# data[].attributes.headline
THEME 5. Threatening factors of plant diversity

# data[].attributes.subject
THEME 5. Threatening factors of plant diversity

# data[].attributes.body
Conservation plan
Several plant taxa are listed in the IUCN Red Data List. These taxa are found across Greece, mainly in islands, where endemism is, by definition, great. Some examples are listed above:

Anthemis glabberima

Convolvulus argyrothamnos

Zelkova abelicea

Minuartia dirphya

Saponaria jagelii

Consolida samia

In order to conserve these plant species, several actions can be initiated, according each species biology and special needs. These actions can include:

Registration of all possible threats.

Ban of picking/harvesting.

Biomonitoring plan.

Collection and preservation of seeds in seed banks.

Cultivation of threatened plant species in botanical gardens.

In order to put all or some of these measures in action, it is important that all of these regions where plant species of concern occur, be included in certain Management Bodies responsible for each Natura area, according to Europe's Directive 92/43.

A preservation plan is more likely to be successful if carried out at a local level. For example, it is more likely that an endagered plant species can be cultivated near its natural habitat, rather than in a botanical garden situated near University facilities.
Universities can, of course, collaborate and provide the essential know-how, to the people monitoring the preservation status of these species.

Consolida samia, photo by: Kostas Kalatzis

# data[].attributes.headline
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.subject
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.body
PlantArea Review (Jura mountains by Lila Siegfried)
Jura mountains are situated mainly in Switzerland and France. It is possible to find both continental and alpine plants. Their highest peak is at 1720 m.
Climate is semi-continental to mountainous. Bedrock consists mainly of limestone.
Main plant habitats are:

Mesobromion (Middle European semi-dry lawn): high diversity of herbaceous drought-resistant plants of Poaceae and Fabaceae family.

Sphagnum peat bog: shelters plant species adapted to lack of nitrogen and is also a refuge for boreo-arctic species.

Spruce fir forest: mixed forest of Abies alba and Picea abies found at higher altitudes.

Forty species of the Swiss flora are rare and threatened mainly by habitat degradation. The most threatened ecosystems are wetlands.

# data[].attributes.headline
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.subject
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.body
Theophrastus wrote two treatises on plants, the Enquiry into Plants (9 books) and the Causes of Plants (6 books). He did not concentrate on providing descriptions of individual plants but studied them as a whole. In his botanical writings, Theophrastus makes a total of 903 direct and distinct geographical citations which correspond to a total of 314 different entries (geographical terms) which can be grouped further to a total of 243 geographical ‘entities’. His works were indeed textbooks for his lectures and seem as they were under continuous updating. Moreover, his critical attitude is evident throughout his botanical writings.
His books included not only personal observations made by Theophrastus but also material which had been sent to him from parts of Alexander the Great’s far flung empire. In all, Theophrastus’ two books offered his readers examinations of over 500 plants. In his Historia Plantarum Theophrastus began with the classification of trees, shrubs, undershrubs and herbs and continued to discuss domesticated trees, wild trees, undershrubs and herbaceous plants – in that order. De causis plantarum shifted the focus to matters of generation.

Source:
http://botany.edwardworthlibrary.ie/ancient-botany/theophrastus/
Thanos Costas A.,  The geography of Theophrastus' life and of his botanical writings, Department of Botany, University of Athens, Greece.

# data[].attributes.headline
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.subject
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.body
Two groups of food plants
2. The Rutaceae family: oranges, lemons, tangerines, grape fruits.
Most species are trees or shrubs, frequently aromatic with glands on the leaves, sometimes with thorns. The leaves are usually opposed and compound, and without stipules. Pellucid glands, a type of oil gland, are found in the leaves responsible for the aromatic smell of the family's members; traditionally they have been the primary synapomorphic characteristic to identify the Rutaceae.
Flowers are bractless, solitary or in cyme, rarely in raceme, and mainly pollinated by insects. They are radially or (rarely) laterally symmetric, and generally hermaphroditic.
The fruit of the Rutaceae are very variable: berries, drupes, hesperidia, samaras, capsules, and follicles all occur. Seed number also varies widely.

Sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutaceae

# data[].attributes.headline
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.subject
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.body
Two groups of food plants
1. The Solanaceae family: potatos, tomatos, eggplants, peppers.
Members of the family are annuals, biennials, or perennials and are usually herbs, though some species grow as shrubs or small trees. The leaves are generally simple and alternately arranged. The family is characterized by solitary or clustered flowers with sepals and petals, five in number and fused; five stamens; and a superior ovary (i.e., one situated above the attachment point of the other flower parts), composed of two fused carpels (ovule-bearing segments) and obliquely placed in the flower upon a basal disk of tissue. The style (upper end of the ovary) is simple and bears a two-lobed stigma, the pollen-receptive surface. The flowers are usually conspicuous and are visited by insects. The fruit is usually a berry or a capsule.

Sources:
https://www.britannica.com/plant/Solanaceae
By Horticulturalist RJ - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=48026433

# data[].attributes.headline
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.subject
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.body
Two alcoholic drinks with their plant source material
2. Ouzo
Ouzo is produced by the distillation of grapesd. Pimpinella anisum (Family of Apiaceae) is the main aromatic plant used to flavor ouzo.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Koehler1887-PimpinellaAnisum.jpg

# data[].attributes.headline
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.subject
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.body
Two alcoholic drinks with their plant source material
1. Krana liquer
A sweet alcoholic aperitif made of cognac and the fruits of the plant Cornus mas (Family of Cornaceae), which is a deciduous tree up to 8 m tall.

Cherry-like fruits of Cornus mas.

# data[].attributes.headline
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.subject
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.body
Two plant species used as Christmas trees.
Main species cultivated in Greece for Christmas trees are primarly fir (Abies sp.) and pines (Pinus sp.). Spruce (Picea abies), Pseudotsuga menziesii and cypress (Cupressus sp.) are also used for this purpose.

Cultivation of fir trees in North Greece.

# data[].attributes.headline
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.subject
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.body
Two plant species used as spices:
2. Cinnamon
Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several tree species from the genus Cinnamomum.
Cinnamomum verum, which translates as 'true cinnamon', is native to India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. it is believed to have antioxidant, anti-carcinogenic and anti-inflammatory properties.

Sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamon
https://www.organicauthority.com/health/11-health-benefits-of-cinnamon
Cinnamomum verum, from Koehler's Medicinal-Plants (1887)
By Franz Eugen Köhler, Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen - List of Koehler Images, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=255523

# data[].attributes.headline
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.subject
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.body
Two plant species used as spices:
1. Turmeric
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is a flowering plant of the ginger family, Zingiberaceae, the roots of which are used in cooking. Turmeric has been used in Asia for thousands of years. It contains curcumin, a substance with powerful anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Curcumin boosts levels of the brain hormone BDNF, which increases the growth of new neurons and fights various degenerative processes in your brain. It also has beneficial effects on several factors known to play a role in heart disease. It improves the function of the endothelium and is a potent anti-inflammatory agent and antioxidant.

Sources:
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/top-10-evidence-based-health-benefits-of-turmeric#section5
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turmeric
Photo by Simon A. Eugster - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=31748137

# data[].attributes.headline
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.subject
THEME 4. Plants as source for the future

# data[].attributes.body
STEP 1. ACTIVATE YOUR PRIOR KNOWLEDGE - assess the problem

We are still strongly depended on fossil fuels and only the developed countries of the world have the technology and therefore the luxury of using green energy.

After having read the sources provided, it seems that the correct statement about biofuels is:
Replacing fossil fuels with biofuels is highly controversial since it solves one problem but creates new ones.

# data[].attributes.headline
THEME 3. Plants and climate change

All data presented here come from "Greece, State of the Environment Report", published by the National Center for the Environment and Sustainable Development in 2018.

# data[].attributes.subject
THEME 3. Plants and climate change

All data presented here come from "Greece, State of the Environment Report", published by the National Center for the Environment and Sustainable Development in 2018.

# data[].attributes.body
Graph 1.1. displays the change of equivalent CO ₂ emissions during 1990-2015. CO ₂ emissions comprise the largest part (78.3% in 2015). It appears that in Greece, GHG emissions are not fully decoupled from economic growth - as it is the case in the EU - since up to 2007 an upward trend is observed, with emissions largely exceeding those of the base year, while in the following years (2008-2015), a significant drop (27.3%) is recorded.

# data[].attributes.body
The largest part of GHG emissions derives from the energy sector (74.2% το 2015). Emissions from energy in 2015 were 7.6% lower than those of 1990 and at their lowest level ever since. The increase observed up to 2000 was followed by a stabilization period through 2007. From 2007 to 2015, the reduction of energy emissions has reached 34.3%. The drop observed for total GHG emissions from the energy sector during 2007-2015 is also recorded for the majority of specific energy sectors, with emissions from energy production diminishing by 31.3% and from transport by 26.3%. In comparison with the base year (1990), transport emissions have increased by 17.8%, while energy production emissions have been reduced by only 5.4%.

# data[].attributes.body
According to the calculations of anthropogenic impacts on climate, under the two extreme climate change scenarios (B2 and A2), which are analyzed in this study, it is expected that by the end of the 21st century rainfall will be reduced between 5% and about 19%, at a national level. Moreover, air temperature will rise between 3.0 o C and 4.5 o C, respectively. The projections of the balanced scenario A1B regarding the changes in precipitation and mean air temperature, between periods 2071-2100 and 1961-1990 in the Greek region are displayed in Picture 1.1.

# data[].attributes.body
Changes are also expected regarding extreme rainfall values. In Eastern Greece and Northwestern Macedonia, the maximum amount of precipitated water in up to three days is expected to increase by up to 30%, while in Western Greece to diminish by up to 20% (Picture 1.3a.). The increasing trends combined with the concurrent decrease in total annual precipitation indicate that more frequent and more intense rainfall events will occur in short periods, with a higher risk for flash floods. On the contrary, the largest increases in the duration of dry periods are expected in Eastern Continental Greece and Northern Crete where 20 and 40 additional dry days are foreseen by 2021-2050 and 2071-2100 (Picture 1.3b.), respectively. The change of climatic conditions will extend the number of days with very increased fire risk by 40 by 2071-2100 in the whole of Eastern Greece, while smaller increases are predicted for Western Greece.

# data[].attributes.body
STEP 4. MEET and SHARE
Raise of mean temperature is common both in other Mediterranean countries, like Italy and Portugal, and in Central Europe countries, like Belgium and Switzerland. In Switzerland, in particular, last summer was the hottest of all times. Although precipitation will decrease in the South of Europe, flooding events will become more often, affecting natural and antropogenic environment. On the other hand, countries like Switzerland, with alpine ecosystems will face a reduction in snowfalls and an increase in rainfall.

# data[].attributes.headline
THEME 3. Plants and climate change

STEP 1. ACTIVATE YOUR PRIOR KNOWLEDGE - assess the problem

# data[].attributes.subject
THEME 3. Plants and climate change

STEP 1. ACTIVATE YOUR PRIOR KNOWLEDGE - assess the problem

# data[].attributes.body
Tropical Andean trees migrate to higher altitudes where the air is cool enough to support their existence. Due to the fast climatic change they have to move faster in order to remain in equilibrium with their preferred temperatures.

# data[].attributes.headline
Theme 2: Complexity of plant biogeography

# data[].attributes.subject
Theme 2: Complexity of plant biogeography

# data[].attributes.body
STEP 4: MEET and SHARE
The main characteristic of Greece's natural environment is that is consists of a vast variety of habitats. In Greece, you can encounter alpine or sub-alpine vegetation on mountains (like Olympus) and palm tree forest on the island of Crete (south Greece). Typical vegetation consists of pine forests and shrub vegetation (macchie and phrygana). This is common in all Mediterranean countries. Halophytic vegetation can also be found is areas near beaches. Belgium has also halophytic vegetation near its Atlantic coasts, but I assume that the species composition must be quite different.
It impressed me that in Portugal there are oak woods consisting of cork oaks, which are absent in Greece. Portugal is influenced by its proximity to the Atlantic ocean, therefore both climate and vegetation is differentiated from other countries of the Mediterranean basin, like Greece.
Finally, Greece, featuring a large number of islands, also has a greater number of endemic species, compared to countries like Belgium, which are less isolated.

# data[].attributes.headline
Theme 2: Complexity of plant biogeography

# data[].attributes.subject
Theme 2: Complexity of plant biogeography

# data[].attributes.body
Greece belongs to the Mediterranean biogeographical region.

The 13 floristic regions of Greece, as defined for the Flora Hellenica project (Strid & Tan 1997), are as seen below.

Source:
http://portal.cybertaxonomy.org/flora-greece/annotations

# data[].attributes.headline
Theme 2: Complexity of plant biogeography

# data[].attributes.subject
Theme 2: Complexity of plant biogeography

# data[].attributes.body
Stress factors affecting plant growth

1. High temperatures and drought during summer.
Plant species growing in low altitudes of Greece dispose of various adaptations, which help them survive climate conditions during summertime.
For example, phrygana, a group of plants consisting of species such as thyme (Thymus sp.), sage (Salvia sp.) and  Phlomis fruticosa have different size of leaves in winter and in summer. That is, bigger leaves in the cold period and larger leaves in summertime, so as to save water.
Moreover, these plant species have hairy and/or spiny leaves in order to constrain water loss through transpiration.
The presence of hair in the stem and leaves is quite common in Mediterranean plant species, other than phrygana, like Olea europaea (Olive oil tree).

Sources:
Αρκτούρος, Αρωματικά φυτά και βότανα, Κείμενα: Ευαγγέλου Χρ., Μπούσμπουρα Δ.
https://gardenriots.com/2017/08/08/the-opposite-of-freezing-plants-have-upper-limits-too/surface-of-olive-tree-leaf/

In the picture you can see hair (in the form of stars) on the surface of olive leaves.

# data[].attributes.headline
Theme 2: Complexity of plant biogeography

# data[].attributes.subject
Theme 2: Complexity of plant biogeography

# data[].attributes.body
Alexander von Humboldt (1769 – 1859)

Humboldt is considered by many as the father of environmental science.
In his work, the emphasis is on nature’s interconnectedness, the different forms of life stratified according to altitude and other physical factors.
Much of this work was based on measurements. In this sense, Humboldt was pure scientist, using the best technology of the day to measure everything he could – temperature, humidity, etc. And alongside this were observations of rock and soil, the taste of the water, fungi, insects, plants, animals and people.
The findings, observations and discussions of his two expeditions in South America and Russia, were published in his five-volume book Cosmos.
It is worth mentioning that in 1830 he listed deforestation, irrigation and the “great masses of steam and gas” produced by industry as posing serious problems for the planet.

Source:
https://cosmosmagazine.com/climate/the-forgotten-man-of-science

# data[].attributes.body
Riparian forest in Pinios River (Larisa, Greece)

# data[].attributes.body
Mystras (Peloponese, Greece). Forest of Acer monspessulanus, along with vegetation on the rocky walls of the castles.

# data[].attributes.body
Sand dunes in Voidokilia beach (Peloponese, Greece)

# data[].attributes.headline
Theme 2: Complexity of plant biogeography

# data[].attributes.subject
Theme 2: Complexity of plant biogeography

# data[].attributes.body
Stress factors affecting plant growth

2. Fire
Typical Mediterranean forest, Pine forest, is adapted to the periodic outburst of fire. Plant species in Pine forest have various adaptations in order to survive the fire and give rebirth to a new forest in few years time.
Some plant species,  like Cycamen sp. have bulbous roots that survive the fire. The plant will regrow as soon as the next growing period comes.
Other species, like Arbutus unedo (strawberry tree) can produce new sprouts from stems that have already been burnt.
Fire has been proved to have beneficiary effect to the rate of sprouting for Pinus species. During fire, the cones of these trees explode and their sperms are dessiminated along great distances. Fire itself increases seed germination rates for species like Cistus incanus.

Sources:
Καράταγλης Σ. Φυσιολογία Φυτών, 1999.
Ραδόγλου K., Αποτελεσματικότητα της φυσικής αναγέννησης στην αποκατάσταση οικοσυστημάτων μεσογειακών πευκών μετά από πυρκαγιά, ΕΘΙΑΓΕ, Ινστιτούτο Δασικών Ερευνών.

Crocus atticus sprouting after the 2007 fire in Parnitha Mountain (Attica, Greece)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
κρόκος της Αττικής (Crocus sieberi subsp. atticus).JPG

# data[].attributes.body
Melissa officinalis L. (Lemon balm)
Classification
Class: Magnoliatae
Subclass: Asteridae
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae

Lemon Balm was dedicated to the goddess Diana, and used medicinally by the Greeks some 2,000 years ago. In the Middles Ages lemon balm was used to soothe tension, to dress wounds, and as a cure for toothache, skin eruptions, mad dog bites, crooked necks, and sickness during pregnancy. It was even said to prevent baldness. As a medicinal plant, lemon balm has traditionally been employed against bronchial inflammation, earache, fever, flatulence, headaches, high blood pressure, influenza, mood disorders, palpitations, toothache and vomiting. A tea made from Lemon balm leaves is said to soothe menstrual cramps and helps relieve PMS.
It was named Melissa, because its white flowers attract bees (Melissa in Greek). The species name officinalis is characteristic of its medicinal use. Its leaves have a characteristic lemon scent, provided by the essential oils it contains. Its taste comes from citronellal (24%), geranial (16%), linalyl acetate (12%) and caryophyllene (12%).
The herb is used for nervous agitation, sleeping problems, functional gastrointestinal complaints, menstrual cramps and urinary spasms.

It is thought that the volatile oils in lemon balm contain chemicals that relax muscles, particularly in the bladder, stomach, and uterus, thereby relieving cramps, gas, and nausea.

ESCOP (European Scientific Cooperative On Phytotherapy) lists its internal use for tenseness, restlessness, irritability, and symptomatic treatment of digestive disorders, such as minor spasms; externally, for herpes labialis.
Recent evidence suggests that lemon balm has a depressant or sedative action on the central nervous systems of laboratory mice.

Sources:
http://mediplantepirus.med.uoi.gr/pharmacology/plant_details.php?id=108
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemon_balm

# data[].attributes.body
Description of Melissa officinalis L.
Stem: Square
Growth Form: Herbaceous perennial with a bushy growth form up to 1 m tall.
Foliage: Leaves are broadly ovate (egg-shaped) with a scalloped leaf margin. The sunken venation creates a quilted leaf texture.
Flowers: Creamy white or light purple flowers are tubular and 2-lipped. They are arranged in a spike inflorescence.

When not sure if a certain plant is actually Melissa officinalis, rub the leaves with your fingertips. If a lemon scent comes out, then this is it!

Synonyms
Faucibarba officinalis (L.) Dulac
Mutelia officinalis (L.) Gren. ex Mutel
Thymus melissa E. H. L. Krause

Sources:
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Horticulture/Melissa_officinalis
http://ww2.bgbm.org/EuroPlusMed/query.asp
https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/melissa/officinalis/
Μπαμπαλώνας Δ. και Κοκκίνη Σ., Συστηματική Βοτανική, Υπηρεσία Δημοσιευμάτων ΑΠΘ, Θεσσαλονίκη, 1999.

# data[].attributes.body
Origanum majorana L. (sweet marjoram)
Classification
Class: Magnoliatae
Subclass: Asteridae
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae

The name Origanum is derived from two Greek words, oros (mountain) and ganos (joy), in allusion to the gay appearance these plants give to the hillsides on which they grow.

Sweet marjoram is mainly used as a culinary herb, but is also medicinally valuable due to its stimulant and antispasmodic properties. It is a good general tonic, treating various disorders of the digestive and respiratory systems. It has a stronger affect on the nervous system than the related oregano (O. vulgare) and is also thought to lower the sex drive. Because it can promote menstruation, it should not be used medicinally by pregnant women though small quantities used for culinary purposes are safe.

The herb is antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, cholagogue, diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, stimulant, stomachic and mildly tonic. It is taken internally in the treatment of bronchial complaints, tension headaches, insomnia, anxiety, minor digestive upsets and painful menstruation. It should not be prescribed for pregnant women. Externally, it is used to treat muscular pain, bronchial complaints, arthritis, sprains and stiff joints. The plant is harvested as flowering begins and can be used fresh or dried.

The essential oil is used in aromatherapy. Its keyword is 'Muscle relaxant'

Sources:
http://antropocene.it/en/2017/05/20/origanum-majorana/
Μπαμπαλώνας Δ. και Κοκκίνη Σ., Συστηματική Βοτανική, Υπηρεσία Δημοσιευμάτων ΑΠΘ, Θεσσαλονίκη, 1999.

# data[].attributes.body
Description of Origanum majorana L.
Stem: Square
Growth Form: Erect perennial herb up to 0.6 m tall.
Foliage: Egg-shaped leaves occur in opposite pairs along the stem.
Flowers: The inflorescence is composed of a stack of hairy, egg-shaped bracts with small, tubular light purple flowers inserted between the tightly packed bracts.
Fruits: The dry, indehiscent fruit is known as a nutlet.

Sweet marjoram is characterized by a strong, spicy flavour and odour.
The most prominent components of O. majorana are carvacrol and thymol.

Synonyms
Amaracus majorana (L.) Schinz & Thell.
Majorana majorana (L.) H. Karst., des. inval.
Majorana vulgaris Gray
Thymus majorana (L.) Kuntze
Majorana dubia (Boiss.) Briq.
Majorana fragrans Raf.
Majorana hortensis Moench
Majorana mexicana M. Martens & Galeotti
Majorana ovalifolia Stokes
Majorana ovatifolia Stokes
Majorana suffruticosa Raf.
Majorana tenuifolia Gray
Majorana tenuifolia Raf.
Majorana uncinata Stokes
Origanum confertum Savi
Origanum dubium Boiss.
Origanum majoranoides Willd.
Origanum odorum Salisb.
Origanum salvifolium Roth

Sources:
http://ww2.bgbm.org/EuroPlusMed/query.asp
https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/origanum/majorana/
http://antropocene.it/en/2017/05/20/origanum-majorana/