddha [observed all of this and] said to Ananda, "...it is not in this way that a Buddha is truly worshipped, honored, respected, venerated, or paid homage to. Rather, the monk, nun, or lay follower who keeps practicing the Dhamma, who lives in accordance with the Dhamma: is the person who worships, honors, respects, venerates, & pays homage to the Buddha with the highest homage..."

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Then Ananda, going into a nearby building, stood leaning against the door jamb, weeping: "Here I am, still in training, with work left to do, and the death of my teacher is about to occur - the teacher who has had such sympathy for me!"

The Buddha became aware of Ananda's grieving, and asked him to come to his side. [He] said, "Enough, Ananda. Don't grieve. Don't lament. Haven't I already taught you the state of growing free from attachment to all things dear & appealing? What else is there to expect? It's impossible that one could forbid anything born, existent, fabricated, & subject to disintegration from disintegrating."

Then the Buddha said to the community, "Now, if it occurs to any of you - 'The teaching has lost its authority; we are without a Teacher' - do not view it in that way. Whatever teaching and guidelines for conduct I have pointed out & formulated for you, that will be your Teacher when I am gone..."

"Now, then, community of practitioners, I exhort you: All fabrications are subject to decay. Bring about completion by being heedful." Those were the Buddha's last words. The Buddha entered [a series of meditative states, and upon emerging from them] he immediately was totally Unbound from this earthly existence and passed away. At the moment when the Buddha was totally Unbound, there was a great earthquake, awesome & hair-raising, and the drums of the [heavenly beings] sounded...[i]

Our Parinirvana (Nehan) Ceremony

After the reading in our ceremony (most Zen centers will do something similar to this with some variations on order or what exactly gets chanted) there's a procession into the ceremony hall with the Doshi, which is the celebrant, like a priest or lay teacher who's leading the ceremony, and a Jisha who's the attendant and another person with an instrument, a bell on a stick they ring slowly as the procession comes in.

The Doshi and Jisha go up to the altar and they offer incense. At this point there's usually also (if the temple's big enough and has enough folks able to participate) something called a daimosho offering, which is a very fancy, choreographed offering. One person will pick up a tray with food and it's often surrounded by a decorative paper wrapping and they'll hold it up and the Doshi will bow to it and then receive it with their hands held in a particular way. The Doshi will hold that over the incense for a while and then turn and hand it to someone else who belongs to it first. It's a very beautiful, choreographed process of essentially getting those offerings onto the altar. Then there's bows and chanting.

And in our ceremony, we chant an English plainsong version of the n, or verses of homage to his was created by my Shariraimo the Buddha's relics. T Dharma grandmother, Roshi Kennett, who was an organist in the Church of England before she got into Zen. She actually set a bunch of Zen chants to music. We don't use them very often, but in some of our ceremonies, we'll pull out these sung versions. So, during this chant, which is in a minor key, the Doshi goes up to the altar and blows out the candles, and then the lights are turned off in the meditation hall. This is symbolizing the Buddha 's death.

When the chant is over, everyone stands in silence and a Sangha member takes a wax taper and lights it from a candle that's been hidden behind a screen and re-lights the candles on the altar, and then the hall lights are turned back on. This symbolizes that the Dharma continues even though the Buddha has passed, that it's passed on despite his absence. We then chant the Heart Sutra while processing around the Zendo in a formation that allows everyone to pass in front of the altar and make an offering at the Nehan statue. In our Zendo, out of consideration for people with allergies, we use lavender petals. We pick up a little bit of lavender petals and kind of crush them between our fingers and then sprinkle them into some water.

Then the chant leader chants:

The Dharma Body of the Buddha cannot be seen so long as one is within duality, for it is beyond birth and death, filling all things. Out of compassion for all living things the Buddha appeared in the form and figure of a human being. For this great act we bow in gratitude and pray that we may be able to illuminate our minds from delusion.

On this _____ day of February we have gathered to commemorate our Lord Shakyamuni's entry into Parinirvana, and we offer incense, flowers, candles, cakes, tea and fruit, and the merits of the recitation of "The Adoration of the Buddha's Relics," and the "Heart of Great Perfect Wisdom Sutra " out of gratitude for his Great Compassion.

The moon over Mount Ryoju shines miraculously in all directions; the sala trees bloom and their petals convey the fragrance of the Dharma down to the present time. The Buddha transcended desire and used the blessing of his understanding to help all who are deluded. After all delusion is removed, that which remains is called the True Form, the Form of Buddha, all. The merit of this Form has been a light for all from the far past until the present time. All forms of existence join in the grief of this day, and wholeheartedly recite with us these scriptures. We are filled with awe at the countless voices and boundless light which proclaim the Dharma, and we vow to propagate it eternally.

Then there's a closing dedication and bows.

A Word on Ceremony in Buddhism

I could certainly give a whole talk on the role of ceremony in Buddhism and I probably should at some point. But very briefly, ceremony gets our body involved in the practice in a different way. You might even say to some extent that our meditation because it involves a physical posture, is also a body practice and to some extent is a ritual. But this is in a different way. It gets our body involved in a different aspect of the teaching. It's kind of an enactment of the meaning. As we process around the Zendo, as we turn off the lights, we are putting ourselves, in a certain sense, in this situation of the Buddha 's passing and feeling some sadness, but also some hope as the light continues.

Ceremony can touch us, involve us, communicate to us in a different way, in a nonintellectual way. I've been through the ceremony all kinds of times, but every time I go through it and the candles are extinguished and the lights go off and we sit there in silence for a little bit, it touches the grief that we all have around loss and impermanence.

I'm a very intellectual and skeptical person, and I think ceremony is particularly important for people like me, who might not immediately have taken to it or thought it would be a good idea. But somehow moving in these ancient patterns there's recognition that these ceremonies can touch me. I am not so different from my ancestors. I'm not so different from other people. I'm not separate from that human drama being enacted by the ceremony.

Is there some magical thinking sometimes involved in Buddhism and ceremony, you know, protective dumplings? Do we believe in them or are they real?

The Dharma of the Buddha's Parinirvana (and Ceremony)

As I was doing this ceremony yesterday, my little dog was sick, and I was going to be bringing her immediately afterwards to the emergency vet. It turns out she's OK for now. But I did just lose a dog a few months ago, so this was a very poignant moment for me. We try to take care of things and we want to hold on to them as long as we can, yet we know that nothing subject to disintegration can be forbidden from disintegrating. The Dharma doesn't protect us literally from old age, disease and death.

I think that's another message of this. There were some aspects of the Parinirvana sutta which suggest that the Buddha had special powers and he could have prolonged his life. But the fact that the Buddha got old, he had pain, he got sick, and he died is significant; he's the absolute pinnacle of Buddhist realization and manifestation but it didn't give him eternal life. And yet he was untroubled in his physical pain and in facing death and encouraged Ananda to embrace impermanence and transcend his grief.

Also, this ceremony expresses immense gratitude and love for our teachers. Whether they're living people or friends or authors or whoever, who introduces us to the Dharma and to the freedom that makes it possible? But also communicated by this ceremony and teaching is that at a certain point we don't need those teachers anymore. We internalize the practice. We rely on the Sangha treasure generally, on other people generally, but it doesn't have to be any particular individual. It's not dependent on that.

Another message is that you don't have to be a saint or extremely remarkable super being to achieve the Buddha way. The Buddha is gone, but Buddhism continues. It is kept alive by people who realize what he realized. And Buddhism is not dependent on a charismatic leader, nor on that leader or founder's, supernatural influence, or power after death.

The key to Buddhism is practice and personal transformation, not asking for deliverance. Although a caveat: there are branches of Buddhism where that is what you do, where you are praying to a Buddha who lives in another realm and a heaven realm where you have a chance of being reborn and practices much easier. So, yeah, there's great diversity.

But what about that message of being islands unto yourselves, refuges unto yourselves, seeking no external refuge with the Dharma as your island, with the Dharma as your refuge, seeking no other refuge? We're right to doubt what we think this means (to use my Dharma grandmother's words) if we think it means the Buddha's saying we should stick to our own opinions and not rely on anyone else. After all, Sangha is one of the three treasures, one of the essential elements of Buddhism, and the Buddha also follows it up by saying the Dharma should be your refuge.

What is the Buddha saying? Ultimately, the Dharma is liberating only if we verify it in our own direct experience, we take refuge or rely on the teachings, including the importance of Sangha. You don't just create your own philosophy about the world and stick to that. Not that that's bad necessarily, but it's very limited. But even though we explore and rely on the Dharma and practice the practices, ultimately you must know for yourself that something is true, or that a particular practice is liberating. You have to know through your own six senses. Sight, sound, smell, touch, tase; and mind is considered a sense in Buddhism. If you can't verify it through your own just embodied direct experience, it's not actually liberating. Being a refuge unto yourself isn't taking a refuge in your small self's opinions and agendas. It's taking refuge in your deeper self. The part of you which recognizes truth, which knows pain from ease, which resonates with compassion when you see beings suffer. The part of you that just is awareness itself.

The Parinivana Message Summarized

If I were to encapsulate the message of the Parinirvana teachings and the ceremony, I would say: You are extremely fortunate to have encountered the Dharma in this lifetime; it is a miraculous medicine discovered by the Buddha, not created by him or dependent on him. Be grateful for having encountered the Dharma and being capable of practice. Do not waste time, because life is short. Practice to discover your own liberation; the Buddha left us the Dharma and the support of the Sangha, but ultimately, no one can liberate you - you must be a lamp unto yourself.

So, I can summarize the Parinirvana message like that. But just reading that to you might be a little interesting, but it's very different to essentially enact that message in a ceremony. We absorb it in a different way.

We'll end with the Buddha's last words. According to the Japanese sutra, the Yuikyogyo:

"After I am gone, you, my disciples, shall hand the Law down to your disciples and practice it; then the spiritual body of Buddha will never leave the world. There is nothing eternal in the world. We have met, therefore we must part; never mourn my departure. This is the real state of the world. Make haste to work out your own salvation. Destroy the darkness of ignorance with the light of wisdom."[ii]

Endnotes

[i] (Excerpted and adapted from the Maha-parinibbana Sutta: The Great Discourse on the Total Unbinding) Chapter 1-4 translated from the Pali by Sister Vajira & Francis Story; Chapters 5-6 Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu © 1998 (DN 16 / PTS: D ii 137); Full texts on www.accesstoinsight.org

[ii] Shakamuni, Buddha . 仏遺教経 The Sutra of Buddha`s Last Instruction on the Buddhist Discipline: One of the Three Fundamental Sutras of Zen Buddhism (Trilingual Edition) . Kindle Edition.

Art Credit

Parinirvana of Sakyamuni, the Historical Buddha, late 17th century, Hanabusa Itchō. https://collections.artsmia.org/art/117238/parinirvana-of-sakyamuni-hanabusa-itcho

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161 - The Parinirvana Ceremony and the Teaching of the Buddha's Dying and Death - The Zen Studies Podcast

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Parinirvana, the death of the Buddha Shakyamuni, is commemorated by a ceremony in mid-February in most Buddhist communities throughout the world. The Buddha gave several important teachings right before his death, and there is teaching contained in the very manner and fact of his passing.

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This article details the importance of charity in Islam, and the different types of charity that Muslims participate in.

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You know that zakat, or charity, is the Third Pillar of Islam, a major teaching. Being charitable and providing for the needy are important features of the Muslim character. Why is charity so important?

The existence of countless starving, poor, hungry and destitute Muslims and non-Muslims in the world points to the need for this essential teaching to be put into practice. Affluent Muslims may not realize how their wealth could strengthen whole communities. Giving charity correctly is crucial to both the well-being of the needy as well as the ultimate happiness of the wealthy. The Prophet emphasized this principle repeatedly.

The Forms of Charity

Several different categories of charity are defined in Islam, the two most important being zakat (obligatory charity) and sadaqa (voluntary charity). Zakat is a specific, standardized percentage of one's extra wealth (over and above the necessities of life) that must be given to the poor and those in need. Sadaqah can be given to anyone in many forms including a smile, wise advice, or helping to build a home or masjid.

The Prophet said: "Your smile for your brother is a charity. Your removal of stones, thorns or bones from the paths of people is a charity. Your guidance of a person who is lost is a charity." (Bukhari)

Another Hadith illustrates the importance of every part of a person's body performing a charity:
"A charity is due for every joint in each person on every day the sun comes up: to act justly between two people is a charity; to help a man with his mount, lifting him onto it or hoisting up his belongings onto it, is a charity; a good word is a charity; and removing a harmful thing from the road is a charity." (Al-Bukhari, Muslim)
Shade on the Day of Judgment

The Prophet said: "The believer's shade on the Day of Resurrection will be his charity." (Al-Tirmidhi)

On the day when all other shade will be gone, Allah will shade and shelter those who give charity and care for the poor. The Muslim's sacrifice in this life will be their protection on the Day of Judgment.

A Protection From Calamity

By sacrificing part of one's wealth and giving it in charity, the individual is guaranteeing protection for themselves from tragedy and misfortune.

The Prophet said: "Give charity without delay, for it stands in the way of calamity." (Al-Tirmidhi)

Better to Give Than To Take

It is considered better to give charity than receive it. One should be wary of repeatedly soliciting and taking from sadaqa and zakat funds. Those who refrain from taking these funds (so that more will be left for the other needy) will be provided for by Allah and be made self-reliant by Him.

The Prophet said: "The upper hand is better than the lower hand (he who gives is better than him who takes). One should start giving first to his dependents. And the best object of charity is that which is given by a wealthy person (from the money left after his expenses). And whoever abstains from asking others for some financial help, Allah will give him and save him from asking others, Allah will make him self-sufficient." (Al-Bukhari)

Relieving a person in debt is charity

The Prophet said: "If anyone would like Allah to save him from the hardships of the Day of Resurrection, he should give more time to his debtor who is short of money, or remit his debt altogether." (Muslim)

If someone owes you money, it is considered charity if you show mercy, give the debtor more time to pay back his loan, or even cancel out the person's debt. If charity is a person's shade on the Day of Judgment, canceling a person's debt will also serve as a protection.

Helping Family in Need

It is acceptable to give one's charity to those in need in one's own family.

The Prophet said: "To give something to a poor man brings one reward, while giving the same to a needy relation brings two: one for charity and the other for respecting the family ties." (Al-Tirmidhi)

The Pitfall of Greed

Be careful of greed. The longer one holds onto money and fails to share it as charity, the harder it may be later on to part with that hoarded wealth. Hiding away one's wealth and depriving the needy of even a small kindness will not only come back to haunt the greedy, but their misfortune will be multiplied and they will be led down a misguided path.

The Prophet said: "Avoid doing injustice to others, for on the Day of Judgment, it will turn into manifold darkness, and safeguard yourself against miserliness, for it ruined those who were before you. It incited them to murder and treating the unlawful as lawful." (Muslim)

Charity That Keeps On Giving

If a person performs a deed that continues to benefit others in a good way, the performer of the deed will continue to collect the rewards for her single act for as long as it benefits others (even after the person passes away). This is referred to as sadaqa jariyah, or perpetual charity.

The Prophet said: "When a person dies his works end, except for three: ongoing charity, knowledge that is benefited from, and a righteous child who prays for him." (Muslim, Al-Tirmidhi, others)

The degree of the reward is dependent on the degree and significance of the benefit of the charitable act, and to what degree the charity was given for the sake of Allah.

Charity serves as a way to bring justice, balance and kindness to every society and community. It is our hope that the Muslim community fulfills their charitable duty correctly and does their part to eliminating poverty in communities everywhere.

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You know that zakat, or charity, is the Third Pillar of Islam, a major teaching. Being charitable and providing for the needy are important features of the Muslim character. Why is charity so important? The existence of countless starving, poor, hungry and destitute Muslims and non-Muslims in the world points to the need for this essential teaching to be put into practice.

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This video is about an interview with Gyoeki, a Buddhist priest who answers from people on the street. These questions are more comical rather than truly deep and the interviewers seem to not really have a good grasp on what Buddhism is. Despite this Gyoeki gives great in depth responses that give enlightenment into Buddhist mentality.

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This source goes over one of the five pillars of Islam, which is fasting during the month of Ramadan. It talks about the reason why Muslims fast and the procedures of fasting.

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During the holy month of Ramadan, which occurs on the ninth month of the lunar-based Islamic calendar, all Muslims are required to abstain from food and drink from dawn to dusk for 30 days.

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Saka Dawa is a celebration on the full moon of June to celebrate both Buddha's enlightenment and passing. Dawa means “month” and Saka means the “name of the closet star to the earth”. Followers use the month as an opportunity to earn merits by completing meretorious acts and observe 8 precepts.

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Saka Dawa (also known as Saga Dawa) (ས་ག་ཟླ་བ།) represents the holiest and most sacred days in Tibetan Buddhism. Falling on the fourth month of the Tibetan Calendar, the religious festivities of Saka Dawa peak on the 15 th Lunar Day when there is a full moon. This day is associated with three major events in the life of Shakyamuni Buddha - his birth, his enlightenment on a full moon night, and his parinirvana. In Tibetan, Dawa means "month" while Saka means the "name of the closet star to the earth" during the lunar month which is prominently visible. In Tibetan astrological calculations, Saka is one of the 28 known major stars.

On the main Saka Dawa day, a special puja is carried out by monks in the monasteries early in the morning. Additionally, sutras are recited and Cham dances are also performed at the monastery. After this, Tibetans take an oath of the Eight Mahayana precepts to be observed during the day.

Saka Dawa - A Meritorious Month

Saka Dawa is regarded as a great time to earn merits and attain spirituality, purification and enlightenment by Tibetans. This meritorious month carries a special aspect whereby any good deeds performed during the month are rewarded with one hundred million times greater good karma. These meritorious activities revolve around early teachings of sila (morality), dana (generosity) and bhavana (meditation).

The meritorious worthy acts include:

Pilgrimages to sacred Tibetan places such as mountains, lakes and caves, notable monasteries, and temples.

Performing koras in a clockwise direction around a shrine or other holy places. Pilgrims pray, prostrate themselves, and chant mantras such as the "Om Mani Padme Hum, Buddha Shakyamuni" mantra or White or Green Tara mantras.

Giving donations to monasteries, monks and nuns.

Giving charity to the poor.

Eradicating the dark forces by lighting butter lamps.

Refraining from eating meat.

Setting animals free into their habitat.

Observing Mahayana Precepts

During Saka Dawa, Tibetans observe eight major precepts on holy days such as the full moon and new moon days of the month. Since the full moon is the holiest of days, the devotees engage in observing these actions with much fervor.

1. Avoid killing and taking life

2. Shunning from acts of stealing

3. Avoiding sexual contact

4. Staying away from lying and deceiving others

5. Not taking alcohol, tobacco and recreation drugs

6. Eating one meal a day before noon which should not include onions, garlic, radishes, meat or eggs.

7. Not sleeping on a high-raised bed or sitting on chair with pride

8. Not participating in singing and dancing, nor wearing jewelry and other adornments, such as makeup or perfume.

Among the several schools of Tibetan Buddhism, a range of rituals and ceremonies are performed during Saka Dawa.

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Saka Dawa (also known as Saga Dawa) (ས་ག་ཟླ་བ།) represents the holiest and most sacred days in Tibetan Buddhism. Falling on the fourth month of the Tibetan Calendar, the religious festivities of Saka Dawa peak on the 15 th Lunar Day when there is a full moon.

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This article explains the impact the Baha'i faith has had on artists and how their artwork can reflect their faith or knowledge of the Baha'i teachings. A lot of the authors note the fundamental idea of "oneness" or unity in the Baha'i religion.

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VENICE, Italy - As thousands of art lovers from all around the world flock to Venice over the coming months for its famous Biennale exhibition, one of the city's major museums is hoping to re-establish an American painter as a significant figure in the development of modern art.

The Peggy Guggenheim Collection, situated on the south bank of Venice's Grand Canal, is honoring Mark Tobey (1890-1976), who became a member of the Baha'i Faith in 1918. Born in Wisconsin, Tobey was one of the twentieth century's most cosmopolitan of artists. An inveterate traveler-he eventually settled in Switzerland‒Tobey was always better known in Europe than in his homeland, his importance overshadowed by his younger American counterparts from the 'Abstract Expressionist' school, notably Jackson Pollock, whose large scale canvases of poured and dripped paint revolutionized art in the 1950s.

Yet, as this exhibition demonstrates, it is timely to re-evaluate Tobey's influence on the development of so-called 'all-over abstraction'. Curator Debra Bricker Balken has spent ten years bringing some 70 works together, from 40 different collections, and is captivated by Tobey's painting.

IN DEPTH: Listen to a report from Venice about the exhibition of Mark Tobey's work at the Guggenheim

Robert Weinberg is a journalist who recently completed a master's thesis on Mark Tobey and his influence on art. Weinberg travelled to Venice for the opening of a major exhibition featuring Tobey's work at the Peggy Guggenheim Collection.

Subscribe to the BWNS podcast for additional audio content.

"I continue to be sustained just by the astonishing beauty of this work," said Ms. Bricker Balken. "Tobey's 'white writing' is luminous, it is metaphysical and is also elegiac... It draws on his own interior life in a way that we don't see with many of the artists with whom he is grouped."

Tobey, whose mature 'white writing' works are made up of pulsing webs of lines inspired by oriental calligraphy, explicitly acknowledged the direct influence of the Baha'i Faith on his painting. William Seitz, curator of the Museum of Modern Art in New York City in the 1960s, wrote that Tobey "made line the symbol of spiritual illumination, human communication and migration, natural form and process, and movement between levels of consciousness."

"He has often stated," explained Seitz, "that there can be no break between nature, art, science, religion, and personal life... Few religions have given the concept of oneness such pointed emphasis, and few modern artists have dealt with it as explicitly as has Tobey."
High distinctions
Towards the end of his life, Tobey was the recipient of some of the highest distinctions that the European art scene of his time could bestow. He won the gold medal at the Venice Biennale in 1958‒the first American painter to do so since 1895. In 1961, a major retrospective of his work was held at the Louvre in Paris, an unprecedented achievement for a living and American artist.

But while Pollock and his New York-based contemporaries have long been given a prominent place in the history books, Tobey's influence on, and contribution to, the radical development in American abstract painting mid-century has been under-recognized.

It is perhaps partly because of the small scale, the range, and the spirituality and delicacy of Tobey's works‒as well as his particularly personal approach, outside of any movement or 'school'‒that resulted in his being almost completely sidelined from the story of modern art. Yet his influence on other painters is known to have been significant.

With paintings spanning the 1920s through to 1970, the Guggenheim exhibition surveys the breadth of Tobey's work and reveals its extraordinarily nuanced yet radical beauty. A restless experimenter, Tobey was never satisfied with just one approach to picture making, saying, "At a time when experimentation expresses itself in all forms of life, search becomes the only valid expression of the spirit."
Art as worship
In the Baha'i Faith, art is regarded as worship. "The more thou strivest to perfect it, the closer wilt thou come to God," wrote 'Abdu'l-Baha to the American portrait painter Juliet Thompson, who first introduced Mark Tobey to the Baha'i Faith. "That is to say, when thy fingers grasp the paintbrush, it is as if thou wert at prayer in the temple."

Debra Bricker Balken believes that the Baha'i teachings clearly impacted Tobey's work.

"I think that it is one of the features of his subject matter," she said. "His pictorial inventions and experimentations are linked with his deep faith actually, elaborating on his inner or spiritual life."

Being a Baha'i gave Tobey's work its spiritual context and content as well as the freedom to find his own pictorial language to express it. Principles, such as the independent investigation of truth, are reflected in the evolutionary development of his paintings on display at the Guggenheim, and through the explicitly spiritual concepts he sought to express. His acceptance of the Baha'i Teachings challenged him to see oneness as the fundamental principle governing human interactions and social evolution in a new era of material progress and spiritual awakening. He described his paintings as a "kind of self-contained contemplation."

"One is surrounded by the scientific, naturally one reflects it," he said, "but one needs the religious side. One might say the scientific aspect interests the mind, the religious side frees the heart."
'Breathtaking' response
The subtlety and spirituality of Tobey's paintings is already impressing the first visitors to have viewed the Venice exhibition.

"It's been very interesting to me to see the reactions of various figures who have seen this installation over the past few days," said Ms. Bricker Balken. "Everybody is just taken by the breathtaking, astonishing, luminous abstract beauty of these canvases. They are a surprise."

When the exhibition travels to the Addison Gallery of American Art in Andover, Massachusetts, later in the year, it will be the first time in four decades that there has been a Tobey retrospective in the United States.

"The notion of melding Eastern and Western traditions was very important and in the United States in the 1940s, it was perhaps not the most popular thing to do," said Judith Dolkart, the Addison's director, "but his embrace of a kind of universalism and also the notion that one could draw from more than one tradition was quite radical and important."
'Immense diversity'
Guggenheim director Philip Rylands also believes Tobey's work is a combination of his spiritual orientation and his particular experience of twentieth century life.

"When you see a retrospective monographic show like this, you get the hang of it," said Dr. Rylands. "The man's travails, his ups, his downs, his influences, when he stalled, when he was prolific, how the work changes, the figurative origins of his abstraction‒all those things come through and you get a sense of immense diversity and a richness of creativity."

With the inclusion of two of Tobey's paintings in last year's hugely successful Abstract Expressionism show at the Royal Academy of Arts in London, and now with this ambitious exhibition in Venice, Debra Bricker Balken thinks that Tobey's legacy is ripe for reappraisal.

"I hope so," she said. "In fact it's more than a hope or aspiration, I believe so."

Dr. Rylands agrees.

"I would like to think that all artists that are in the history books, who made wonderful art, will have their time again if they haven't got it already," he said. "Tobey richly deserves it."
A World in Crisis
In contemplating the significance of Tobey's contributions to the arts and more broadly to the advancement of thought, the principles that inspired him in his own time and found expression in his work are, perhaps more than ever before, relevant and needed today.

"The root of all religions, from the Baha'i point of view, is based on the theory that man will gradually come to understand the unity of the world and the oneness of mankind," wrote Tobey in 1934. "It teaches that all the prophets are one... that science and religion are the two great powers which must be balanced if man is to become mature. I feel my work has been influenced by these beliefs. I've tried to decentralize and interpenetrate so that all parts of a painting are of related value... Mine are the Orient, the Occident, science, religion, cities, space, and writing a picture."

Mark Tobey: Threading Light is at the Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice, until 10 September 2017 and at the Addison Gallery of American Art, Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts, 4 November 2017-11 March 2018.

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'Luminous, abstract beauty': Artist's impact revisited | BWNS

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Mark Tobey was an American painter whose influence on art in the twentieth century is being recognized again after many decades.

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This video explains the celebration of Diwali, the festival of lights. It is the most celebrated festival in India and signifies the victory of good over evil.

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What Is Diwali and How Is It Celebrated?

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https://www.pewforum.org/2019/07/15/a-closer-look-at-how-religious-restrictions-have-risen-around-the-world/

This article goes into depth about the patterns of how religious restrictions have grown across European populations, especially in Islamic religions. A lot of religions have had dress code restrictions rise, but it explains that it had mostly affected Muslim women. Public display of religious symbols has also been increasingly discouraged and restrictive.

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He was born into it like many around the world, so it was more a religion of conservation than study He also talks about the questioning fundamentalism of it in the 1980s which was odd because Hinduism has no prophet or organized church.

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This article is about the Bahai Festival/Holy Day, Birth of the Bab. This was specifically interesting as it is a purely "joyous" day and celebration for all who follow the religion.

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At sunset on Saturday, October 17, 2020, Baha'is everywhere will begin joyously celebrating the birthday of the Bab, the forerunner of Baha'u'llah and the founder of the Babi Faith - and you're invited!

Observed each year in October or November, the Bab's birthday marks the first of two successive Baha'i Holy Days. Celebrated on the following day this year - Sunday, October 19, 2020 - the birthday of Baha'u'llah caps these Twin Holy Days with another important celebration, together creating one of the happiest and most delightful times of the year throughout the global Baha'i community.

Baha'u'llah, in his "Most Holy Book," asked the Baha'is to celebrate a feast of unity, joy, and commemoration on each of these two special days, making them second in importance in the Baha'i calendar to the two "Most Great Festivals," which commemorate the Declaration of Baha'u'llah in the garden of Ridvan in 1863 and the Declaration of the Bab in Shiraz in 1844. In his "Most Holy Book," Baha'u'llah wrote:

All Feasts have attained their consummation in the two Most Great Festivals, and in the two other Festivals that fall on the twin days ... Thus hath it been decreed by Him Who is the Ordainer, the Omniscient.

The first of these Twin Holy Days commemorates the birthday of the Bab, whose title means "the gate." The Bab, as Baha'u'llah's predecessor and as a prophet of God in his own right, unlocked the metaphorical gate of the advent of a new age of fulfillment and maturation for all humanity. His revelation's primary mission - to herald the arrival of a divinely-inspired spiritual educator the Bab referred to as "He Whom God shall make manifest" - opened the way for the coming of Baha'u'llah:

Denounce ye not one another, ere the Day-Star of ancient eternity shineth forth above the horizon of His sublimity. We have created you from one tree and have caused you to be as the leaves and fruit of the same tree, that haply ye may become a source of comfort to one another. Regard ye not others save as ye regard your own selves, that no feeling of aversion may prevail amongst you so as to shut you out from Him Whom God shall make manifest on the Day of Resurrection. It behooveth you all to be one indivisible people; thus should ye return unto Him Whom God shall make manifest.

Like John the Baptist, the Bab instructed his hopeful followers to prepare for a new prophet's appearance. He also announced the coming of a new era in human history, one that would witness the emergence of a just, unified, peaceful world civilization.

Baha'is call these Holy Days "twins" because the lunar calendar in use when the Bab and Baha'u'llah were born in Persia caused their birthdays to fall on successive days. The Bab was born on the first day of the month of Muharram in the Islamic lunar calendar, in the Gregorian year 1819, and Baha'u'llah's birthday occurred in 1817 on the second day of that same month. Born just a day short of two years apart, both of these prophets and founders of their respective Faiths are now celebrated around the world.

For decades in the Middle East, Baha'is traditionally observed those Holy Days in accordance with the Muslim lunar calendar and celebrated them together on consecutive dates, counting them as a single two-day festival. Baha'u'llah himself observed them this way.

The Shrine of the Bab in Haifa, Israel.

In the Islamic lunar calendar, however, the actual dates of the Twin Holy Days change every year because each new month begins with the appearance of a new moon. In relationship to the solar calendar, the Muslim calendar "loses" about eleven days every year since twelve lunar cycles amount to approximately 354 days, which falls short of a full solar cycle. In the Western solar calendar, the Bab's and Baha'u'llah's birthdays occur about three weeks apart. That means Baha'u'llah's birthday - 2 Muharram of the Islamic calendar year 1233 A.H. - fell on November 12, 1817; while the Bab's birthday - 1 Muharram of 1235 A.H. - fell on October 20, 1819.

In the global West, Baha'is used to observe the Twin Holy Days on October 20 and November 12, the historical Gregorian calendar - but in 2014, a significant shift took place in that practice. The Universal House of Justice, the democratically-elected global leadership body for the world's Baha'is, asked the Baha'is to begin celebrating these joyous holy days according to a new, unique melding of the solar and the lunar calendars. Instead of relying solely on either calendar, Baha'is now celebrate the Twin Holy Days eight lunar months from the Baha'i New Year, which occurs on the vernal equinox of the solar year, usually March 21.

In that way, just as the Baha'i teachings reconcile and unite the religions, so too do they unite and reconcile the world's calendars, adapting the lunar and solar observances into one.

Would you like to celebrate with us? Of course, when Baha'is observe these happy occasions, everyone is invited. At the worldwide Baha'i gatherings for the birth of the Bab today, and the birth of Baha'u'llah tomorrow, happiness and good cheer will prevail. Music will play, friends will come together, children will laugh, and warm fellowship will fill the air. In past celebrations, that fellowship and love have happened in person, but in the era of the global pandemic, many Baha'i communities will get together online.

Held during the autumn months in the Northern hemisphere and in the spring in the Southern part of the world, the Twin Holy Days signal a joyful, celebratory season of the Baha'i year, when the Baha'i community comes together to commemorate the advent of their two prophets of God, the Bab and Baha'u'llah, the twin founders of their Faith, and to hail the beginning of a new era in human unity.

Happy Birthday of the Bab!

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At sunset on Saturday, October 17, 2020, Baha'is everywhere will begin joyously celebrating the birthday of the Bab, the forerunner of Baha'u'llah and the founder of the Babi Faith -...

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This interview was particularly interesting as it narrowed in on Hinduism in the United States. It touches upon the emergence of the religion in the US and some of the differences it may bring.

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Dr. Vasudha Narayanan, Distinguished Professor of Religion at the University of Florida, is giving the 2021 Anjali Lecture in Hindu Studies (virtually) at the University of Tennessee. She spoke with WUOT's Chrissy Keuper about the beginnings of Hinduism in the United States.

You can register for the lecture here.

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Interview: Dr. Vasudha Narayanan on Hinduism in the United States

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Dr. Vasudha Narayanan, Distinguished Professor of Religion at the University of Florida, is giving the 2021 Anjali Lecture in Hindu Studies (virtually) at...

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In Islam, there are five pillars that make up the religion's acts of worship. The video highlights the basics of each of these pillars and how together they are an integral part of the Islam belief.

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The Five Pillars of Islam cover the five duties of believers in Islam. The believer follows these five simple rules which are: 1. Shahada: Faith, 2. Salat: Prayer, 3. Zakat: Charity, 4. Sawm: Fasting, and Hajj: Pilgrimage to Mecca.

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Lailat al Miraj is the celebration of the day that Mohamed ascended into heaven from Jerusalem.

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Lailat al Miraj

In support of our staff, students, faculty and postdocs, this information is offered as a resource about the Muslim observance of Lailat al Miraj.

April 12-13, 2019

History and Meaning

Lailat al Miraj celebrates the Prophet Muhammad's nighttime journey from Mecca to Jerusalem, where he then ascended to heaven. While sleeping in the Ka'bah, the sacred shrine of Mecca, Muhammad was visited by the archangels Jibril and Mikal. The archangels purified his soul and filled him with wisdom. He was then transported from Mecca on the back of the winged Buraq to Jerusalem. There, he ascended to heaven, met the previous prophets on the different levels of heaven, and eventually met God. He was then instructed on the importance of reciting salat, or prayer, five times a day. This is a very important and sacred day in the history of Islam.

Typical Observances

The story of Muhammad's nighttime journey is often read at mosques or at home to celebrate this day.

Special additions can be made to nighttime prayers.

Tips for Supporting the Vanderbilt Community

Community members should be aware of Lailat al Miraj and how they can impact their Muslim colleagues.

Ask those in observance how they can be supported.

While students are not automatically excused from class for this observance, they may work with their course instructors to make accommodations. Graduate and professional students must refer to their own school and departmental vacation policies and calendars for more specific information.

Staff members may request paid time off for this observance. Support their preference to take leave for their religious observance.

Resources for Managing Well-Being and Mental Health

People feel many types of emotions during the holidays-joy, peace, stress and depression, to name a few. Whatever you feel, know you are not alone, and Vanderbilt has resources to help you through these challenges.

Faculty, Staff and Postdocs
Work/Life Connections-EAP
(615) 936-1327
vumc.org/health-wellness/work-life

Students
Office of Student Care Coordination
(615) 343-9355
https://www.vanderbilt.edu/carecoordination/
For More Information
Please contact Equity, Diversity and Inclusion at edi@vanderbilt.edu. For more information on the university's policy on religious holy days and observances, contact the Office of the University Chaplain & Religious Life, at religiouslife@vanderbilt.edu or Human Resources at human.resources@vanderbilt.edu

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Lailat al Miraj In support of our staff, students, faculty and postdocs, this information is offered as a resource about the Muslim observance of Lailat al Miraj. April 12-13, 2019 History and Meaning Lailat al Miraj celebrates the Prophet Muhammad's nighttime journey from Mecca to Jerusalem, where he then ascended to heaven.

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Wesak is the Buddhist celebration of the day that birth, enlightenment, and death of the Buddha. All three of these events fall on the same day.

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Table of Contents

This article was most recently revised and updated by

Wesak, also spelled Vesak, Sanskrit Vaishakha, Pali Vesakha, most important of the Theravada Buddhist festivals, commemorating the birth, enlightenment, and death of the Buddha. The event is observed on the full-moon day of the lunar month Vesakha, which falls in April or May. The day is observed as a public holiday in many Southeast Asian countries. It is marked by special devotional services and various deeds intended to be meritorious, such as the presentation of food or alms to monks or the release of captive birds.

Amy Tikkanen.

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Wesak | Buddhist Celebration, Vesak Day, Buddha's Birth

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Wesak, most important of the Theravada Buddhist festivals, commemorating the birth, enlightenment, and death of the Buddha. The event is observed on the full-moon day of the lunar month Vesakha, which falls in April or May. The day is observed as a public holiday in many Southeast Asian countries.

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This interview features Muslim young adults living in America. They discuss their experiences of xenophobia and their struggles of living in America as Americans just because of their religion. They describe how American politics and media affect their life in America.

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Extended interview: Millennial Muslims on life in America

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This article is about Buddhism's stance on LGBTQ issues. In general, there is no rule prohibiting LGBTQ people from practicing Buddhism but not many schools of Buddhism have come up with a consensus on the issue.

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BACKGROUND

Though it is impossible to present a comprehensive overview of Buddhism within this context, we hope this brief overview will lead you to further explore the religion.

Based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, Buddhism is considered a way of life for more than 500 million individuals across the globe. The fourth largest religion in the world, Buddhism is largely built on concepts that foster individual enlightenment and encourage personal responsibility. It is sometimes described more as a philosophy or psychology than a religion.

Though varied in practice and beliefs, the majority of individuals who subscribe to Buddhism belong to one of three major schools of thought: Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism or Vajrayana Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism, also known as Southern Buddhism, is viewed as the more traditional form of Buddhism. Practiced primarily in southern areas of Asia, Theravada Buddhism is considered the oldest and most traditional school of the three. Conversely, Mahayana Buddhism, also known as Northern Buddhism, is considered a more diverse form of Buddhism, whereas Vajrayana Buddhism, also known as Tibetan Buddhism, incorporates major aspects of both Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism and has become a much-revered form of Buddhism in the United States. In the West, Theravada Buddhism, Zen Buddhism (a branch of Mahayana Buddhism) and Tibetan Buddhism are most predominant.

The basis for all schools of Buddhism includes the Three Universal Seals (premise of existence), the Four Noble Truths (philosophical enlightenment), the 12 Links of Dependent Origination (laws of existence) and the Eight-Fold Path (guide to enlightenment). As a branch of the Eight-Fold Path, the Five Precepts serve as voluntary guidelines for life and are the bases of Buddhist morality. They include an individual's choice or willingness to be:

1. Aware of the suffering caused by violence: I undertake the training to refrain from killing or committing violence toward living beings. I will attempt to treat all beings with compassion and loving kindness.

2. Aware of the suffering caused by theft: I undertake the training to refrain from stealing - to refrain from taking what is not freely given. I will attempt to practice generosity and will be mindful about how to use the world's resources.

3. Aware of the suffering caused by sexual misconduct: I undertake the training to refrain from using sexual behavior in ways that are harmful to myself and to others. I will attempt to express my sexuality in ways that are beneficial and bring joy.

4. Aware of the suffering caused by harmful speech: I undertake the training to refrain from lying, from harsh speech, from idle speech or gossip. I will attempt to speak and write in ways that are both truthful and appropriate.

5. Aware of the suffering caused by alcohol and drugs: I undertake the training to refrain from misusing intoxicants that dull and confuse the mind. I will attempt to cultivate a clear mind and an open heart.

Although there is no general consensus with regard to sexual orientation and gender identity within Buddhism, overall the third precept is most often referenced when discussing gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and queer issues.

LGBTQ EQUALITY

ON SEXUAL ORIENTATION & GENDER IDENTITY

Sexual orientation, specifically, was not elaborated upon by Siddhartha Gautama, nor is there any reference or guidance for lay people regarding sexual orientation or same-sex behavior within the Pali Canon, the scriptural texts that hold the Buddha's original teachings. The Vinyana, a Buddhist text for monks, forbids Buddhist monks and nuns from having sexual relationships with men, women and those of other genders, such as pandanka (interpreted as those with indeterminate sexual characteristics or people who do not conform to sexual norms, such as prostitutes). These textual references do not target LGBTQ+ people specifically, as everyone within the monastic order is expected to refrain from all forms of sexual relations. This practice is especially common within Theravada Buddhism, which focuses heavily on the monastic tradition.

Zen Buddhism does not make a distinction between same-sex and opposite-sex relationships. Instead, the expectation is not to harm, exploit or manipulate others, which would directly violate the third precept. For instance, Zen Buddhists often refer to hedonism, ascetic masochism and prostitutions as practices that violate the "Middle Way."

Regarding Tibetan Buddhism, the Dalai Lama's perspectives are complex and evolving. On the positive side, he has publicly condemned violence against LGBTQ+ people and has been reported to have said, "If the two people have taken no vows [of chastity] and neither is harmed why should it not be acceptable. Yet in a 1997 press conference he commented that "from a Buddhist point of view [lesbian and gay sex] is generally considered sexual misconduct." have been mixed and somewhat influx. During a meeting with representatives of the LGBTQ+ community, the Dalai Lama reportedly showed interest in how modern scientific research might create new understanding of the Buddhist texts, acknowledging a "willingness to consider the possibility that some of the teachings may be specific to a particular cultural and historic context."

ON MARRIAGE EQUALITY

Overall, it is difficult to qualify Buddhism's perspective on same-sex marriage, since perspectives vary greatly within the religion. Because of Buddhism's core theme to attain enlightenment, the path one chooses to take within the religion is largely personal, as is one's beliefs. Hence, most Buddhist literature indicates that opposition to or support for marriage rights for same-sex couples is a personal, rather than religious, statement.

ON NON-DISCRIMINATION

Because Buddhism in the U.S. has no central governing body, it is not possible to state clear policies regarding non-discrimination protections for LGBTQ+ people. According to Public Religion Research Institute, 78 percent of (American) Buddhists favor laws that protect LGBTQ+ Americans against discrimination in employment, housing, and public accommodations.

ON ORDINATION

In general, there is no rule prohibiting LGBTQ+ people from serving as Buddhist monks or nuns. Though some select temples and monasteries may prohibit the ordination of LGBTQ+ people, schools of Buddhism, overall, have not adopted a consensus on the practice.

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Stances of Faiths on LGBTQ Issues: Buddhism

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Although there is no general consensus with regard to sexual orientation, overall the third precept is most often referenced when discussing LGBTQ issues.

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Hindu women are in one of the biggest political uprisings in India by challenging everyday sexism, misogyny and demanding strict legal measures for atrocities against women.  Hindu women worship female power in various forms, figures and colors.

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It was Saraswati Puja this week - a day when Hindus in several parts of India and the world worship Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge and arts. As several Hindu men and women seek blessings of this goddess, I take this opportunity to share a few glimpses of one of the oldest religions in human history, from a feminist perspective.
The origin of Hinduism
"Hinduism never originated as a religion. It simply referred to the way of life of people settled along the river Indus or 'Sindhu' as they called it".

Our first lecture in Political Geography at Delhi University twenty years ago was intriguing and myth- busting. If Hinduism was simply a 'way of life' over 5000 years ago, where and how do I fit in the rituals, the practices and the philosophies I hear in the name of this religion today? I started looking at my own life and the world around me to find some of the answers.

There is no one singular text or one single leader who founded Hinduism, not a one-size-fits-all code of practice. Among my extended family and friends, there are polytheists, monotheists and pantheists, ravenous carnivores as well as strict vegetarians, all of whom call themselves 'Hindu'. Heated debates on what is Hinduism and what is not are commonly heard; there are no fixed definitions of what makes a 'good Hindu', no strict guidelines defining a 'Hindu way of life'. It is this openness and flexibility I find liberating and empowering. I imbibe what inspires me, challenge and discard what I find unscientific, inappropriate or unsuitable for my life.
Hinduism and its worship of the Feminine
One of the most fascinating aspects in my eyes as a child was the concept of the divine in Hinduism. I saw worship of female and male idols as goddesses and gods. Durga, the Mother Goddess, is benevolent, protective, fierce and compassionate. Well-known for her symbolic ten hands which hold several weapons as well as a lotus and a conch shell, she destroys evils and protects the innocent. Durga Puja is the autumn festival celebrating mother goddess Durga; in several parts of India the festival is comparable to Christmas in the West.

Durga's two daughters- Laxmi, the goddess of wealth and Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge and all forms of arts- are worshiped too. As Hinduism spread over the vast, geographically diverse Indian sub-continent and beyond, various other forms of the feminine came to be worshiped. Some of them are delicate and pale, some bold, fearsome and dark. It is the worship of the female power in various forms, figures and colors I find unique, fascinating and empowering.
Hindu Mythology and Epics
I grew up listening to numerous stories from the Hindu mythology that, later in life, I could unpick, interpret and analyze in ways more than one. I learnt about the erudite women philosophers Gargi and Maitreyee from 6 th-8 th centuries BC who challenged the learned men for academic debates. I read and watched child-friendly, animated versions of the two famous Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata that centered around wars and victory of good over evil. Interwoven within the tales of the epics were narratives of women's lives within a complex structure of class and caste hierarchies. There was the 'swayamvar' - the practice of princesses challenging, testing and finally choosing their husbands from a royal court filled with potential suitors. Alongside, as in the narratives of Sita and Draupadi, were stories of insult, coercion and control of women, once their fairy-tale weddings were over.

Meandering through centuries and millennia, diverted by the confluence by invaders from middle east, far east and Europe, several religious practices in the name of Hinduism seem to have evolved, adapted, diversified or disappeared. Buddhism and Jainism were two separate religions born as protests to the upper-caste hierarchical structure of Hinduism about 2500 years ago. Both matriarchy and patriarchy prevailed within Hinduism, in differing timescales and sometimes contemporary in varied geographic locations within the Indian subcontinent.
The Medieval Era
Within Hinduism itself the ' Bhakti movement' originated from southern India in the 7 th century AD. Based on the concept of ' bhakti ' or devotion to God who dwells within each individual, this movement challenged upper-caste patriarchy and empowered women to bypass gender rigidities through numerous strategies - refusing marriage to a human being, walking out of marriage or refusing motherhood. The roots of contemporary Indian feminism are often traced back to the Bhakti Movement within Hinduism 1300 years ago, just as patriarchy extended its reach and control.

As invasion and warfare continued in the Indo-Gangetic plains of northern India and beyond, patriarchy manifested itself in ways more than one. There evolved stronger gender stereotyping and a glorification of the sacrificial nature of women which, with distortion and patriarchal manipulation, created room for the heinous practice of ' Sati' in the 12 th-18 th centuries AD predominantly in the northern and central parts of India. In the process of protecting their 'honour' from invaders, upper-class women in Rajasthan learnt warfare as well as were encouraged to take to 'Jauhar', a practice of mass-suicide. In contrast, I also heard stories and read about some of the brave Hindu queens in parts of India during the medieval era - Queen Didda (958- 1003 CE), Rudrama Devi (13 th century) and Rani Durgavati (16 th century) are a few names that come to my mind.
Colonial oppressions and uprisings
The arrival of European colonial powers - Dutch, French, Portuguese and English- into the Indian subcontinent since the 17 th century seems to me to have had a few interesting impacts on the Hindu women in India. On one hand was the protest or uprising towards freedom from a 'common enemy'; notable Hindu queens such as Velu Nachiyar in southern India in the 18 th century or Rani Lakshmi Bai in central India during the 19 th century fought the British armed forces. It gained momentum in early 20 th century in the anti-colonial movements as women actively cooperated with militant rebel men, participated in protest marches, joined the army or participated in Gandhi's famous non-violent movements.

On the other hand, we saw the establishment of infrastructure and academic institutions intended to serve colonial interests, and women from upper as well as middle classes left their protected domestic spaces. Women from privileged backgrounds are known to have traveled across the globe to study medicine and science as early as late 19 th/ early 20 th century.

Also worth mention here is the fact that practices such as ' Sati ' were challenged by the learned Hindu social reformers, and, empowered by support from colonial rulers, abolished altogether during the colonial rule. While child marriages could not be legally prohibited yet, the reformers ensured that young widows could be remarried, instead of being forced into a life of seclusion and austerity.
Independence and beyond
Decolonization and the Partition of India into India and Pakistan in 1947 along religious lines was one of the greatest socio-political upheavals in South Asia. More than 10 million people were uprooted almost overnight, nearly a million people killed in the violence that was unleashed. It had a catastrophic impact on women from Hindu, Muslim and Sikh backgrounds alike. Rape, abduction, so-called honour-killing, forced marriage and several other atrocities comprise the gruesome tales we have grown up listening to from our grandparents.

It is important to note that by this time, the Indian sub-continent had become a melting pot of seven different religions - Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism and Zoroastrianism. In post-colonial India during early 1950's, the birth of the Indian Constitution with its promise of a 'sovereign, secular, democratic republic' brought in universal adult franchise and the fundamental right to equality.

Hindu women, along with women from all other religious backgrounds in India studied medicine, engineering and mathematics, researched astronomy as well as anthropology, made their marks in history, politics, physics and the languages. Many women experimented with various forms of arts and literature, acted and directed in Bollywood and vernacular language films and have won international acclaim.

Women in post-colonial India flew aircrafts, joined the armed forces, swam across the English Channel and contested parliamentary elections. The famous Chipko movement in northern India- where women hugged trees in their non-violent resistance against deforestation brought eco feminism to the forefront in global conversations.
Hinduism and Feminism in today's world
Against this vast, complex backdrop of the Hindu 'way of life', where do women like me position ourselves in today's world? How do we draw strength from Hinduism and all that it offers to strengthen our resolve to end violence against women? We raise voices against the objectification of women in media and its biases in reporting; we challenge everyday sexism and misogyny and demand strict legal measures for atrocities against women; we hold hands with our sisters from every other religion, just as Indian women are at this point of time, in one of the biggest political uprisings in India.

As Hindu women, we need to constantly remind ourselves of the symbolism of Durga with her ten arms, fiercely protective and delicately nurturing at the same time. While we strive to create an equal world, we look back at the ancient Hindu imagery of the " ardhha- narishwar " where the masculine and feminine are respected as two halves of one being, complimenting each other in a perfect balance.

Debanjali Bhattacharjee

January 2020
Deb is a Welsh Women's Aid supporter and volunteer

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Hinduism and Women: Glimpses from a Feminist Perspective : Welsh Women’s Aid

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Guest Blog by Debanjali Bhattacharjee It was Saraswati Puja this week – a day when Hindus in several parts of India and the world worship Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge and arts. As several Hindu men and women seek blessings of this goddess, I take this opportunity to share a few glimpses of on…

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Marjorie Reid speaks about NAIDOC Week. NAIDOC Week is held across Australia every July, and is a celebration of the history, culture, and achievements of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. It is celebrated by Australians from all walks of life.

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NAIDOC Week: Baha'i Blog Interviews Marjorie Reid

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This videos dicusses orthodoxy in comparisons to the other cristians faiths. It discusses the beliefs of orthodoxy.

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Orthodoxy And Other Faith Traditions (Discovering Orthodox Christianity)

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This video discusses the personal choice people go through to to chose the god or goddess they will worship.It discusses after picking your deity to worship the different offerings you will have to complete.

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In late January of 2021, the farmers of New Delhi broke out in protests against the new farm laws that were harmful to many. They were claimed to be a metaphorical death warrant for farmers by allowing private buyers to hoard commodities and leaving nothing for the working class farmers.

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Semana Santa is a week long festival in Spain during the last week of Lent, right before Easter. They celebrate form noon to 3 a.m. everyday that week

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From Carnival in Brazil to Holi in India and Nepal, these religious festivals attract visitors from around the globe to come together for the most anticipated celebrations of the year.
Semana Santa, Spain
Spain's Semana Santa, or Holy Week, is celebrated throughout practically every city in the country, with the most boisterous celebrations being held in the southern region of Andalucía, particularly in Seville, Granada and Málaga. This seven-day celebration falls on the last week of Lent, the week directly before Easter.

Every day of the week from approximately noon until around 3 a.m., massive crowds gather throughout the streets dressed in their Sunday's best to gaze upon the beautifully designed and detailed penance processions. Celebrated by Catholic religious brotherhoods and fraternities as a tribute to the Passion of the Christ, Semana Santa and its processions include local Spanish volunteers from children to adults who dress uniformly in the typical nazarenos, or penitential robes.

Each year, millions of people from around the world come to experience and celebrate Semana Santa in Spain, and it is arguably the largest Catholic celebration in the world.
Holi, India & Nepal
A beautiful celebration filled with colors of every shade and tone imaginable, Holi in India and Nepal is the countries' first major Hindu celebration of the year, landing on the day after the March full moon. If visiting India or Nepal during Holi, be sure to wear old damageable clothes and prepare for pure chaos and mayhem as locals blast each other with colored dye powder for one full day and night.

Known as the "festival of colors," Holi celebrations involve dancing in the street to popular Bollywood music, performing religious rituals in front of a massive bonfire and praying that all internal evil be destroyed. A truly unique religious festival, Holi celebrates the end of winter and the victory of good over evil.
Songkran, Thailand
Unquestionably the most anticipated and exciting Buddhist celebration in Thailand, Songkran falls every year from Apr. 13 th to the 15 th and is the Thai New Year's national holiday. Coinciding with the rising of Aries on the astrological chart and the New Year of several Southeast Asian calendars, Songkran analogously correlates with the Buddhist solar calendar.

For three days straight, locals and tourists alike line the streets with water guns, buckets, balloons and hoses to participate in the world's largest water fight during Thailand's hottest month. Water madness overtakes the country, and while anyone is at risk for a soak down, foreigners and law enforcement seem to be the favorite targets.
Kandy Esala Perahera, Sri Lanka
Celebrated to honor the Sacred Tooth Relic of Lord Buddha and the four guardian gods, Sri Lanka's Kandy Esala Perahera festival features elegant costumes, fire-breathing dancers, musicians, jugglers and extravagantly decorative elephant floats.

Held every year in Aug. for ten days, Kandy Esala Perahera festival gradually increases its lavishness, ending with the traditional diya-kepeema ritual held at the Mahaweli River in the Getambe village of Kandy. The dazzling closing ceremony features hundreds of elephants and thousands of performers. This unparalleled religious festival is one not to be missed if visiting the Indian Subcontinent.
Obon Festival, Japan
Known as Japan's "Festival of the Dead," Obon is a Japanese Buddhist celebration to honor ancestral spirits and is considered one of the most significant Japanese traditions.

While the celebration date varies depending on region, most areas in Japan celebrate Obon in Aug., and it typically lasts three days. If visiting Japan during Obon, groups can expect to witness hundreds of beautifully lit lanterns, or toro nagashi, either floating in the sky or down rivers leading to the ocean. This is the Japanese way of symbolically sending off their ancestors' spirits.

The last day of Obon commences with traditional dances known as Bon-Odori, and a massive bonfire set in the hills of Kyoto.
Día de los Muertos, Mexico
A popular tradition celebrated throughout Mexico and parts of the U.S., Día de los Muertos, otherwise known as the "Day of the Dead," is a holiday similar to the previously mentioned Obon festival in which families gather to pray and remember those they have lost.

The most recognized Día de los Muertos tradition is the popular sugar skull art, featuring elaborate designs used to decorate the gravestones of the deceased.

Día de los Muertos normally falls at the end of Oct. and lasts three days. Celebrations vary depending on region, with festivities including the decorating of altars, reciting satirical epitaph poems known as calaveras, live music and parades.
Rio Carnival, Brazil
While Carnival is a holiday celebrated throughout countless countries, Brazil's Carnival in Rio de Janeiro is irrefutably the most legendary.Considered the "greatest show on Earth," Rio Carnival attracts five million people annually. Originally a Christian and Greek Orthodox festive season, Carnival occurs in Feb. or Mar. during five days preceding Lent, coincidently commemorating the viciously scorching Brazilian summer.

Lining the streets are hundreds of striking and vibrantly dressed samba dancers, along with revelers, floats and adornments. Representing the different neighborhoods of Rio, the best samba schools partake in a competition for a grand prize.
Ouidah International Voodoo Festival, Benin
Celebrated annually on Jan. 10, Ouidah International Voodoo Festival in Benin is truly unique, as voodoo originated in this region and nearly 80% of the population still professes this religion.

While voodoo is a religion that has been demonized by other cultures for centuries, Benin and other western African countries still practice it as a base for morality, politics and social order of surrounding villages.

During the festival, practitioners and devotees come together to commemorate the estimated 60 million people who lost their freedom during the Atlantic slave trade, with activities and sights including animal sacrifices, dances, colorful clothing, lively music and fetishes markets.

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8 Top Religious Festivals Around the World

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From Carnival in Brazil to Holi in India and Nepal, these religious festivals attract visitors from around the globe to come together for the most anticipated celebrations of the year. Semana Santa, Spain Spain's Semana Santa, or Holy Week, is celebrated throughout practically every city in the country, with the most boisterous celebrations being held in the southern region of Andalucía, particularly in Seville, Granada and Málaga.

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The article discusses Hindu music and how it relates to the Hindu religion. Hindus believe that all art forms are from God and are divinely inspired.

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TM Krishna and other musicians play a concert for the public in southern India. Keeley McMurray is a junior double majoring in English and Religious Studies with a minor in Theatre. The following post was written for Dr. Ramey's REL 321 course, Religion & Identity in South Asia.
Visual and performing arts continue to be seen as bold expressions of personal identity in modern cultures throughout the world. Despite the fundamental inclusivity of art as means of sharing and preserving culture, the politics of artistic expression have limited the opportunity for certain groups to practice and perfect their crafts. In South Asia, art is complicated by the complex religious and social identities of those living in the region. Elite Hindus often restrict India's cultural legacy to artistic forms that they dominate, overshadowing a myriad of minority contributions and subaltern narratives.

A primary example is Carnatic music, a religiously-inspired genre significant to Hindu culture. For centuries, upper castes have preserved this music as a divine art form symbolic of brahman and practiced it with utmost artistry. Because of its association with divinity, purity, and pleasure, upper castes have often limited the practice and enjoyment of traditional Carnatic music to major temples, royal courts, and a few rich landowners; local kings, some being composers or musicians themselves, would traditionally patronize performances. In recent years, however, the exclusivity of cultural and religious identity associated with Carnatic music is changing to accommodate a more diversely artistic society. Activists are making an effort to ensure that those left out of the cultural narrative are given their recognition, and have a fair opportunity to explore their artistic potential.

Thodur Madabusi Krishna, a classical musician in southern India, has made it his mission to break the social barriers surrounding Carnatic music in order to "liberate the art to new spaces." While he has encountered opposition from those that wish to preserve the restrictions on this genre of music, Krishna was recently bestowed the Ramon Magsaysay Award for emergent leadership in "ensuring social inclusiveness in culture." Characteristic to southern India and largely untouched by Persian and Islamic influence, elements of Carnatic music trace their divine origin to the Vedas. Thousands of hymns are dedicated to the gods and chanted in Hindu ritual, put to complex melodies called Ragas. These proponents assert that the potency of this music demands ritual tutoring through the gurukula system, in which a student would live and learn with a Carnatic guru. Gurus often descended from ancient lines of musicians and composers, and thus were selective and rigorous with instruction. With these qualifications to become a worthy and revered musician, many were left unable to pursue their art.

This degree of discipline and the significance of Carnatic music to Hindu culture assured the social superiority of both patrons and practitioners, still to this day. Krishna, a musician born into the Brahmin caste, recognizes the present social implications of this music considered Hindu. The Magsaysay Award Foundation praises Krishna for seeing that his art was "a caste-dominated art that fostered an unjust, hierarchic order by effectively excluding the lower classes from sharing in a vital part of India's cultural legacy." The musical performances of the Dalits and other non-Brahmin communities, for example, are rarely given praise or publicity. Music festivals and large concerts around India have been notoriously guilty of showcasing only upper-caste talent, disregarding other groups without the luxury of guru education or elite sponsorship. This is an unfair representation based on social identity and a conservative interpretation of Hinduism that chooses to ignore "the music of the marginalized."

The way society has restricted Hindu culture further divides those who identify as Hindu. In a region as complex as India, it is problematic to homogenize artistic expression in reflection of the elite few. In hopes of promoting a more unified culture, Krishna is taking action to transform the arts into a more egalitarian space. He began by hosting concerts in unconventional locations: crowded buses, railway platforms, and even the slums of Sri Lanka. In areas that would have remained unexposed to classical music, Krishna has introduced school curriculums for Carnatic instruction, musical scholarships for rural youth, and free music festivals for the general public. Most importantly, his Svanubhava movement brings together musicians of diverse social backgrounds in an attempt to "heal differences and break stereotypes." By dismantling the social structure of Hindu culture, one achieves a more reformed portrayal of India: a diverse nation where art is appreciated, regardless of social identity.

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Music for the Masses: Hindu Identity and Artistic Expression

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TM Krishna and other musicians play a concert for the public in southern India. Keeley McMurray is a junior double majoring in English and Religious Studies with a minor in Theatre. The following p...

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Though Buddhists are open to new discoveries and change, some are concerned by the "improper use of knowledge" when it comes to areas like cloning the ethical issues that it brings.

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Buddhism, Contemporary Issues in Science and Religion | Encyclopedia.com

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Buddhism, Contemporary Issues in Science and Religion
Buddhist reflections on science are based on insights, doctrines, and practices that have evolved from the teachings and life of Siddhartha Gautama (c. Source for information on Buddhism, Contemporary Issues in Science and Religion: Encyclopedia…

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Bahai views art as an important part of their religion and worship. It can communicate and express sacred teachings and ideas.

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This article talks about the Hindu festival Bhogi, which is the first of the four day Makara Sankranti festival. On Bhogi, everyone rids of old and decrepit things and focus on new things that cause change/transformation.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Bhogi ( Kannada: ಭೋಗಿ, Telugu: భోగి, Tamil: போகி) is the first day of the four-day Pongal Festival (பொங்கல் திருவிழா) Makar Sankranti (ಮಕರ ಸಂಕ್ರಾಂತಿ, మకర సంక్రాంతి) festival. It falls on last day of Agrahāyaṇa or Mārgaśīrṣa month of Hindu Solar Calendar. According to the Gregorian calendar, it is usually celebrated one day before Makar Sankranti(earlier 13 January, now on 14 January). It is a festival celebrated widely in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Maharashtra. In Maharashtra, people eat roti made of Bajra sprinkled with til and mix vegetable gravy which includes palak, carrot, peas, green chana, papdi, etc.

an Kaappu Kattu Tradition in Kongu Nadu houses.

On Bhogi, people discard old and derelict things and concentrate on new things causing change or transformation. At dawn, people light bonfires with logs of wood, other solid-fuels, and wooden furniture at home that are no longer useful. This marks the end of the year's accounts and the beginning of new accounts on the first day of the harvest on the following day. Like other festivals, Pongal and Lohri, Bhogi is also dedicated to Lord Indra Kaappu Kattu, an tradition of tying leaves of Azadirachta indica, Senna auriculata, Aerva lanata in the roofs of houses and residential areas is practiced in Kongu Nadu.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Bhogi ( Kannada: ಭೋಗಿ, Telugu: భోగి, Tamil: போகி) is the first day of the four-day Pongal Festival (பொங்கல் திருவிழா) Makar Sankranti (ಮಕರ ಸಂಕ್ರಾಂತಿ, మకర సంక్రాంతి) festival. It falls on last day of Agrahāyaṇa or Mārgaśīrṣa month of Hindu Solar Calendar.

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This article is about what exactly Buddhists pray for. It features three different people´s views on the topic.

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We're not praying for something. We're not praying to anyone. Why would Buddhists pray?

In the West, the notion of prayer is largely ignored in Buddhism. After all, most Buddhist don't pray to or for anything. Buddhist practice is often seen as the opposite: aspiring to let go of everything.

As Robin Kornman explains, the view on prayer is different from school to school. Theravada Buddhists tend to pray, but not with the expectation that anyone is listening. Mahayana and tantric Buddhists pray to buddhas and bodhisattvas. Whether those figures are literal beings is the subject of much discussion. It also comes down to the question of what or who is. If we are praying to a Buddha or a bodhisattva, is that a person or an idea? Self or other? These questions are discussed in depth in Buddhadharma's forum, Do Buddhists Pray?.

Briefly, here are thoughts on why we pray, from three Buddhist teachers:

Praying to connect with compassion

It's easy to forget that the ultimate realization is boundless compassion and oneness. When we put our palms together, it is not just one pair of hands meeting palm to palm. Paying close attention, it is as if we can feel the gentle touch of our teacher or the Buddha herself, her palms gently caressing the back of our hands, helping bring our palms together, teaching us the feeling of boundless compassion and wisdom. In that moment, whether we live or die, achieve health or not, become "enlightened" or not becomes secondary to knowing the power of buddhanature is fully present-that everything we need is between our palms as we bow, that the working of great compassion is already unfolding, here and now.

We can call that prayer if we like.

Praying to understand the self

Many teachers... do pray. But in a nontheistic religion, this raises some questions: to whom? to what? In daily Zen practice, it seems that often we are praying to our self-both our individual-limited-lifespan self and our larger self of boundless-interbeing. We aren't praying for personal material gain; rather, we are praying in order to turn our hearts and minds toward the positive qualities of compassion and clarity. We are voicing an aspiration that we become able to extend compassion and wisdom to ourselves and others.

Praying to discover awakenment

From "An Invitation," by Elizabeth Mattis-Namgyel

So what does it mean to pray without the limitations of our individual preferences? It means we're praying for a deep unconditional wakefulness not based upon the preferences of the ego. Just in asking we experience a mind full of awe and humility. We allow life to touch us and feel the longing to move forward with compassion and love.

See also:

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Do Buddhists pray? What for? - Lions Roar

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We're not praying for something. We're not praying to anyone. Why would Buddhists pray?

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This article discusses the impact of Hinduism in past and present India. It explain's the role of Hinduism in political decisions and India's nationalist struggle.

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In an interview with Father Kalenzi, the Ignatius staff interviewed him about his faith and how experiences that engaged with Christianity has strengthened his beliefs.

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Father Kalenzi joined the Ignatius staff in August 2019. At the end of this year, he will be leaving Ignatius and moving on to new endeavors. Before his departure, we wanted to ask him some questions about his work at Ignatius and how Ignatius has impacted him.

First, we asked Fr. Kalenzi about his life before coming to Ignatius. He is originally from Uganda, but grew up in Kenya. Fr. Kalenzi attended college in Manchester before beginning work as an accountant in London. He left this job to join the Jesuits and began his religious studies. This included studying philosophy in Zimbabwe, serving as a regent in Kenya, doing theology in France, and eventually being ordained as a priest in Uganda. Now, his work with the Society of Jesus has brought him to St. Ignatius. Fr. Kalenzi has lived in ten countries overall, and visited forty.

Father Kalenzi said that his extensive travels have taught him that "you can't be in so many places and remain the same." He has learned to be tolerant of other people and their cultures, and he does not believe that any culture is superior to another. He discussed how every culture is proud of its own strengths and believes itself to be the best." It is not worth comparing cultures to determine whose is best, instead "we need to find places of intersection, of unity, of understanding." At the end of the day, he sees himself "as a human being, as a member of the human race, as an inhabitant of the earth."

Father Kalenzi did not have a simple path to his religious vocation. As a child, he read everything he found in his house, which led him to the Bible. He noted that the Bible read like a novel, and he was fascinated with it. Although he was never formally taught how to pray and never particularly enjoyed going to church during his childhood, he said, "I really loved spending time with God." He eventually joined the Jesuits when he was 27. He acknowledged that his path to a religious vocation was long and comparatively nontraditional, but he feels that it was beneficial to take time to experience other aspects of life. He also spoke on how he found his faith through his own search for knowledge, and that there is a difference between "absorbing religion by osmosis versus discovering God for yourself." He said that the latter is a more powerful way of knowing God.

We then inquired about Fr. Kalenzi's first impressions of St. Ignatius. He remarked that he immediately noticed "how grand it was." He describes the initial environment as welcoming, and noted that all the students were kind and respectful, contrary to the depictions of American high schools he had seen on TV. The most impressive aspect of the school, to Fr. Kalenzi, were the Catholic ethical values present in both the school's culture and its curriculum. Saint Ignatius, he says, combines the study of faith with social justice and the Jesuit values. "St. Ignatius can be very proud of the fact that their students know what it means to be Christian," he says.

Fr. Kalenzi is an empowering and inspirational presence at Saint Ignatius. He has worked on behalf of various social justice causes, trying to stress the values of equality and respect. Students may remember his homily on misogyny and the treatment of women of color, something that stood out to us. Fr. Kalenzi says that in his past, he has been ignorant of his own privilege and of the misogyny in the world. He states that it is "very difficult for people to accept that they have prejudice" and, even moreso, it is "quite difficult to escape that prejudice." To address misogyny, Fr. Kalenzi says we must experience a conversion in ourselves, recognize our prejudices, and work to combat them. His hope is that we will eventually come to a state where we really love each other, regardless of biases or prejudices. "There's still a lot of work to be done before we come even close to what Jesus had in mind," he states, and this is the work he hopes to inspire in his students.

Father Kalenzi has been an integral member of the Diversity Coalition at St. Ignatius. He noted that the main objective of his work is to "contribute, organize, participate in initiatives that might bring us to change the culture of the school." Father Kalenzi works closely with the president and offers a unique Jesuit perspective. He said that "all Jesuits must be interested in or involved in these issues that are pursuant to the whole student body. If a part of our body is sick, our whole body suffers." He emphasized the importance of participation in racial justice work, especially as a Christian, because it is pure hypocrisy to say that you love God and ignore those who suffer: "It's the most selfish thing you can do - to say you don't care about the person next to you who is suffering."

Father Kalenzi also offered insight into his own experience when he began living in the United States. He said that it was "the first time in my life where I really felt I was black." Seeing the colorism and racism around him was shocking, and, as a Jesuit and human being, he knew he had a duty to help in any way possible. In the words of Fr. Kalenzi, "the worst form of contempt is to say to someone 'no, your suffering is not as bad you think it is. '" We must acknowledge the suffering of those around us, listen to their perspectives, and work to support them. Racism is an issue we must confront as a school community, as the suffering of a few impacts all of us.

Our school community is always growing and progressing, and Fr. Kalenzi has observed some of these changes. Much of his time at the school was during the pandemic, but this has caused a lot of growth within the school. He states that "the moment students were able to come back to school, they were full of gratitude." Despite all the challenges faced during this time, we have come together and reached a sense of "spiritual solidarity." According to Fr. Kalenzi, Ignatius stands apart because of how students learn to care for each other. Students' ability to speak intelligently, practice their faith, and advocate for others is a clear sign of the high level of education available here.

Finally, we asked Father Kalenzi about the impact of Saint Ignatius. First, he praised Ignatius and its students: "It's possible to make a school very good for academics. It's not easy to make sure students have a strong formation as Catholics, as Christians, as simply human beings." He said that Ignatius has a lot to be proud of and that he will take many of the lessons from St. Ignatius with him on his next endeavors.

When asked about the lessons he wished to leave with Ignatius, he first said, "very few." Then, he offered his vision for Ignatius' future: "Let's hope for that day where there is something like the Kingdom of God at Saint Ignatius-where it's easy for a white student to join BOSS, ALAS, Club Asia; where we have people who feel happy in spaces with people who are different; where we don't see each other primarily as Black or White or Asian or Latino, but as children of God."

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What it Means to be Christian: An Interview with SICP's Father Kalenzi

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"Let's hope for that day where there is something like the Kingdom of God at Saint Ignatius-where it's easy for a white student to join BOSS, ALAS, Club Asia; where we have people who feel happy in spaces with people who are different; where we don't see each other primarily as Black or White or Asian or Latino, but as children of God."

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The Kathina festival is celebrated in October and November at the end of the vassa period. It is celebrated by buddhists of the theravada tradition. During this festival, the monks have reached the 3-month period remaining in one place and this festivals celebrates them moving on and the cloth given to them before leaving.

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Kathina

The Kathina festival, which originated 2,500 years ago, celebrates the largest alms-giving ceremony of the Buddhist year.

It occurs at the end of the Vassa, or monsoon, period, in October and November. During the Vassa period, normally nomadic Buddhist monks will have remained in one place for three months, and the Kathina celebration marks the time for them to move on. The festival also celebrates the offerings of cloth that are given to the monks upon their leaving by the lay people.

The offering can take place up to one month following the end of the Vassa period, from 19th October to 16 November, and is celebrated by buddhists of the Theravada tradition.

History

According to the scriptures, a group of thirty monks were journeying together with the intention of spending the Vassa period with the Lord Buddha, but the Vassa began before they reached their destination and so they had to stop.

The monks were upset that they were unable to be with Buddha, who later heard of their plight. As a reward Buddha gave some cloth, which he had acquired as a gift from one of the lay community, to the monks and told them to sew a robe and then bestow it upon one of their company. The Buddha said that there was nothing as uplifting as generosity and sharing, and so the monks set about sewing a new set of robes. They used a frame, called a Kathina, on which to spread the cloth as they were making it.

The Festival

Lay supporters now continue this tradition at the end of the Vassa. The cloth giving is a gift of the followers of Buddhism, and therefore no monk is allowed to request or organise the festival.

The cloth, according to Buddha, must be offered to the whole Sangha community, who will then decide among themselves who receives the gift.

Buddhist families take joy in offering cloth to their teachers. About three metres of cloth is all that is needed, but very often other items are offered as well. On the day of the festival, people begin to arrive at the monastery and begin by sharing a meal. At about 1 o clock, they will formally offer the cloth and other gifts.

Two monks will be presented with the cloth on behalf of the whole Sangha community. These monks will then formally announce the member of the community who will receive the cloth once it has been made up.

The monks will spend much of the night preparing and cutting the cloth, and finally sewing it together to form a robe.

The formal Sangha act (Sangha Kamma) of presenting the cloth to the chosen monk may take place much later in the evening, when it is ceremonially presented to the nominated monk.

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The Kathina festival, which originated 2,500 years ago, celebrates the largest alms-giving ceremony of the Buddhist year.

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The Dalai Lama explains where anger comes from and how we can stop it. He also presents ideas that sometimes there is a need for violence, and tells how to control it.

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Christianity holds many acts of worship, with one of the most important being baptism. This site delves into the spiritual significance of baptism and what it means to those who have partaken in the act.

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"Baptism, which corresponds to this, now saves you, not as a removal of dirt from the body but as an appeal to God for a good conscience, through the resurrection of Jesus Christ" ( 1 Peter 3:21)

"For as many of you as were baptized into Christ have put on Christ." ( Galatians 3:27)

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When we enter the waters of baptism, we proclaim the gospel message. Jesus died for our sins, was buried, and lives again. By joining in baptism, we're identifying ourselves with Him. Romans 6:4 says we have been buried with Him through baptism into death. We're now dead to the power of sin. Being raised up out of the water expresses our new life in Christ and our union with Him.

The Meaning of Baptism

If the meaning of baptism could be summarized in one word, that would be identification. Baptism speaks primarily of personal, public identification with Jesus Christ.

In Romans 6:3-4, the Apostle Paul puts the matter this way:
Don't you know that all of us who were baptized into Christ were baptized into his death? We were therefore buried with him through baptism into death in order that, just as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the Father, we too may live a new life.
Notice the strength of the expressions "baptized into Christ," "baptized into His death," and "buried with Him in baptism." Someone may suggest that the primary reference here is to Spirit baptism. That's true, but at the very least, water baptism is in the background of this passage.

How important is your baptism? It is your personal identification with the greatest act of human history-the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Baptism doesn't save you-salvation comes by faith alone ( Ephesians 2:8-9). Your guilt before God is removed the moment you trust in Christ. But baptism is your personal testimony to, and the inward assurance of, your passage from the old life to the new life...

How Baptism Relates to Jesus

1. It means we have turned from the old life of sin to a new life in Jesus Christ.

2. It means we are publicly identifying with the death, burial, and resurrection of Christ.

3. It means we are openly joining the ranks of those who believe in Christ.

When you are baptized, you are visually preaching the gospel. As you stand in the water waiting to be baptized, first, you symbolize Jesus dying on the cross. Second, you symbolize Jesus buried in the tomb as you are lowered into the water. As you are raised from the water, you symbolize Jesus rising from the dead.

And since you personally are being baptized, you are also saying, "I died with Jesus Christ, I was buried with Him and now I am raised with Christ to a brand-new life."

In short, in your baptism, you are confessing the faith without using any words at all. And your confession in your baptism will be more effective with your friends than any sermon the pastor preaches on Sunday morning-more effective because it comes directly from you.

The Greek word translated as "baptize" is the verb baptizo. According to most contemporary lexicons, the primary meaning is "to dip, plunge, immerse." The secondary meaning is to "bring under the influence." Dr. Merrill Tenney notes that "after making allowances for certain occasional exceptions, such as passages where washing is implied, the etymological meaning indicates that baptism was originally by immersion." (Basic Christian Doctrine, p. 257)

Baptism in the New Testament:

Baptism requires water. ( Matthew 3:11)

"I indeed baptize you with water unto repentance, but He who is coming after me is mightier than I, whose sandals I am not worthy to carry. He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and fire."

Baptism required plenty of water. ( John 3:23)

"John also was baptizing at Aenon near Salim, because water was plentiful there, and people were coming and being baptized"

Baptism requires going down into the water. ( Acts 8:38-39)

"And he commanded the chariot to stop, and they both went down into the water, Philip and the eunuch, and he baptized him. And when they came up out of the water, the Spirit of the Lord carried Philip away, and the eunuch saw him no more, and went on his way rejoicing."

Baptism requires coming up out of the water. ( Matthew 3:16, Acts 8:39)

Furthermore, the figures of speech used by the Apostle Paul accord well with immersion. Baptism is called a "burial" in Romans 6:4 and Colossians 2:12. Baptism is "into his death" and involves being "raised to walk in newness of life." It is difficult to see how sprinkling or pouring could convey these meanings.

Finally, the testimony of church history is that immersion was indeed the mode of baptism practiced in the early church.

Do Christians Need to Be Baptized?

Charles Stanley explains the importance of baptism, saying:

"Our Savior commands us to follow His example in all things, including baptism: Matthew 28:19 says, "Go therefore and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit." At the beginning of His public ministry, Jesus chose to be baptized. John the Baptist was calling the Jewish people to confess their sins and demonstrate repentance through immersion in the Jordan River. Sinless Jesus joined the crowd at the river and asked John to baptize Him. The Lord chose to affiliate Himself with sinful man. When we follow His example in the waters of baptism, we're publicly confessing our faith in the Savior and identifying ourselves with Him.

Baptism allows us to demonstrate our connection with Jesus and with our brothers and sisters in Christ. We're all members of one body under the authority of the same Lord. But it's important to remember that Ephesians 2:8-9 says faith in Jesus Christ is the only requirement for salvation, not baptism. But, to fulfill His command, we're to be baptized following our decision to accept Him into our lives."

Key Bible Verses about Baptism

And Peter said to them, "Repent and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins, and you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. ( Acts 2:38)

And now why do you wait? Rise and be baptized and wash away your sins, calling on his name.' ( Acts 22:16)

Baptism, which corresponds to this, now saves you, not as a removal of dirt from the body but as an appeal to God for a good conscience, through the resurrection of Jesus Christ ( 1 Peter 3:21)

Jesus answered, "Truly, truly, I say to you, unless one is born of water and the Spirit, he cannot enter the kingdom of God. ( John 3:5)

Whoever believes and is baptized will be saved, but whoever does not believe will be condemned. ( Mark 16:16)

Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit ( Matthew 28:19)

How Should Baptism Be Done?

Interview with Mark Dever: Transcript of the video above, edited for readability:

Baptism should normally be done by immersion. I think when you look in the New Testament, that seems to be what's going on. When you look at the uses of baptizo, that seems to be how it's used. I do think that Baptists over-argue when we say it can only mean that. I think you have examples in first century literature of it being used to mean other things as well.

But I remember being with a Greek Orthodox abbot one time and a Presbyterian friend, and this Greek Orthodox abbot, head of a monastery, I was trying to explain that I was a Baptist Christian, and that meant we immersed believers. And he was confused why I used the word baptism and immersed. He spoke English a little bit, but he talked to this Greek Orthodox monk from Brooklyn who then explained it to him in more length, who also spoke Greek. And this Greek Orthodox abbot was offended that there were Christians out there who didn't immerse, and yet they called it baptism because he said, "Hey, it's our word. It's a Greek word. We know what it means. It means to immerse." Now, they immerse infants, but they immerse.

I think we can overemphasize that. I think the important question for us as Christians is generally, who is baptized, not so much how. I think the thing that protects the shape of the church is that it is believers who are part of the church. We are the ones who've been baptized and come to the Lord's table regularly. I think the mode is not essential, though I think it's normal and all I've ever done is immerse and that's all I ever planned to do, I think that's normally what you should do. But I think Baptists do slightly over-argue when they want to say that baptizo can only mean immerse, because actually in the first century, I can show you times when the word was used to mean other things. So I would just say let's immerse believers, and if you have a special set of circumstances, God will give your church wisdom what to do.

Why Is It Important for Christians to Be Baptized?

In Baptism, Jesus is speaking to the believer, to the assembled congregation, and to the watching world, identifying this person with himself in death, in burial, and in resurrection. And so in Baptism, what you have is a sign of an execution. It's a sign of a drowning. This is the reason why, when Jesus is baptized, John the Baptist can't believe it. Jesus comes to him and says, "I want to be baptized by you," and John says, "No, no, no, I need be baptized by you."

Why is John so alarmed by this? Well, it's because of what he's doing with baptism. He's saying, "You're a bunch of snakes, you need to come under the judgment of God." And in Baptism, what's happening? Well, water is scary. You go under water, you can't breathe. It's a picture of death and of the grave, and always has been, Biblically. The flood, God floods the world, that is a baptism, Peter tells us in 1st Peter, chapter 3. God sends Jonah into the deep, into the water, it is his judgment upon Jonah. God ultimately baptizes the world with fire, and engulfs and immerses the world in fire.

So when Jesus says, "I want to be baptized," John is alarmed by this because this is the sinless son of God. And it makes no more sense than someone saying, "I really would like to be on the federal sex offender registry." You would say, "Why would you want to be on that list? Why would you want to identify yourself with these snakes who are under the judgment of God?" But of course, Jesus is doing exactly that. Not because he has sin, but because he's identifying himself with sinful people.

So, when someone is going down into the waters of baptism, first of all, that person is confessing, "I deserve death. I deserve the judgment of God." Jesus, through his church, is saying to the person, "Yeah, you're right. This is exactly what you deserve, is death and the grave." But the person is also acknowledging, "I am trusting in the power of God to raise me from death, and Jesus is affirming that in the physical act of the person being brought under water, can't breathe, death, and then being ripped out of the water by a power that doesn't belong to him. There's a power that's coming from the outside, bringing that person up.

So, that person now has identified with Jesus in his death, Romans chapter 6, in his burial, in his resurrection, the person also is acknowledging, "I was dead in trespasses and sins under the judgment of God, buried, but I am now raised to newness of life because I'm in Christ." And the person is identified with that final reality of dying and being buried and then having one's name called and being brought up out of the grave. That's a physical, visible sign of that.

And so what happens in baptism is that Jesus is claiming this person as his own through the church, and the church is announcing, "This is the boundary marker, this is one of ours. This is our brother and our sister." Which is why in the New Testament, you don't have any such thing as an unbaptized Christian. Those who believe are baptized, and in the churches, the apostle Paul says that there's one lord, there's one faith, there's one baptism, one God and Father of all.

So baptism is extraordinarily important, this is the initial rite of the Christian's obedience, but it also is a sign that builds up the faith, not only of the person being baptized, but of the rest of the Church community, is they ... They're watching the gospel and they're hearing the gospel sloshing around in the water. Jesus has given that to us because he knows we need to see it, we need to experience it, we need to be reminded of it.

And every time we see baptism, we're reminded we're at war, and we're to take this gospel to the ends of the earth, discipling the nations and baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.
Excerpt from "Related podcast: The views and opinions expressed in this podcast are those of the speakers and do not necessarily reflect the views or positions of Salem Web Network and Salem Media Group. Related video: Taking the Plunge" from Keep Believing Ministries & Charles Stanley (used by permission).

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what is baptism? its meaning and importance in christianity

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What Is Baptism? Its Meaning and Importance in Christianity

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Read What Is Baptism? Its Meaning and Importance in Christianity by Dr. Ray Pritchard and more articles about Christian Terms and Wiki on Christianity.com

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This article explains the Buddhists festival oof Wesak, commemorating all aspects of Buddha's life including his birth, death, and englightenment.

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Wesak, also spelled Vesak, Sanskrit Vaishakha, Pali Vesakha, most important of the Theravada Buddhist festivals, commemorating the birth, enlightenment, and death of the Buddha. The event is observed on the full-moon day of the lunar month Vesakha, which falls in April or May. The day is observed as a public holiday in many Southeast Asian countries. It is marked by special devotional services and various deeds intended to be meritorious, such as the presentation of food or alms to monks or the release of captive birds.

Amy Tikkanen.

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Wesak | Buddhist Celebration, Vesak Day, Buddha's Birth

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Wesak, most important of the Theravada Buddhist festivals, commemorating the birth, enlightenment, and death of the Buddha. The event is observed on the full-moon day of the lunar month Vesakha, which falls in April or May. The day is observed as a public holiday in many Southeast Asian countries.

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Ash Wednesday is observed by some denominations of christianity. Services are held to mark the beginning of a fourty day fasting period, where many give up some aspect of their life in the same way Christ fasted for fourty days.

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Each year, Ash Wednesday marks the beginning of Lent and is always 46 days before Easter Sunday. Lent is a 40-day season (not counting Sundays) marked by repentance, fasting, reflection, and ultimately celebration. The 40-day period represents Christ's time of temptation in the wilderness, where he fasted and where Satan tempted him. Lent asks believers to set aside a time each year for similar fasting, marking an intentional season of focus on Christ's life, ministry, sacrifice, and resurrection.

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Who Celebrates Ash Wednesday?

Have you ever noticed, usually in February or March, a lot of people walk around with an ash cross on their foreheads once a year? You probably knew it had something to do with Lent, but you weren't sure why the ash cross was significant.

Or maybe, you grew up in a Catholic or Protestant church that held Ash Wednesday services each year, so you're already familiar with the service but aren't too sure about the history of Ash Wednesday and Lent and what they have to do with the Christian faith. Read on if you want to learn more about this important day in the liturgical calendar and why so many celebrate Ash Wednesday and Lent!

Often called the Day of Ashes, Ash Wednesday starts Lent by focusing the Christian's heart on repentance and prayer, usually through personal and communal confession. This happens during a unique Ash Wednesday service.
Download your FREE copy of our 40-Day Lent and Easter Devotional - filled with daily Scriptures, reflections, and prayers for the Lent season.
What Happens on Ash Wednesday?

Photo credit:©Unsplash/Ahna Ziegler

During Mass (for Catholics) or worship service (for Protestants), the priest or pastor will usually share a penitential and reflective sermon. The mood is solemn - many services will have long periods of silence and worshipers will often leave the service in silence.

Usually, there is a responsive passage of Scripture, usually centered around confession, read aloud about the leader and congregation. Attendees will experience communal confession and moments where they are prompted to confess sins silently and pray.

After all of this, the congregation will be invited to receive the ashes on their foreheads. Usually, the priest or pastor will dip his finger into the ashes, spread them in a cross pattern on the forehead, and say, "From dust you came and to dust you will return."

Source and Meaning of the Ashes

In many congregations, the ashes are prepared by burning palm branches from the previous Palm Sunday. On Palm Sunday, churches bless and hand out palm branches to attendees, referencing the Gospels' account of Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem, when onlookers lay palm branches on his path.

The ashes of this holiday symbolize two main things: death and repentance. "Ashes are equivalent to dust, and human flesh is composed of dust or clay ( Genesis 2:7), and when a human corpse decomposes, it returns to dust or ash."

"When we come forward to receive ashes on Ash Wednesday, we are saying that we are sorry for our sins and that we want to use the season of Lent to correct our faults, purify our hearts, control our desires and grow in holiness so we will be prepared to celebrate Easter with great joy" (The CatholicSpirit.com).

With this focus on our own mortality and sinfulness, Christians can enter into the Lent season solemnly while also looking forward in greater anticipation and joy to the message of Easter and Christ's ultimate victory over sin and death.

When Is Ash Wednesday in 2023?

Here are the most significant dates of Lent and when they will occur in 2023:

Ash Wednesday

The beginning of Lent, a day of reflection and repentance from sin

February 22, 2023

Palm Sunday
Celebrates Jesus's triumphant entry into Jerusalem

April 2, 2023

The week leading up to Easter

April 2 - April 8, 2023

Maundy Thursday
Commemorates the foot washing and Last Supper of Jesus Christ with the Apostles

April 6, 2023

Good Friday
Commemorates the crucifixion of Jesus and his death at Calvary

April 7, 2023

Easter Sunday
Celebrates the resurrection of Jesus from the dead and His victory over sin and death

April 9, 2023

The History of Lent and Ash Wednesday

The history and beginnings of Lent aren't clear. According to Britannica.com, Lent has likely been observed: "since apostolic times, though the practice was not formalized until the First Council of Nicaea in 325 CE." Christian scholars note that Lent became more regularized after the legalization of Christianity in A.D. 313. St. Irenaeus, Pope St. Victor I, and St. Athanasius all seem to have written about Lent during their ministries. Most agree that "by the end of the fourth century, the 40-day period of Easter preparation known as Lent existed, and that prayer and fasting constituted its primary spiritual exercises."

Is there Fasting on Ash Wednesday?

Regarding the exact rules and practices of Lent, those have changed over the years. "In the early centuries, fasting rules were strict, as they still are in Eastern churches," notes Britannica.com. "One meal a day was allowed in the evening, and meat, fish, eggs, and butter were forbidden. The Eastern church also restricts the use of wine, oil, and dairy products. In the West, these fasting rules have gradually been relaxed. The strict law of fasting among Roman Catholics was dispensed with during World War II, and only Ash Wednesday and Good Friday are now kept as Lenten fast days."

Is Ash Wednesday only for Catholics or Protestants?

Catholic, Orthodox, and many (but not all) Protestants appreciate and observe Lent. Though Lent is not named or observed in the Bible, as Christianity Today notes, "the path of Lent-prayer, fasting, and generosity over a period of time-is heavily emphasized by the authors of and characters in the Bible, including Jesus. The Bible commands a lifestyle of worship and devotion that looks considerably like Lent. Therefore, while the word is absent in the Bible, the reality of Lent is woven throughout the whole of Scripture, as we have discovered."

In his Gospel Coalition article Evangelicals Embracing (and Rejecting) Lent, Trevin Wax gives us an important reminder regardless of whether we personally observe Lent:

"I hardly think the church is suffering from too much fasting," Wax says. "But I do think the church is suffering from too much self-righteousness (and I include myself in this indictment). Lent - being either for or against - can become a way of climbing up on to the pedestal."

He goes on to say, "What is more important than the practices we take on is the heart attitude behind them. If there's anything we should give up this time of year, it's our sense of superiority either to those outside the church or those inside the church who do things differently than we do."

Photo credit: ©Pixabay/GiniGeo Photography

Bible Verses for Ash Wednesday

If you'd like to start thinking through and observing Lent and Ash Wednesday, here are a few verses specific to Ash Wednesday to meditate and reflect on, and then a prayer you can pray to observe the day.

Our Creation: Genesis 2:7 - Then the LORD God formed a man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being.

Our Curse: Genesis 3:19 - By the sweat of your brow you will eat your food until you return to the ground since from it you were taken; for dust you are and to dust you will return."

Our Cry of Repentance: Psalm 51:7- 10 - Cleanse me with hyssop, and I will be clean; wash me, and I will be whiter than snow. Let me hear joy and gladness; let the bones you have crushed rejoice. Hide your face from my sins and blot out all my iniquity. Create in me a pure heart, O God, and renew a steadfast spirit within me.

Read more Ash Wednesday Scriptures and Bible Verses for Reflection
A Prayer for Ash Wednesday:

Lord, Holy One, have mercy on us. We confess our sins to you. We have fallen short of your glory and without your mercy and grace, we would be dust. We repent now. Lord, as we enter this Lenten season, be near us. Help us, by your Holy Spirit, to feel the proper conviction and repentance for our sin. Help us, by your Spirit, to have the strength to overcome the enemy.

Thank you, Lord, that Easter is coming! Death has no sting, no victory, because of Jesus! Glory and honor and praise to His name! Thank you for rescuing us. Help us keep the weight and the joy of this season in our hearts as we move through the next several weeks. Help us bear the good fruit of your Spirit.

Thank you that the ashes on our forehead do not symbolize our ultimate reality. From dust, we might have been formed, but our bodies, our spirits, ourselves, await beautiful redemption and the restoration of all things. Help us long and look forward to that day, and let it come quickly, Lord Jesus. Amen.
Read more Prayers for Ash Wednesday Sources:

Time.com, Here's Where the Ashes for Ash Wednesday Come From, Mahita Gajanan (2017).

TheCatholicSpirit.com, Why do we receive ashes on Ash Wednesday?, Father Michael Van Sloun (2016)

Britannica.com, Lent, The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.

CatholicEducation.com, History of Lent, Fr. William Saunders, (2002)

ChristianityToday.com, What's the Deal with Lent?, Aaron Damiani (2017)

TheGospelCoalition.org, Evangelicals Embracing (and Rejecting) Lent, Trevin Wax (2014)

Photo credit: ©Thinkstock/czarny_bez

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What Is Ash Wednesday? 2023 Guide for Christians Celebrating

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Each year, Ash Wednesday marks the beginning of Lent and is always 46 days before Easter Sunday. Ash Wednesday will be February 22 in 2023. Here is the symbolism, meaning, history, and why Christians celebrate.

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